Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

About the Tutorial

This tutorial will help you understand the basics of object-oriented analysis and
design along with its associated terminologies.

Audience
This tutorial has been designed to help beginners. After completing this tutorial,
you will find yourself at a moderate level of expertise from where you can take
yourself to next levels.

Prerequisites
Before you start proceeding with this tutorial, it is assumed that you have basic
understanding of computer programming and related programming paradigms.

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................i
Audience...........................................................................................................................................................i
Prerequisites.....................................................................................................................................................i
Table of Contents.............................................................................................................................................ii

1.

OBJECT-ORIENTED PARADIGM ............................................................................................ 1

A Brief History .................................................................................................................................................1

Object-Oriented Analysis .................................................................................................................................1
Object-Oriented Design ...................................................................................................................................2
Object-Oriented Programming ........................................................................................................................2

2.

OBJECT MODEL.................................................................................................................... 4

Objects and Classes .........................................................................................................................................4

Object ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Class.................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Encapsulation and Data Hiding ........................................................................................................................5
Encapsulation ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Data Hiding ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Message Passing ..............................................................................................................................................6
Inheritance ......................................................................................................................................................6
Types of Inheritance ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Polymorphism .................................................................................................................................................8
Generalization and Specialization ....................................................................................................................8
Generalization .................................................................................................................................................... 8
Specialization ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Links and Association .......................................................................................................................................9
Link ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Association ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Aggregation or Composition ..........................................................................................................................10
Benefits of Object Model ...............................................................................................................................10

3.

OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEM................................................................................................ 11
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Phases in Object-Oriented Software Development ........................................................................................11

ObjectOriented Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 11
ObjectOriented Design ................................................................................................................................... 11
ObjectOriented Implementation and Testing ................................................................................................ 12

4.

OBJECT-ORIENTED PRINCIPLES .......................................................................................... 13

Principles of Object-Oriented Systems ...........................................................................................................13

Abstraction ....................................................................................................................................................13
Encapsulation ................................................................................................................................................14
Modularity .....................................................................................................................................................14
Hierarchy .......................................................................................................................................................14
Typing ............................................................................................................................................................14
Concurrency...................................................................................................................................................15
Persistence ....................................................................................................................................................15

5.

OBJECT-ORIENTED ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 16

Object Modelling ...........................................................................................................................................16

Dynamic Modelling ........................................................................................................................................16
Functional Modelling .....................................................................................................................................17
Structured Analysis vs. Object-Oriented Analysis...........................................................................................17
Advantages/Disadvantages of Object-Oriented Analysis ...............................................................................18
Advantages/Disadvantages of Structured Analysis ........................................................................................18

6.

DYNAMIC MODELLING....................................................................................................... 20

States and State Transitions ..........................................................................................................................20

State ................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Initial and Final States ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Transition ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Events ............................................................................................................................................................22
External and Internal Events ............................................................................................................................ 22
Deferred Events................................................................................................................................................ 22
Event Classes .................................................................................................................................................... 22
Actions...........................................................................................................................................................23
Activity.............................................................................................................................................................. 23
Action ............................................................................................................................................................... 23

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Entry and Exit Actions ...................................................................................................................................... 23

Scenario ............................................................................................................................................................ 23
Diagrams for Dynamic Modelling ...................................................................................................................23
Interaction Diagrams ........................................................................................................................................ 23
State Transition Diagram .................................................................................................................................. 24
Concurrency of Events ...................................................................................................................................24
System Concurrency ......................................................................................................................................... 24
Concurrency within an Object .......................................................................................................................... 24

7.

FUNCTIONAL MODELLING ................................................................................................. 26

Data Flow Diagrams .......................................................................................................................................26

Features of a DFD ..........................................................................................................................................26
Processes .......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Data Flows ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Actors ............................................................................................................................................................... 27
Data Stores ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
Constraints ....................................................................................................................................................... 29
Control Flows ................................................................................................................................................... 29
Developing the DFD Model of a System .........................................................................................................30
Advantages and Disadvantages of DFD ..........................................................................................................33
Relationship between Object, Dynamic, and Functional Models ...................................................................34
Functional Model and Object Model ............................................................................................................... 34
Functional Model and Dynamic Model ............................................................................................................ 34
Object Model and Dynamic Model .................................................................................................................. 35

8.

UML ANALYSIS MODEL ...................................................................................................... 36

Brief History...................................................................................................................................................36
Systems and Models in UML ..........................................................................................................................36
Conceptual Model of UML .............................................................................................................................36
Basic Building Blocks ........................................................................................................................................ 36
Rules ................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Common Mechanisms ...................................................................................................................................... 38

9.

UML BASIC NOTATIONS ..................................................................................................... 40

Class ..............................................................................................................................................................40
Object ............................................................................................................................................................41
Component ....................................................................................................................................................41

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Interface ........................................................................................................................................................42
Package .........................................................................................................................................................42
Relationship ...................................................................................................................................................42

10.

UML STRUCTURED DIAGRAMS ....................................................................................... 44

Class Diagram ................................................................................................................................................44

Class Diagram of a System................................................................................................................................ 44
Classes in the System ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Relationships .................................................................................................................................................... 45
Object Diagram ..............................................................................................................................................46
Component Diagram ......................................................................................................................................47
Deployment Diagram .....................................................................................................................................48

11.

UML BEHAVIORAL DIAGRAMS........................................................................................ 50

Use Case Model .............................................................................................................................................50

Use Case ........................................................................................................................................................... 50
Actor ................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Use Case Diagrams.........................................................................................................................................50
Interaction Diagrams .....................................................................................................................................52
Sequence Diagrams .......................................................................................................................................52
Collaboration Diagrams .................................................................................................................................53
StateChart Diagrams ....................................................................................................................................54
Activity Diagrams ...........................................................................................................................................55

12.

OBJECT-ORIENTED DESIGN ............................................................................................ 57

System Design ...............................................................................................................................................57

Object-Oriented Decomposition ....................................................................................................................57
Identifying Concurrency .................................................................................................................................58
Identifying Patterns .......................................................................................................................................58
Controlling Events ..........................................................................................................................................58
Handling Boundary Conditions ......................................................................................................................59
Object Design ................................................................................................................................................59

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Object Identification......................................................................................................................................... 60
Object Representation ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Classification of Operations ............................................................................................................................. 60
Algorithm Design .............................................................................................................................................. 61
Design of Relationships .................................................................................................................................... 61
Implementation of Control ............................................................................................................................61
Packaging Classes ..........................................................................................................................................62
Design Optimization ......................................................................................................................................63
Addition of Redundant Associations ................................................................................................................ 63
Omission of Non-Usable Associations .............................................................................................................. 63
Optimization of Algorithms .............................................................................................................................. 63
Saving and Storing of Derived Attributes ......................................................................................................... 64
Design Documentation ..................................................................................................................................64
Usage Areas ...................................................................................................................................................... 64
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................... 64
Features............................................................................................................................................................ 65

13.

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES ..................................................................................... 66

Implementation using Programming Languages ............................................................................................66

Implementing Associations ............................................................................................................................66
Unidirectional Associations .............................................................................................................................. 66
Bi-directional Associations ............................................................................................................................... 69
Implementing Associations as Classes ............................................................................................................. 71
Implementing Constraints .............................................................................................................................72
Implementing State Charts ............................................................................................................................73
Enumerations within Class ............................................................................................................................... 73
Arrangement of Classes in a Generalization Hierarchy .................................................................................... 73
Object Mapping to Database System .............................................................................................................73
Persistency of Objects ...................................................................................................................................... 73
Overview of RDBMS ......................................................................................................................................... 73
Representing Classes as Tables in RDBMS ....................................................................................................... 74
Mapping Associations to Database Tables .....................................................................................................75
OnetoOne Associations ................................................................................................................................ 75
OnetoMany Associations ............................................................................................................................. 75
ManytoMany Associations ........................................................................................................................... 76
Mapping Inheritance to Tables ......................................................................................................................77

14.

TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE............................................................................... 78

Testing Object-Oriented Systems ...................................................................................................................78

Unit Testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 78

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Subsystem Testing ............................................................................................................................................ 78

System Testing ................................................................................................................................................. 78
Object-Oriented Testing Techniques ..............................................................................................................78
Grey Box Testing .............................................................................................................................................. 78
Techniques for Subsystem Testing ................................................................................................................... 79
Categories of System Testing ........................................................................................................................... 79
Software Quality Assurance ...........................................................................................................................79
Software Quality............................................................................................................................................... 79
Quality Assurance............................................................................................................................................. 79
Quality Factors ................................................................................................................................................. 80
Object-Oriented Metrics ................................................................................................................................80
Project Metrics ................................................................................................................................................. 80
Product Metrics ................................................................................................................................................ 80
Process Metrics ................................................................................................................................................ 81

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1. OBJECT-ORIENTED PARADIGM

A Brief History
The object-oriented paradigm took its shape from the initial concept of a new
programming approach, while the interest in design and analysis methods came
much later.

The first objectoriented language was Simula (Simulation of real

systems) that was developed in 1960 by researchers at the Norwegian
Computing Center.

In 1970, Alan Kay and his research group at Xerox PARK created a
personal computer named Dynabook and the first pure object-oriented
programming language (OOPL) - Smalltalk, for programming the
Dynabook.

In the 1980s, Grady Booch published a paper titled Object Oriented

Design that mainly presented a design for the programming language,
Ada. In the ensuing editions, he extended his ideas to a complete object
oriented design method.

In the 1990s, Coad incorporated behavioral ideas to object-oriented

methods.

The other significant innovations were Object Modelling Techniques (OMT) by

James Rumbaugh and Object-Oriented Software Engineering (OOSE) by Ivar
Jacobson.

Object-Oriented Analysis
ObjectOriented Analysis (OOA) is the procedure of identifying software
engineering requirements and developing software specifications in terms of a
software systems object model, which comprises of interacting objects.
The main difference between object-oriented analysis and other forms of
analysis is that in object-oriented approach, requirements are organized around
objects, which integrate both data and functions. They are modelled after realworld objects that the system interacts with. In traditional analysis
methodologies, the two aspects - functions and data - are considered separately.
Grady Booch has defined OOA as, Object-oriented analysis is a method of
analysis that examines requirements from the perspective of the classes and
objects found in the vocabulary of the problem domain.
The primary tasks in object-oriented analysis (OOA) are:
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Identifying objects

Organizing the objects by creating object model diagram

Defining the internals of the objects, or object attributes

Defining the behavior of the objects, i.e., object actions

Describing how the objects interact

The common models used in OOA are use cases and object models.

Object-Oriented Design
ObjectOriented Design (OOD) involves implementation of the conceptual model
produced during object-oriented analysis. In OOD, concepts in the analysis
model, which are technologyindependent, are mapped onto implementing
classes, constraints are identified and interfaces are designed, resulting in a
model for the solution domain, i.e., a detailed description of how the system is
to be built on concrete technologies.
The implementation details generally include:

Restructuring the class data (if necessary),

Implementation of methods, i.e., internal data structures and algorithms,

Implementation of control, and

Implementation of associations.

Grady Booch has defined object-oriented design as a method of design

encompassing the process of object-oriented decomposition and a notation for
depicting both logical and physical as well as static and dynamic models of the
system under design.

Object-Oriented Programming
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based upon
objects (having both data and methods) that aims to incorporate the advantages
of modularity and reusability. Objects, which are usually instances of classes,
are used to interact with one another to design applications and computer
programs.
The important features of objectoriented programming are:

Bottomup approach in program design

Programs organized around objects, grouped in classes

Focus on data with methods to operate upon objects data

Interaction between objects through functions

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Reusability of design through creation of new classes by adding features

to existing classes

Some examples of object-oriented programming languages are C++, Java,

Smalltalk, Delphi, C#, Perl, Python, Ruby, and PHP.
Grady Booch has defined objectoriented programming as a method of
implementation in which programs are organized as cooperative collections of
objects, each of which represents an instance of some class, and whose classes
are all members of a hierarchy of classes united via inheritance relationships.

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

2. OBJECT MODEL

The object model visualizes the elements in a software application in terms of

objects. In this chapter, we will look into the basic concepts and terminologies of
objectoriented systems.

Objects and Classes

The concepts of objects and classes are intrinsically linked with each other and
form the foundation of objectoriented paradigm.

Object
An object is a real-world element in an objectoriented environment that may
have a physical or a conceptual existence. Each object has:

Identity that distinguishes it from other objects in the system.

State that determines the characteristic properties of an object as well as

the values of the properties that the object holds.

Behavior that represents externally visible activities performed by an

object in terms of changes in its state.

Objects can be modelled according to the needs of the application. An object

may have a physical existence, like a customer, a car, etc.; or an intangible
conceptual existence, like a project, a process, etc.

Class
A class represents a collection of objects having same characteristic properties
that exhibit common behavior. It gives the blueprint or description of the objects
that can be created from it. Creation of an object as a member of a class is
called instantiation. Thus, object is an instance of a class.
The constituents of a class are:

A set of attributes for the objects that are to be instantiated from the
class. Generally, different objects of a class have some difference in the
values of the attributes. Attributes are often referred as class data.

A set of operations that portray the behavior of the objects of the class.
Operations are also referred as functions or methods.

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Example
Let us consider a simple class, Circle, that represents the geometrical figure
circle in a twodimensional space. The attributes of this class can be identified
as follows:

xcoord, to denote xcoordinate of the center

ycoord, to denote ycoordinate of the center

a, to denote the radius of the circle

Some of its operations can be defined as follows:

findArea(), method to calculate area

findCircumference(), method to calculate circumference

scale(), method to increase or decrease the radius

During instantiation, values are assigned for at least some of the attributes. If
we create an object my_circle, we can assign values like x-coord : 2, y-coord :
3, and a : 4 to depict its state. Now, if the operation scale() is performed on
my_circle with a scaling factor of 2, the value of the variable a will become 8.
This operation brings a change in the state of my_circle, i.e., the object has
exhibited certain behavior.

Encapsulation and Data Hiding

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together
within a class. Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be
hidden from outside. It permits the elements of the class to be accessed from
outside only through the interface provided by the class.

Data Hiding
Typically, a class is designed such that its data (attributes) can be accessed only
by its class methods and insulated from direct outside access. This process of
insulating an objects data is called data hiding or information hiding.
Example
In the class Circle, data hiding can be incorporated by making attributes invisible
from outside the class and adding two more methods to the class for accessing
class data, namely:

setValues(), method to assign values to x-coord, y-coord, and a

getValues(), method to retrieve values of x-coord, y-coord, and a

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Here the private data of the object my_circle cannot be accessed directly by any
method that is not encapsulated within the class Circle. It should instead be
accessed through the methods setValues() and getValues().

Message Passing
Any application requires a number of objects interacting in a harmonious
manner. Objects in a system may communicate with each other using message
passing. Suppose a system has two objects: obj1 and obj2. The object obj1
sends a message to object obj2, if obj1 wants obj2 to execute one of its
methods.
The features of message passing are:

Message passing between two objects is generally unidirectional.

Message passing enables all interactions between objects.

Message passing essentially involves invoking class methods.

Objects in different processes can be involved in message passing.

Inheritance
Inheritance is the mechanism that permits new classes to be created out of
existing classes by extending and refining its capabilities. The existing classes
are called the base classes/parent classes/super-classes, and the new classes
are called the derived classes/child classes/subclasses. The subclass can inherit
or derive the attributes and methods of the super-class(es) provided that the
super-class allows so. Besides, the subclass may add its own attributes and
methods and may modify any of the super-class methods. Inheritance defines
an is a relationship.
Example
From a class Mammal, a number of classes can be derived such as Human, Cat,
Dog, Cow, etc. Humans, cats, dogs, and cows all have the distinct characteristics
of mammals. In addition, each has its own particular characteristics. It can be
said that a cow is a mammal.

Types of Inheritance

Single Inheritance : A subclass derives from a single super-class.

Multiple Inheritance : A subclass derives from more than one superclasses.

Multilevel Inheritance : A subclass derives from a super-class which in

turn is derived from another class and so on.
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Hierarchical Inheritance : A class has a number of subclasses each of

which may have subsequent subclasses, continuing for a number of levels,
so as to form a tree structure.

Hybrid Inheritance : A combination of multiple and multilevel

inheritance so as to form a lattice structure.

The following figure depicts the examples of different types of inheritance.

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is originally a Greek word that means the ability to take multiple
forms. In object-oriented paradigm, polymorphism implies using operations in
different ways, depending upon the instance they are operating upon.
Polymorphism allows objects with different internal structures to have a common
external interface. Polymorphism is particularly effective while implementing
inheritance.

Example
Let us consider two classes, Circle and Square, each with a method findArea().
Though the name and purpose of the methods in the classes are same, the
internal implementation, i.e., the procedure of calculating area is different for
each class. When an object of class Circle invokes its findArea() method, the
operation finds the area of the circle without any conflict with the findArea()
method of the Square class.

Generalization and Specialization

Generalization and specialization represent a hierarchy of relationships between
classes, where subclasses inherit from super-classes.

Generalization
In the generalization process, the common characteristics of classes are
combined to form a class in a higher level of hierarchy, i.e., subclasses are
combined to form a generalized super-class. It represents an is a kind of
relationship. For example, car is a kind of land vehicle, or ship is a kind of
water vehicle.

Specialization
Specialization is the reverse process of generalization. Here, the distinguishing
features of groups of objects are used to form specialized classes from existing
classes. It can be said that the subclasses are the specialized versions of the
super-class.
The following figure shows an example of generalization and specialization.

Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Links and Association

Link
A link represents a connection through which an object collaborates with other
objects. Rumbaugh has defined it as a physical or conceptual connection
between objects. Through a link, one object may invoke the methods or
navigate through another object. A link depicts the relationship between two or
more objects.

Association
Association is a group of links having common structure and common behavior.
Association depicts the relationship between objects of one or more classes. A
link can be defined as an instance of an association.

Degree of an Association
Degree of an association denotes the number of classes involved in a
connection. Degree may be unary, binary, or ternary.

A unary relationship connects objects of the same class.

A binary relationship connects objects of two classes.

A ternary relationship connects objects of three or more classes.

Cardinality Ratios of Associations

Cardinality of a binary association denotes the number of instances participating
in an association. There are three types of cardinality ratios, namely:

OnetoOne : A single object of class A is associated with a single object

of class B.

OnetoMany : A single object of class A is associated with many objects

of class B.
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ManytoMany : An object of class A may be associated with many

objects of class B and conversely an object of class B may be associated
with many objects of class A.

Aggregation or Composition
Aggregation or composition is a relationship among classes by which a class can
be made up of any combination of objects of other classes. It allows objects to
be placed directly within the body of other classes. Aggregation is referred as a
partof or hasa relationship, with the ability to navigate from the whole to
its parts. An aggregate object is an object that is composed of one or more other
objects.

Example
In the relationship, a car hasa motor, car is the whole object or the
aggregate, and the motor is a partof the car. Aggregation may denote:

Physical containment : Example, a computer is composed of monitor,

CPU, mouse, keyboard, and so on.

Conceptual containment : Example, shareholder hasa share.

Benefits of Object Model

Now that we have gone through the core concepts pertaining to object
orientation, it would be worthwhile to note the advantages that this model has to
offer.
The benefits of using the object model are:

It helps in faster development of software.

It is easy to maintain. Suppose a module develops an error, then a

programmer can fix that particular module, while the other parts of the
software are still up and running.

It supports relatively hassle-free upgrades.

It enables reuse of objects, designs, and functions.

It reduces development risks, particularly in integration of complex

systems.

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3. OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEM

We know that the Object-Oriented Modelling (OOM) technique visualizes things

in an application by using models organized around objects. Any software
development approach goes through the following stages:

Analysis,

Design, and

Implementation.

In object-oriented software engineering, the software developer identifies and

organizes the application in terms of object-oriented concepts, prior to their final
representation in any specific programming language or software tools.

Phases in Object-Oriented Software Development

The major phases of software development using objectoriented methodology
are object-oriented analysis, object-oriented design, and object-oriented
implementation.

ObjectOriented Analysis
In this stage, the problem is formulated, user requirements are identified, and
then a model is built based upon realworld objects. The analysis produces
models on how the desired system should function and how it must be
developed. The models do not include any implementation details so that it can
be understood and examined by any nontechnical application expert.

ObjectOriented Design
Object-oriented design includes two main stages, namely, system design and
object design.

System Design
In this stage, the complete architecture of the desired system is designed. The
system is conceived as a set of interacting subsystems that in turn is composed
of a hierarchy of interacting objects, grouped into classes. System design is
done according to both the system analysis model and the proposed system
architecture. Here, the emphasis is on the objects comprising the system rather
than the processes in the system.

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Object Design
In this phase, a design model is developed based on both the models developed
in the system analysis phase and the architecture designed in the system design
phase. All the classes required are identified. The designer decides whether:

new classes are to be created from scratch,

any existing classes can be used in their original form, or

new classes should be inherited from the existing classes.

The associations between the identified classes are established and the
hierarchies of classes are identified. Besides, the developer designs the internal
details of the classes and their associations, i.e., the data structure for each
attribute and the algorithms for the operations.

ObjectOriented Implementation and Testing

In this stage, the design model developed in the object design is translated into
code in an appropriate programming language or software tool. The databases
are created and the specific hardware requirements are ascertained. Once the
code is in shape, it is tested using specialized techniques to identify and remove
the errors in the code.

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4. OBJECT-ORIENTED PRINCIPLES

Principles of Object-Oriented Systems

The conceptual framework of objectoriented systems is based upon the object
model. There are two categories of elements in an object-oriented system:
Major Elements : By major, it is meant that if a model does not have any one
of these elements, it ceases to be object oriented. The four major elements are:

Abstraction

Encapsulation

Modularity

Hierarchy

Minor Elements : By minor, it is meant that these elements are useful, but not
indispensable part of the object model. The three minor elements are:

Typing

Concurrency

Persistence

Abstraction
Abstraction means to focus on the essential features of an element or object in
OOP, ignoring its extraneous or accidental properties. The essential features are
relative to the context in which the object is being used.
Grady Booch has defined abstraction as follows:
An abstraction denotes the essential characteristics of an object that distinguish
it from all other kinds of objects and thus provide crisply defined conceptual
boundaries, relative to the perspective of the viewer.
Example : When a class Student is designed, the attributes enrolment_number,
name, course, and address are included while characteristics like pulse_rate and
size_of_shoe are eliminated, since they are irrelevant in the perspective of the
educational institution.

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Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together
within a class. Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be
hidden from outside. The class has methods that provide user interfaces by
which the services provided by the class may be used.

Modularity
Modularity is the process of decomposing a problem (program) into a set of
modules so as to reduce the overall complexity of the problem. Booch has
defined modularity as:
Modularity is the property of a system that has been decomposed into a set of
cohesive and loosely coupled modules.
Modularity is intrinsically linked with encapsulation. Modularity can be visualized
as a way of mapping encapsulated abstractions into real, physical modules
having high cohesion within the modules and their intermodule interaction or
coupling is low.

Hierarchy
In Grady Boochs words, Hierarchy is the ranking or ordering of abstraction.
Through hierarchy, a system can be made up of interrelated subsystems, which
can have their own subsystems and so on until the smallest level components
are reached. It uses the principle of divide and conquer. Hierarchy allows code
reusability.
The two types of hierarchies in OOA are:

ISA hierarchy : It defines the hierarchical relationship in inheritance,

whereby from a super-class, a number of subclasses may be derived
which may again have subclasses and so on. For example, if we derive a
class Rose from a class Flower, we can say that a rose isa flower.

PARTOF hierarchy : It defines the hierarchical relationship in

aggregation by which a class may be composed of other classes. For
example, a flower is composed of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpel. It
can be said that a petal is a partof flower.

Typing
According to the theories of abstract data type, a type is a characterization of a
set of elements. In OOP, a class is visualized as a type having properties distinct
from any other types. Typing is the enforcement of the notion that an object is
an instance of a single class or type. It also enforces that objects of different
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types may not be generally interchanged; and can be interchanged only in a

very restricted manner if absolutely required to do so.
The two types of typing are:

Strong Typing : Here, the operation on an object is checked at the time

of compilation, as in the programming language Eiffel.

Weak Typing : Here, messages may be sent to any class. The operation
is checked only at the time of execution, as in the programming language
Smalltalk.

Concurrency
Concurrency in operating systems allows performing multiple tasks or processes
simultaneously. When a single process exists in a system, it is said that there is
a single thread of control. However, most systems have multiple threads, some
active, some waiting for CPU, some suspended, and some terminated. Systems
with multiple CPUs inherently permit concurrent threads of control; but systems
running on a single CPU use appropriate algorithms to give equitable CPU time
to the threads so as to enable concurrency.
In an object-oriented environment, there are active and inactive objects. The
active objects have independent threads of control that can execute concurrently
with threads of other objects. The active objects synchronize with one another
as well as with purely sequential objects.

Persistence
An object occupies a memory space and exists for a particular period of time. In
traditional programming, the lifespan of an object was typically the lifespan of
the execution of the program that created it. In files or databases, the object
lifespan is longer than the duration of the process creating the object. This
property by which an object continues to exist even after its creator ceases to
exist is known as persistence.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

5. OBJECT-ORIENTED ANALYSIS

In the system analysis or object-oriented analysis phase of software

development, the system requirements are determined, the classes are
identified and the relationships among classes are identified.
The three analysis techniques that are used in conjunction with each other for
object-oriented analysis are object modelling, dynamic modelling, and functional
modelling.

Object Modelling
Object modelling develops the static structure of the software system in terms of
objects. It identifies the objects, the classes into which the objects can be
grouped into and the relationships between the objects. It also identifies the
main attributes and operations that characterize each class.
The process of object modelling can be visualized in the following steps:

Identify objects and group into classes

Identify the relationships among classes

Create user object model diagram

Define user object attributes

Define the operations that should be performed on the classes

Review glossary

Dynamic Modelling
After the static behavior of the system is analyzed, its behavior with respect to
time and external changes needs to be examined. This is the purpose of
dynamic modelling.
Dynamic Modelling can be defined as a way of describing how an individual
object responds to events, either internal events triggered by other objects, or
external events triggered by the outside world.
The process of dynamic modelling can be visualized in the following steps:

Identify states of each object

Identify events and analyze the applicability of actions

Construct dynamic model diagram, comprising of state transition

diagrams
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Express each state in terms of object attributes

Validate the statetransition diagrams drawn

Functional Modelling
Functional Modelling is the final component of object-oriented analysis. The
functional model shows the processes that are performed within an object and
how the data changes as it moves between methods. It specifies the meaning of
the operations of object modelling and the actions of dynamic modelling. The
functional model corresponds to the data flow diagram of traditional structured
analysis.
The process of functional modelling can be visualized in the following steps:

Identify all the inputs and outputs

Construct data flow diagrams showing functional dependencies

State the purpose of each function

Identify constraints

Specify optimization criteria

Structured Analysis vs. Object-Oriented Analysis

The Structured Analysis/Structured Design (SASD) approach is the traditional
approach of software development based upon the waterfall model. The phases
of development of a system using SASD are:

Feasibility Study

Requirement Analysis and Specification

System Design

Implementation

Post-implementation Review

Now, we will look at the relative advantages and disadvantages of structured

analysis approach and object-oriented analysis approach.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Advantages/Disadvantages of Object-Oriented Analysis

Advantages

Disadvantages

Focuses on data rather than the

procedures as in Structured
Analysis.

Functionality is restricted within

objects. This may pose a problem for
systems which are intrinsically
procedural or computational in nature.

The principles of encapsulation and

data hiding help the developer to
develop systems that cannot be
tampered by other parts of the
system.

It cannot identify which objects would

generate an optimal system design.

The principles of encapsulation and

data hiding help the developer to
develop systems that cannot be
tampered by other parts of the
system.

The object-oriented models do not

easily show the communications
between the objects in the system.

It allows effective management of

software complexity by the virtue of
modularity.

All the interfaces between the objects

cannot be represented in a single
diagram.

It can be upgraded from small to

large systems at a greater ease
than in systems following structured
analysis.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Structured Analysis

Advantages

As it follows a top-down approach in

contrast to bottom-up approach of
object-oriented analysis, it can be
more easily comprehended than
OOA.

Disadvantages

In traditional structured analysis

models, one phase should be
completed before the next phase. This
poses a problem in design, particularly
if errors crop up or requirements
change.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

It is based upon functionality. The

overall purpose is identified and
then functional decomposition is
done for developing the software.
The emphasis not only gives a
better understanding of the system
but also generates more complete
systems.

The initial cost of constructing the

system is high, since the whole system
needs to be designed at once leaving
very little option to add functionality
later.

The specifications in it are written in

simple English language, and hence
can be more easily analyzed by nontechnical personnel.

It does not support reusability of code.

So, the time and cost of development is
inherently high.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

6. DYNAMIC MODELLING

The dynamic model represents the timedependent aspects of a system. It is

concerned with the temporal changes in the states of the objects in a system.
The main concepts are:

State, which is the situation at a particular condition during the lifetime of

an object.

Transition, a change in the state

Event, an occurrence that triggers transitions

Action, an uninterrupted and atomic computation that occurs due to some

event, and

Concurrency of transitions.

A state machine models the behavior of an object as it passes through a number

of states in its lifetime due to some events as well as the actions occurring due
to the events. A state machine is graphically represented through a state
transition diagram.

States and State Transitions

State
The state is an abstraction given by the values of the attributes that the object
has at a particular time period. It is a situation occurring for a finite time period
in the lifetime of an object, in which it fulfils certain conditions, performs certain
activities, or waits for certain events to occur. In state transition diagrams, a
state is represented by rounded rectangles.

Parts of a State

Name : A string differentiates one state from another. A state may not
have any name.

Entry/Exit Actions : It denotes the activities performed on entering and

on exiting the state.

Internal Transitions : The changes within a state that do not cause a

change in the state.

Substates : States within states.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Initial and Final States

The default starting state of an object is called its initial state. The final state
indicates the completion of execution of the state machine. The initial and the
final states are pseudo-states, and may not have the parts of a regular state
except name. In state transition diagrams, the initial state is represented by a
filled black circle. The final state is represented by a filled black circle encircled
within another unfilled black circle.

Transition
A transition denotes a change in the state of an object. If an object is in a
certain state when an event occurs, the object may perform certain activities
subject to specified conditions and change the state. In this case, a
statetransition is said to have occurred. The transition gives the relationship
between the first state and the new state. A transition is graphically represented
by a solid directed arc from the source state to the destination state.
The five parts of a transition are:

Source State : The state affected by the transition.

Event Trigger : The occurrence due to which an object in the source

state undergoes a transition if the guard condition is satisfied.

Guard Condition : A Boolean expression which if True, causes a

transition on receiving the event trigger.

Action : An un-interruptible and atomic computation that occurs on the

source object due to some event.

Target State : The destination state after completion of transition.

Example
Suppose a person is taking a taxi from place X to place Y. The states of the
person may be: Waiting (waiting for taxi), Riding (he has got a taxi and is
travelling in it), and Reached (he has reached the destination). The following
figure depicts the state transition.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Events
Events are some occurrences that can trigger state transition of an object or a
group of objects. Events have a location in time and space but do not have a
time period associated with it. Events are generally associated with some
actions.
Examples of events are mouse click, key press, an interrupt, stack overflow, etc.
Events that trigger transitions are written alongside the arc of transition in state
diagrams.

Example
Considering the example shown in the above figure, the transition from Waiting
state to Riding state takes place when the person gets a taxi. Likewise, the final
state is reached, when he reaches the destination. These two occurrences can be
termed as events Get_Taxi and Reach_Destination. The following figure shows
the events in a state machine.

External and Internal Events

External events are those events that pass from a user of the system to the
objects within the system. For example, mouse click or keypress by the user
are external events.
Internal events are those that pass from one object to another object within a
system. For example, stack overflow, a divide error, etc.

Deferred Events
Deferred events are those which are not immediately handled by the object in
the current state but are lined up in a queue so that they can be handled by the
object in some other state at a later time.

Event Classes
Event class indicates a group of events with common structure and behavior. As
with classes of objects, event classes may also be organized in a hierarchical
structure. Event classes may have attributes associated with them, time being
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

an implicit attribute. For example, we can consider the events of departure of a

flight of an airline, which we can group into the following class:
Flight_Departs (Flight_No, From_City, To_City, Route)

Actions
Activity
Activity is an operation upon the states of an object that requires some time
period. They are the ongoing executions within a system that can be interrupted.
Activities are shown in activity diagrams that portray the flow from one activity
to another.

Action
An action is an atomic operation that executes as a result of certain events. By
atomic, it is meant that actions are un-interruptible, i.e., if an action starts
executing, it runs into completion without being interrupted by any event. An
action may operate upon an object on which an event has been triggered or on
other objects that are visible to this object. A set of actions comprise an activity.

Entry and Exit Actions

Entry action is the action that is executed on entering a state, irrespective of the
transition that led into it.
Likewise, the action that is executed while leaving a state, irrespective of the
transition that led out of it, is called an exit action.

Scenario
Scenario is a description of a specified sequence of actions. It depicts the
behavior of objects undergoing a specific action series. The primary scenarios
depict the essential sequences and the secondary scenarios depict the
alternative sequences.

Diagrams for Dynamic Modelling

There are two primary diagrams that are used for dynamic modelling:

Interaction Diagrams
Interaction diagrams describe the dynamic behavior among different objects. It
comprises of a set of objects, their relationships, and the message that the
objects send and receive. Thus, an interaction models the behavior of a group of
interrelated objects. The two types of interaction diagrams are:
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Sequence Diagram : It represents the temporal ordering of messages in

a tabular manner.

Collaboration Diagram : It represents the structural organization of

objects that send and receive messages through vertices and arcs.

State Transition Diagram

State transition diagrams or state machines describe the dynamic behavior of a
single object. It illustrates the sequences of states that an object goes through
in its lifetime, the transitions of the states, the events and conditions causing the
transition and the responses due to the events.

Concurrency of Events
In a system, two types of concurrency may exist. They are discussed below.

System Concurrency
Here, concurrency is modelled in the system level. The overall system is
modelled as the aggregation of state machines, where each state machine
executes concurrently with others.

Concurrency within an Object

Here, an object can issue concurrent events. An object may have states that are
composed of sub-states, and concurrent events may occur in each of the substates.
Concepts related to concurrency within an object are as follows:

Simple and Composite States

A simple state has no sub-structure. A state that has simpler states nested
inside it is called a composite state. A sub-state is a state that is nested inside
another state. It is generally used to reduce the complexity of a state machine.
Sub-states can be nested to any number of levels.
Composite states may have either sequential sub-states or concurrent substates.

Sequential Sub-states
In sequential sub-states, the control of execution passes from one sub-state to
another sub-state one after another in a sequential manner. There is at most
one initial state and one final state in these state machines.
The following figure illustrates the concept of sequential sub-states.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Concurrent Sub-states
In concurrent sub-states, the sub-states execute in parallel, or in other words,
each state has concurrently executing state machines within it. Each of the state
machines has its own initial and final states. If one concurrent sub-state reaches
its final state before the other, control waits at its final state. When all the
nested state machines reach their final states, the sub-states join back to a
single flow.
The following figure shows the concept of concurrent sub-states.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

7. FUNCTIONAL MODELLING

Functional Modelling gives the process perspective of the object-oriented

analysis model and an overview of what the system is supposed to do. It defines
the function of the internal processes in the system with the aid of Data Flow
Diagrams (DFDs). It depicts the functional derivation of the data values without
indicating how they are derived when they are computed, or why they need to
be computed.

Data Flow Diagrams

Functional Modelling is represented through a hierarchy of DFDs. The DFD is a
graphical representation of a system that shows the inputs to the system, the
processing upon the inputs, the outputs of the system as well as the internal
data stores. DFDs illustrate the series of transformations or computations
performed on the objects or the system, and the external controls and objects
that affect the transformation.
Rumbaugh et al. have defined DFD as, A data flow diagram is a graph which
shows the flow of data values from their sources in objects through processes
that transform them to their destinations on other objects.
The four main parts of a DFD are:

Processes,

Data Flows,

Actors, and

Data Stores.

The other parts of a DFD are:

Constraints, and

Control Flows.

Features of a DFD
Processes
Processes are the computational activities that transform data values. A whole
system can be visualized as a high-level process. A process may be further
divided into smaller components. The lowest-level process may be a simple
function.
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Representation in DFD : A process is represented as an ellipse with its name

written inside it and contains a fixed number of input and output data values.
Example : The following figure shows a process Compute_HCF_LCM that
accepts two integers as inputs and outputs their HCF (highest common factor)
and LCM (least common multiple).

Data Flows
Data flow represents the flow of data between two processes. It could be
between an actor and a process, or between a data store and a process. A data
flow denotes the value of a data item at some point of the computation. This
value is not changed by the data flow.
Representation in DFD : A data flow is represented by a directed arc or an
arrow, labelled with the name of the data item that it carries.
In the above figure, Integer_a and Integer_b represent the input data flows to
the process, while L.C.M. and H.C.F. are the output data flows.
A data flow may be forked in the following cases:

The output value is sent to several places as shown in the following figure.
Here, the output arrows are unlabelled as they denote the same value.

The data flow contains an aggregate value, and each of the components is
sent to different places as shown in the following figure. Here, each of the
forked components is labelled.

Actors
Actors are the active objects that interact with the system by either producing
data and inputting them to the system, or consuming data produced by the
system. In other words, actors serve as the sources and the sinks of data.
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Representation in DFD: An actor is represented by a rectangle. Actors are

connected to the inputs and outputs and lie on the boundary of the DFD.
Example : The following figure shows the actors, namely, Customer and
Sales_Clerk in a counter sales system.

Data Stores
Data stores are the passive objects that act as a repository of data. Unlike
actors, they cannot perform any operations. They are used to store data and
retrieve the stored data. They represent a data structure, a disk file, or a table
in a database.
Representation in DFD : A data store is represented by two parallel lines
containing the name of the data store. Each data store is connected to at least
one process. Input arrows contain information to modify the contents of the data
store, while output arrows contain information retrieved from the data store.
When a part of the information is to be retrieved, the output arrow is labelled.
An unlabelled arrow denotes full data retrieval. A two-way arrow implies both
retrieval and update.
Example : The following figure shows a data store, Sales_Record, that stores
the details of all sales. Input to the data store comprises of details of sales such
as item, billing amount, date, etc. To find the average sales, the process
retrieves the sales records and computes the average.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Constraints
Constraints specify the conditions or restrictions that need to be satisfied over
time. They allow adding new rules or modifying existing ones. Constraints can
appear in all the three models of object-oriented analysis.

In Object Modelling, the constraints define the relationship between

objects. They may also define the relationship between the different
values that an object may take at different times.

In Dynamic Modelling, the constraints define the relationship between the

states and events of different objects.

In Functional Modelling, the constraints define the restrictions on the

transformations and computations.

Representation : A constraint is rendered as a string within braces.

Example : The following figure shows a portion of DFD for computing the salary
of employees of a company that has decided to give incentives to all employees
of the sales department and increment the salary of all employees of the HR
department. It can be seen that the constraint {Dept:Sales} causes incentive to
be calculated only if the department is sales and the constraint {Dept:HR}
causes increment to be computed only if the department is HR.

Control Flows
A process may be associated with a certain Boolean value and is evaluated only
if the value is true, though it is not a direct input to the process. These Boolean
values are called the control flows.
Representation in DFD : Control flows are represented by a dotted arc from
the process producing the Boolean value to the process controlled by them.
Example : The following figure represents a DFD for arithmetic division. The
Divisor is tested for non-zero. If it is not zero, the control flow OK has a value
True and subsequently the Divide process computes the Quotient and the
Remainder.
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Developing the DFD Model of a System

In order to develop the DFD model of a system, a hierarchy of DFDs are
constructed. The top-level DFD comprises of a single process and the actors
interacting with it.
At each successive lower level, further details are gradually included. A process
is decomposed into sub-processes, the data flows among the sub-processes are
identified, the control flows are determined, and the data stores are defined.
While decomposing a process, the data flow into or out of the process should
match the data flow at the next level of DFD.
Example : Let us consider a software system, Wholesaler Software, that
automates the transactions of a wholesale shop. The shop sells in bulks and has
a clientele comprising of merchants and retail shop owners. Each customer is
asked to register with his/her particulars and is given a unique customer code,
C_Code. Once a sale is done, the shop registers its details and sends the goods
for dispatch. Each year, the shop distributes Christmas gifts to its customers,
which comprise of a silver coin or a gold coin depending upon the total sales and
the decision of the proprietor.
The functional model for the Wholesale Software is given below. The figure
below shows the top-level DFD. It shows the software as a single process and
the actors that interact with it.
The actors in the system are:

Customers

Salesperson

Proprietor

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

In the next level DFD, as shown in the following figure, the major processes of
the system are identified, the data stores are defined and the interaction of the
processes with the actors, and the data stores are established.
In the system, three processes can be identified, which are:

Register Customers

Process Sales

Ascertain Gifts

The data stores that will be required are:

Customer Details

Sales Details

Gift Details

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

The following figure shows the details of the process Register Customer. There
are three processes in it, Verify Details, Generate C_Code, and Update Customer
Details. When the details of the customer are entered, they are verified. If the
data is correct, C_Code is generated and the data store Customer Details is
updated.

The following figure shows the expansion of the process Ascertain Gifts. It has
two processes in it, Find Total Sales and Decide Type of Gift Coin. The Find Total
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Sales process computes the yearly total sales corresponding to each customer
and records the data. Taking this record and the decision of the proprietor as
inputs, the gift coins are allotted through Decide Type of Gift Coin process.

Advantages and Disadvantages of DFD

Advantages

Disadvantages

DFDs depict the boundaries of a system and

hence are helpful in portraying the relationship
between the external objects and the
processes within the system.

DFDs take a long time to create, which may

not be feasible for practical purposes.

They help the users to have a knowledge

about the system.

DFDs do not provide any information about

the time-dependent behavior, i.e., they do
not specify when the transformations are
done.

The graphical representation serves as a

blueprint for the programmers to develop a
system.

They do not throw any light on the

frequency of computations or the reasons
for computations.

DFDs provide detailed information about the

The preparation of DFDs is a complex

process that needs considerable expertise.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

system processes.

Also, it is difficult for a non-technical person

to understand.

They are used as a part of the system

documentation.

The method of preparation is subjective and

leaves ample scope to be imprecise.

Relationship between Object, Dynamic, and Functional

Models
The Object Model, the Dynamic Model, and the Functional Model are
complementary to each other for a complete Object-Oriented Analysis.

Object modelling develops the static structure of the software system in

terms of objects. Thus it shows the doers of a system.

Dynamic Modelling develops the temporal behavior of the objects in

response to external events. It shows the sequences of operations
performed on the objects.

Functional model gives an overview of what the system should do.

Functional Model and Object Model

The four main parts of a Functional Model in terms of object model are:

Process : Processes imply the methods of the objects that need to be

implemented.

Actors : Actors are the objects in the object model.

Data Stores : These are either objects in the object model or attributes
of objects.

Data Flows : Data flows to or from actors represent operations on or by

objects. Data flows to or from data stores represent queries or updates.

Functional Model and Dynamic Model

The dynamic model states when the operations are performed, while the
functional model states how they are performed and which arguments are
needed. As actors are active objects, the dynamic model has to specify when it
acts. The data stores are passive objects and they only respond to updates and
queries; therefore the dynamic model need not specify when they act.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Object Model and Dynamic Model

The dynamic model shows the status of the objects and the operations
performed on the occurrences of events and the subsequent changes in states.
The state of the object as a result of the changes is shown in the object model.

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8. UML ANALYSIS MODEL

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a graphical language for OOAD that
gives a standard way to write a software systems blueprint. It helps to visualize,
specify, construct, and document the artifacts of an object-oriented system. It is
used to depict the structures and the relationships in a complex system.

Brief History
It was developed in 1990s as an amalgamation of several techniques,
prominently OOAD technique by Grady Booch, OMT (Object Modeling Technique)
by James Rumbaugh, and OOSE (Object Oriented Software Engineering) by Ivar
Jacobson. UML attempted to standardize semantic models, syntactic notations,
and diagrams of OOAD.

Systems and Models in UML

System : A set of elements organized to achieve certain objectives form a
system. Systems are often divided into subsystems and described by a set of
models.
Model : Model is a simplified, complete, and consistent abstraction of a system,
created for better understanding of the system.
View : A view is a projection of a systems model from a specific perspective.

Conceptual Model of UML

The Conceptual Model of UML encompasses three major elements:

Basic building blocks

Rules

Common mechanisms

Basic Building Blocks

The three building blocks of UML are:

Things

Relationships

Diagrams
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Things
There are four kinds of things in UML, namely:

Structural Things : These are the nouns of the UML models representing
the static elements that may be either physical or conceptual. The
structural things are class, interface, collaboration, use case, active class,
components, and nodes.

Behavioral Things : These are the verbs of the UML models representing
the dynamic behavior over time and space. The two types of behavioral
things are interaction and state machine.

Grouping Things : They comprise the organizational parts of the UML

models. There is only one kind of grouping thing, i.e., package.

Annotational Things : These are the explanations in the UML models

representing the comments applied to describe elements.

Relationships
Relationships are the connection between things. The four types of relationships
that can be represented in UML are:

Dependency : This is a semantic relationship between two things such

that a change in one thing brings a change in the other. The former is the
independent thing, while the latter is the dependent thing.

Association : This is a structural relationship that represents a group of

links having common structure and common behavior.

Generalization :
This
represents
a
generalization/specialization
relationship in which subclasses inherit structure and behavior from
super-classes.

Realization : This is a semantic relationship between two or more

classifiers such that one classifier lays down a contract that the other
classifiers ensure to abide by.

Diagrams
A diagram is a graphical representation of a system. It comprises of a group of
elements generally in the form of a graph. UML includes nine diagrams in all,
namely:

Class Diagram

Object Diagram

Use Case Diagram

Sequence Diagram

Collaboration Diagram

State Chart Diagram

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Activity Diagram

Component Diagram

Deployment Diagram

Rules
UML has a number of rules so that the models are semantically self-consistent
and related to other models in the system harmoniously. UML has semantic rules
for the following:

Names

Scope

Visibility

Integrity

Execution

Common Mechanisms
UML has four common mechanisms:

Specifications

Adornments

Common Divisions

Extensibility Mechanisms

Specifications
In UML, behind each graphical notation, there is a textual statement denoting
the syntax and semantics. These are the specifications. The specifications
provide a semantic backplane that contains all the parts of a system and the
relationship among the different paths.

Adornments
Each element in UML has a unique graphical notation. Besides, there are
notations to represent the important aspects of an element like name, scope,
visibility, etc.

Common Divisions
Object-oriented systems can be divided in many ways. The two common ways of
division are:

Division of classes and objects : A class is an abstraction of a group of

similar objects. An object is the concrete instance that has actual
existence in the system.
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Division of Interface and Implementation : An interface defines the

rules for interaction. Implementation is the concrete realization of the
rules defined in the interface.

Extensibility Mechanisms
UML is an open-ended language. It is possible to extend the capabilities of UML
in a controlled manner to suit the requirements of a system. The extensibility
mechanisms are:

Stereotypes : It extends the vocabulary of the UML, through which new

building blocks can be created out of existing ones.

Tagged Values : It extends the properties of UML building blocks.

Constraints : It extends the semantics of UML building blocks.

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9. UML BASIC NOTATIONS

UML defines specific notations for each of the building blocks.

Class
A class is represented by a rectangle having three sections:

the top section containing the name of the class

the middle section containing class attributes

the bottom section representing operations of the class

The visibility of the attributes and operations can be represented in the following
ways:

Public : A public member is visible from anywhere in the system. In class

diagram, it is prefixed by the symbol +.

Private : A private member is visible only from within the class. It cannot
be accessed from outside the class. A private member is prefixed by the
symbol .

Protected : A protected member is visible from within the class and from
the subclasses inherited from this class, but not from outside. It is
prefixed by the symbol #.

An abstract class has the class name written in italics.

Example : Let us consider the Circle class introduced earlier. The attributes of
Circle are x-coord, y-coord, and radius. The operations are findArea(),
findCircumference(), and scale(). Let us assume that x-coord and y-coord are
private data members, radius is a protected data member, and the member
functions are public. The following figure gives the diagrammatic representation
of the class.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Object
An object is represented as a rectangle with two sections:

The top section contains the name of the object with the name of the
class or package of which it is an instance of. The name takes the
following forms:
o

object-name : class-name

object-name : class-name :: package-name

class-name : in case of anonymous objects

The bottom section represents the values of the attributes. It takes the
form attribute-name = value.

Sometimes objects are represented using rounded rectangles.

Example : Let us consider an object of the class Circle named c1. We assume
that the center of c1 is at (2, 3) and the radius of c1 is 5. The following figure
depicts the object.

Component
A component is a physical and replaceable part of the system that conforms to
and provides the realization of a set of interfaces. It represents the physical
packaging of elements like classes and interfaces.
Notation : In UML diagrams, a component is represented by a rectangle with
tabs as shown in the figure below.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Interface
Interface is a collection of methods of a class or component. It specifies the set
of services that may be provided by the class or component.
Notation : Generally, an interface is drawn as a circle together with its name.
An interface is almost always attached to the class or component that realizes it.
The following figure gives the notation of an interface.

Package
A package is an organized group of elements. A package may contain structural
things like classes, components, and other packages in it.
Notation : Graphically, a package is represented by a tabbed folder. A package
is generally drawn with only its name. However it may have additional details
about the contents of the package. See the following figures.

Relationship
The notations for the different types of relationships are as follows:

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Usually, elements in a relationship play specific roles in the relationship. A role

name signifies the behavior of an element participating in a certain context.
Example : The following figures show examples of different relationships
between classes. The first figure shows an association between two classes,
Department and Employee, wherein a department may have a number of
employees working in it. Worker is the role name. The 1 alongside Department
and * alongside Employee depict that the cardinality ratio is onetomany. The
second figure portrays the aggregation relationship, a University is the whole
of many Departments.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

10. UML STRUCTURED DIAGRAMS

UML structural diagrams are categorized as follows: class diagram, object
diagram, component diagram, and deployment diagram.

Class Diagram
A class diagram models the static view of a system. It comprises of the classes,
interfaces, and collaborations of a system; and the relationships between them.

Class Diagram of a System

Let us consider a simplified Banking System.
A bank has many branches. In each zone, one branch is designated as the zonal
head office that supervises the other branches in that zone. Each branch can
have multiple accounts and loans. An account may be either a savings account
or a current account. A customer may open both a savings account and a
current account. However, a customer must not have more than one savings
account or current account. A customer may also procure loans from the bank.
The following figure shows the corresponding class diagram.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Classes in the System

Bank, Branch, Account, Savings Account, Current Account, Loan, and Customer.

Relationships

A Bank hasa number of Branches : composition, onetomany

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

A Branch with role Zonal Head Office supervises other Branches : unary
association, oneto-many

A Branch hasa number of accounts : aggregation, onetomany

From the class Account, two classes have inherited, namely, Savings Account
and Current Account.

A Customer can have one Current Account : association, onetoone

A Customer can have one Savings Account : association, onetoone

A Branch hasa number of Loans : aggregation, onetomany

A Customer can take many loans : association, onetomany

Object Diagram
An object diagram models a group of objects and their links at a point of time. It
shows the instances of the things in a class diagram. Object diagram is the static
part of an interaction diagram.
Example : The following figure shows an object diagram of a portion of the class
diagram of the Banking System.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Component Diagram
Component diagrams show the organization and dependencies among a group of
components.
Component diagrams comprise of:

Components

Interfaces

Relationships

Packages and Subsystems (optional)

Component diagrams are used for:

constructing systems through forward and reverse engineering.

modeling configuration management of source code files while developing

a system using an object-oriented programming language.

representing schemas in modeling databases.

modeling behaviors of dynamic systems.

Example
The following figure shows a component diagram to model a systems source
code that is developed using C++. It shows four source code files, namely,
myheader.h, otherheader.h, priority.cpp, and other.cpp. Two versions of
myheader.h are shown, tracing from the recent version to its ancestor. The file
priority.cpp has compilation dependency on other.cpp. The file other.cpp has
compilation dependency on otherheader.h.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Deployment Diagram
A deployment diagram puts emphasis on the configuration of runtime processing
nodes and their components that live on them. They are commonly comprised of
nodes and dependencies, or associations between the nodes.
Deployment diagrams are used to:

model devices in embedded systems that typically comprise of softwareintensive collection of hardware.

represent the topologies of client/server systems.

model fully distributed systems.

Example
The following figure shows the topology of a computer system that follows
client/server architecture. The figure illustrates a node stereotyped as server
that comprises of processors. The figure indicates that four or more servers are
deployed at the system. Connected to the server are the client nodes, where
each node represents a terminal device such as workstation, laptop, scanner, or
printer. The nodes are represented using icons that clearly depict the real-world
equivalent.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

11. UML BEHAVIORAL DIAGRAMS

UML behavioral diagrams visualize, specify, construct, and document the
dynamic aspects of a system. The behavioral diagrams are categorized as
follows: use case diagrams, interaction diagrams, statechart diagrams, and
activity diagrams.

Use Case Model

Use Case
A use case describes the sequence of actions a system performs yielding visible
results. It shows the interaction of things outside the system with the system
itself. Use cases may be applied to the whole system as well as a part of the
system.

Actor
An actor represents the roles that the users of the use cases play. An actor may
be a person (e.g. student, customer), a device (e.g. workstation), or another
system (e.g. bank, institution).
The following figure shows the notations of an actor named Student and a use
case called Generate Performance Report.

Use Case Diagrams

Use case diagrams present an outside view of the manner the elements in a
system behave and how they can be used in the context.
Use case diagrams comprise of:

Use cases

Actors
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Relationships like dependency, generalization, and association

Use case diagrams are used:

To model the context of a system by enclosing all the activities of a

system within a rectangle and focusing on the actors outside the system
by interacting with it.

To model the requirements of a system from the outside point of view.

Example
Let us consider an Automated Trading House System. We assume the following
features of the system:

The trading house has transactions with two types of customers,

individual customers and corporate customers.

Once the customer places an order, it is processed by the sales

department and the customer is given the bill.

The system allows the manager to manage customer accounts and answer
any queries posted by the customer.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Interaction Diagrams
Interaction diagrams depict interactions of objects and their relationships. They
also include the messages passed between them. There are two types of
interaction diagrams:

Sequence Diagrams

Collaboration Diagrams

Interaction diagrams are used for modeling:

the control flow by time ordering using sequence diagrams.

the control flow of organization using collaboration diagrams.

Sequence Diagrams
Sequence diagrams are interaction diagrams that illustrate the ordering of
messages according to time.
Notations : These diagrams are in the form of two-dimensional charts. The
objects that initiate the interaction are placed on the xaxis. The messages that
these objects send and receive are placed along the yaxis, in the order of
increasing time from top to bottom.
Example : A sequence diagram for the Automated Trading House System is
shown in the following figure.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Collaboration Diagrams
Collaboration diagrams are interaction diagrams that illustrate the structure of
the objects that send and receive messages.
Notations : In these diagrams, the objects that participate in the interaction are
shown using vertices. The links that connect the objects are used to send and
receive messages. The message is shown as a labeled arrow.
Example : Collaboration diagram for the Automated Trading House System is
illustrated in the figure below.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

StateChart Diagrams
A statechart diagram shows a state machine that depicts the control flow of an
object from one state to another. A state machine portrays the sequences of
states which an object undergoes due to events and their responses to events.
StateChart Diagrams comprise of:

States: Simple or Composite

Transitions between states

Events causing transitions

Actions due to the events

State-chart diagrams are used for modeling objects which are reactive in nature.

Example
In the Automated Trading House System, let us model Order as an object and
trace its sequence. The following figure shows the corresponding statechart
diagram.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Activity Diagrams
An activity diagram depicts the flow of activities which are ongoing non-atomic
operations in a state machine. Activities result in actions which are atomic
operations.
Activity diagrams comprise of:

Activity states and action states

Transitions

Objects

Activity diagrams are used for modeling:

workflows as viewed by actors, interacting with the system.

details of operations or computations using flowcharts.

Example
The following figure shows an activity diagram of a portion of the Automated
Trading House System.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

12. OBJECT-ORIENTED DESIGN

After the analysis phase, the conceptual model is developed further into an
object-oriented model using object-oriented design (OOD). In OOD, the
technology-independent concepts in the analysis model are mapped onto
implementing classes, constraints are identified, and interfaces are designed,
resulting in a model for the solution domain. In a nutshell, a detailed description
is constructed specifying how the system is to be built on concrete technologies
The stages for objectoriented design can be identified as:

Definition of the context of the system

Designing system architecture

Identification of the objects in the system

Construction of design models

Specification of object interfaces

System Design
Object-oriented system design involves defining the context of a system
followed by designing the architecture of the system.

Context : The context of a system has a static and a dynamic part. The
static context of the system is designed using a simple block diagram of
the whole system which is expanded into a hierarchy of subsystems. The
subsystem model is represented by UML packages. The dynamic context
describes how the system interacts with its environment. It is modelled
using use case diagrams.

System Architecture : The system architecture is designed on the basis

of the context of the system in accordance with the principles of
architectural design as well as domain knowledge. Typically, a system is
partitioned into layers and each layer is decomposed to form the
subsystems.

Object-Oriented Decomposition
Decomposition means dividing a large complex system into a hierarchy of
smaller components with lesser complexities, on the principles of divideand
conquer. Each major component of the system is called a subsystem. Objectoriented decomposition identifies individual autonomous objects in a system and
the communication among these objects.
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

The advantages of decomposition are:

The individual components are of lesser complexity, and so more

understandable and manageable.

It enables division of workforce having specialized skills.

It allows subsystems to be replaced or modified without affecting other

subsystems.

Identifying Concurrency
Concurrency allows more than one objects to receive events at the same time
and more than one activity to be executed simultaneously. Concurrency is
identified and represented in the dynamic model.
To enable concurrency, each concurrent element is assigned a separate thread
of control. If the concurrency is at object level, then two concurrent objects are
assigned two different threads of control. If two operations of a single object are
concurrent in nature, then that object is split among different threads.
Concurrency is associated with the problems of data integrity, deadlock, and
starvation. So a clear strategy needs to be made whenever concurrency is
required. Besides, concurrency requires to be identified at the design stage
itself, and cannot be left for implementation stage.

Identifying Patterns
While designing applications, some commonly accepted solutions are adopted for
some categories of problems. These are the patterns of design. A pattern can be
defined as a documented set of building blocks that can be used in certain types
of application development problems.
Some commonly used design patterns are:

Faade pattern

Model view separation pattern

Observer pattern

Model view controller pattern

Publish subscribe pattern

Proxy pattern

Controlling Events
During system design, the events that may occur in the objects of the system
need to be identified and appropriately dealt with.
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

An event is a specification of a significant occurrence that has a location in time

and space.
There are four types of events that can be modelled, namely:

Signal Event : A named object thrown by one object and caught by

another object.

Call Event : A synchronous event representing dispatch of an operation.

Time Event : An event representing passage of time.

Change Event : An event representing change in state.

Handling Boundary Conditions

The system design phase needs to address the initialization and the termination
of the system as a whole as well as each subsystem. The different aspects that
are documented are as follows:

The startup of the system, i.e., the transition of the system from noninitialized state to steady state.

The termination of the system, i.e., the closing of all running threads,
cleaning up of resources, and the messages to be sent.

The initial configuration of the system and the reconfiguration of the

system when needed.

Foreseeing failures or undesired termination of the system.

Boundary conditions are modelled using boundary use cases.

Object Design
After the hierarchy of subsystems has been developed, the objects in the system
are identified and their details are designed. Here, the designer details out the
strategy chosen during the system design. The emphasis shifts from application
domain concepts toward computer concepts. The objects identified during
analysis are etched out for implementation with an aim to minimize execution
time, memory consumption, and overall cost.
Object design includes the following phases:

Object identification

Object representation, i.e., construction of design models

Classification of operations

Algorithm design

Design of relationships
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Implementation of control for external interactions

Package classes and associations into modules

Object Identification
The first step of object design is object identification. The objects identified in
the objectoriented analysis phases are grouped into classes and refined so that
they are suitable for actual implementation.
The functions of this stage are:

Identifying and refining the classes in each subsystem or package

Defining the links and associations between the classes

Designing the hierarchical associations among the classes, i.e., the

generalization/specialization and inheritances

Designing aggregations

Object Representation
Once the classes are identified, they need to be represented using object
modelling techniques. This stage essentially involves constructing UML diagrams.
There are two types of design models that need to be produced:

Static Models : To describe the static structure of a system using class

diagrams and object diagrams.

Dynamic Models : To describe the dynamic structure of a system and

show the interaction between classes using interaction diagrams and
statechart diagrams.

Classification of Operations
In this step, the operation to be performed on objects are defined by combining
the three models developed in the OOA phase, namely, object model, dynamic
model, and functional model. An operation specifies what is to be done and not
how it should be done.
The following tasks are performed regarding operations:

The state transition diagram of each object in the system is developed.

Operations are defined for the events received by the objects.

Cases in which one event triggers other events in same or different

objects are identified.

The suboperations within the actions are identified.

The main actions are expanded to data flow diagrams.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Algorithm Design
The operations in the objects are defined using algorithms. An algorithm is a
stepwise procedure that solves the problem laid down in an operation.
Algorithms focus on how it is to be done.
There may be more than one algorithm corresponding to a given operation.
Once the alternative algorithms are identified, the optimal algorithm is selected
for the given problem domain. The metrics for choosing the optimal algorithm
are:

Computational Complexity : Complexity determines the efficiency of an

algorithm in terms of computation time and memory requirements.

Flexibility : Flexibility determines whether the chosen algorithm can be

implemented suitably, without loss of appropriateness in various
environments.

Understandability : This determines whether the chosen algorithm is

easy to understand and implement.

Design of Relationships
The strategy to implement the relationships needs to be chalked out during the
object design phase. The main relationships that are addressed comprise of
associations, aggregations, and inheritances.
The designer should do the following regarding associations:

Identify whether an association is unidirectional or bidirectional.

Analyze the path of associations and update them if necessary.

Implement the associations as a distinct object, in case of manyto-many

relationships; or as a link to other object in case of oneto-one or onetomany relationships.

Regarding inheritances, the designer should do the following:

Adjust the classes and their associations.

Identify abstract classes.

Make provisions so that behaviors are shared when needed.

Implementation of Control
The object designer may incorporate refinements in the strategy of the state
chart model. In system design, a basic strategy for realizing the dynamic model
is made. During object design, this strategy is aptly embellished for appropriate
implementation.
The approaches for implementation of the dynamic model are:
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Represent State as a Location within a Program : This is the

traditional procedure-driven approach whereby the location of control
defines the program state. A finite state machine can be implemented as
a program. A transition forms an input statement, the main control path
forms the sequence of instructions, the branches form the conditions, and
the backward paths form the loops or iterations.

State Machine Engine : This approach directly represents a state

machine through a state machine engine class. This class executes the
state machine through a set of transitions and actions provided by the
application.

Control as Concurrent Tasks : In this approach, an object is

implemented as a task in the programming language or the operating
system. Here, an event is implemented as an inter-task call. It preserves
inherent concurrency of real objects.

Packaging Classes
In any large project, meticulous partitioning of an implementation into modules
or packages is important. During object design, classes and objects are grouped
into packages to enable multiple groups to work cooperatively on a project.
The different aspects of packaging are:

Hiding Internal Information from Outside View : It allows a class to

be viewed as a black box and permits class implementation to be
changed without requiring any clients of the class to modify code.

Coherence of Elements : An element, such as a class, an operation, or a

module, is coherent if it is organized on a consistent plan and all its parts
are intrinsically related so that they serve a common goal.

Construction of Physical Modules : The following guidelines help while

constructing physical modules:
o

Classes in a module should represent similar things or components

in the same composite object.

Closely connected classes should be in the same module.

Unconnected or weakly connected classes should be placed in

separate modules.

Modules should have good cohesion, i.e., high cooperation among

its components.

A module should have low coupling with other modules, i.e.,

interaction or interdependence between modules should be
minimum.

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Design Optimization
The analysis model captures the logical information about the system, while the
design model adds details to support efficient information access. Before a
design is implemented, it should be optimized so as to make the implementation
more efficient. The aim of optimization is to minimize the cost in terms of time,
space, and other metrics.
However, design optimization should not be excess, as ease of implementation,
maintainability, and extensibility are also important concerns. It is often seen
that a perfectly optimized design is more efficient but less readable and
reusable. So the designer must strike a balance between the two.
The various things that may be done for design optimization are:

Add redundant associations

Omit non-usable associations

Optimization of algorithms

Save derived attributes to avoid re-computation of complex expressions

Addition of Redundant Associations

During design optimization, it is checked if deriving new associations can reduce
access costs. Though these redundant associations may not add any
information, they may increase the efficiency of the overall model.

Omission of Non-Usable Associations

Presence of too many associations may render a system indecipherable and
hence reduce the overall efficiency of the system. So, during optimization, all
non-usable associations are removed.

Optimization of Algorithms
In object-oriented systems, optimization of data structure and algorithms are
done in a collaborative manner. Once the class design is in place, the operations
and the algorithms need to be optimized.
Optimization of algorithms is obtained by:

Rearrangement of the order of computational tasks

Reversal of execution order of loops from that laid down in the functional
model

Removal of dead paths within the algorithm

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Saving and Storing of Derived Attributes

Derived attributes are those attributes whose values are computed as a function
of other attributes (base attributes). Re-computation of the values of derived
attributes every time they are needed is a timeconsuming procedure. To avoid
this, the values can be computed and stored in their computed forms.
However, this may pose update anomalies, i.e., a change in the values of base
attributes with no corresponding change in the values of the derived attributes.
To avoid this, the following steps are taken:

With each update of the base attribute value, the derived attribute is also
re-computed.

All the derived attributes are re-computed and updated periodically in a

group rather than after each update.

Design Documentation
Documentation is an essential part of any software development process that
records the procedure of making the software. The design decisions need to be
documented for any nontrivial software system for transmitting the design to
others.

Usage Areas
Though a secondary product, a good documentation is indispensable, particularly
in the following areas:

In designing software that is being developed by a number of developers

In iterative software development strategies

In developing subsequent versions of a software project

For evaluating a software

For finding conditions and areas of testing

For maintenance of the software.

Contents
A beneficial documentation should essentially include the following contents:

Highlevel system architecture : Process diagrams and module

diagrams

Key abstractions and mechanisms : Class diagrams and object

diagrams.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Scenarios that illustrate the behavior of the main aspects :

Behavioral diagrams

Features
The features of a good documentation are:

Concise and at the same time, unambiguous, consistent, and complete

Traceable to the systems requirement specifications

Well-structured

Diagrammatic instead of descriptive

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13. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

Implementing an object-oriented design generally involves using a standard
object oriented programming language (OOPL) or mapping object designs to
databases. In most cases, it involves both.

Implementation using Programming Languages

Usually, the task of transforming an object design into code is a straightforward
process. Any object-oriented programming language like C++, Java, Smalltalk,
C# and Python, includes provision for representing classes. In this chapter, we
exemplify the concept using C++.
The following figure shows the representation of the class Circle using C++.

Implementing Associations
Most programming languages
associations directly. So the
considerable thought.

do not provide constructs to implement

task of implementing associations needs

Associations may be either unidirectional or bidirectional. Besides, each

association may be either onetoone, onetomany, or manytomany.

Unidirectional Associations
For implementing unidirectional associations, care should be taken so that
unidirectionality is maintained. The implementations for different multiplicity are
as follows:
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Optional Associations : Here, a link may or may not exist between the
participating objects. For example, in the association between Customer
and Current Account in the figure below, a customer may or may not have
a current account.

For implementation, an object of Current Account is included as an attribute in

Customer that may be NULL. Implementation using C++:
class Customer
{
private:
// attributes
Current_Account c; //an object of Current_Account as attribute

public:

Customer()
{
c = NULL;
} // assign c as NULL

Current_Account getCurrAc()
{
return c;
}

void setCurrAc( Current_Account myacc)

{
c = myacc;
}

void removeAcc()
{
c = NULL;
}

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

};

Onetoone Associations : Here, one instance of a class is related to

exactly one instance of the associated class. For example, Department
and Manager have onetoone association as shown in the figure below.

This is implemented by including in Department, an object of Manager that

should not be NULL. Implementation using C++:
class Department
{
private:
// attributes
Manager mgr; //an object of Manager as attribute

public:
Department (/*parameters*/, Manager m) //m is not NULL
{
// assign parameters to variables
mgr = m;
}

Manager getMgr()
{
return mgr;
}
};

Onetomany Associations : Here, one instance of a class is related to

more than one instances of the associated class. For example, consider
the association between Employee and Dependent in the following figure.

This is implemented by including a list of Dependents in class Employee. Implementation using

C++ STL list container:
class Employee

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

{
private:
char * deptName;
list <Dependent> dep; //a list of Dependents as attribute

public:
void addDependent ( Dependent d)
{
dep.push_back(d);
} // adds an employee to the department

void removeDeoendent( Dependent d)

{
int index = find ( d, dep );
// find() function returns the index of d in list dep
dep.erase(index);
}
};

Bi-directional Associations
To implement bi-directional association, links in both directions require to be
maintained.

Optional or onetoone Associations : Consider the relationship

between Project and Project Manager having onetoone bidirectional
association as shown in the figure below.

Implementation using C++

Class Project
{
private:
// attributes
Project_Manager pmgr;
public:
void setManager ( Project_Manager pm);

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Project_Manager changeManager();
};

class Project_Manager
{
private:
// attributes
Project pj;

public:
void setProject(Project p);
Project removeProject();
};

Onetomany Associations : Consider the relationship between

Department and Employee having onetomany association as shown in
the figure below.

Implementation using C++ STL list container

class Department
{
private:
char * deptName;
list <Employee> emp; //a list of Employees as attribute

public:
void addEmployee ( Employee e)
{
emp.push_back(e);
} // adds an employee to the department

void removeEmployee( Employee e)

{
int index = find ( e, emp );
// find function returns the index of e in list emp

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

emp.erase(index);
}
};

class Employee
{
private:
//attributes
Department d;

public:
void addDept();
void removeDept();
};

Implementing Associations as Classes

If an association has some attributes associated, it should be implemented using a separate
class. For example, consider the onetoone association between Employee and Project as
shown in the figure below.

Implementation of WorksOn using C++

class WorksOn
{
private:
Employee e;
Project p;
Hours h;
char * date;

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

public:
// class methods
};

Implementing Constraints
Constraints in classes restrict the range and type of values that the attributes
may take. In order to implement constraints, a valid default value is assigned to
the attribute when an object is instantiated from the class. Whenever the value
is changed at runtime, it is checked whether the value is valid or not. An invalid
value may be handled by an exception handling routine or other methods.

Example
Consider an Employee class where age is an attribute that may have values in
the range of 18 to 60. The following C++ code incorporates it:
class Employee
{
private: char * name;
int age;
// other attributes

public:
Employee()

// default constructor

{
strcpy(name, "");
age = 18;

// default value

class AgeError {};

// Exception class

void changeAge( int a)

// method that changes age

{
if ( a < 18 || a > 60 )

// check for invalid condition

throw AgeError();

// throw exception

age = a;
}
};

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Implementing State Charts

There are two alternative implementation strategies to implement states in state
chart diagrams.

Enumerations within Class

In this approach, the states are represented by different values of a data
member (or set of data members). The values are explicitly defined by an
enumeration within the class. The transitions are represented by member
functions that change the value of the concerned data member.

Arrangement of Classes in a Generalization Hierarchy

In this approach, the states are arranged in a generalization hierarchy in a
manner that they can be referred by a common pointer variable. The following
figure shows a transformation from state chart diagram to a generalization
hierarchy.

Object Mapping to Database System

Persistency of Objects
An important aspect of developing object-oriented systems is persistency of
data. Through persistency, objects have longer lifespan than the program that
created it. Persistent data is saved on secondary storage medium from where it
can be reloaded when required.

Overview of RDBMS
A database is an ordered collection of related data.
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of software that
facilitates the processes of defining, creating, storing, manipulating, retrieving,
sharing, and removing data in databases.
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

In relational database management systems (RDBMS), data is stored as

relations or tables, where each column or field represents an attribute and each
row or tuple represents a record of an instance.
Each row is uniquely identified by a chosen set of minimal attributes
called primary key.
A foreign key is an attribute that is the primary key of a related table.

Representing Classes as Tables in RDBMS

To map a class to a database table, each attribute is represented as a field in the
table. Either an existing attribute(s) is assigned as a primary key or a separate
ID field is added as a primary key. The class may be partitioned horizontally or
vertically as per requirement.
For example, the Circle class can be converted to table as shown in the figure
below.

Schema for Circle Table: CIRCLE(CID, X_COORD, Y_COORD, RADIUS, COLOR)

Creating a Table Circle using SQL command:
CREATE TABLE CIRCLE
(
CID

VARCHAR2(4) PRIMARY KEY,

X_COORD INTEGER NOT NULL,

Y_COORD INTEGER NOT NULL,
Z_COORD INTEGER NOT NULL,
COLOR
);

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Mapping Associations to Database Tables

OnetoOne Associations
To implement 1:1 associations, the primary key of any one table is assigned as
the foreign key of the other table. For example, consider the association
between Department and Manager:

SQL commands to create the tables

CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT
(
DEPT_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
DNAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,
LOCATION VARCHAR2(20),
EMPID INTEGER REFERENCES MANAGER
);

CREATE TABLE MANAGER

(
EMPID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
ENAME VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(70),
);

OnetoMany Associations
To implement 1:N associations, the primary key of the table in the 1-side of the
association is assigned as the foreign key of the table at the N-side of the
association. For example, consider the association between Department and
Employee:

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SQL commands to create the tables

CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT
(
DEPT_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
DNAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,
LOCATION VARCHAR2(20),
);

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE

(
EMPID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
ENAME VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(70),
D_ID INTEGER REFERENCES DEPARTMENT
);

ManytoMany Associations
To implement M:N associations, a new relation is created that represents the
association. For example, consider the following association between Employee
and Project:

Schema for Works_On Table : WORKS_ON (EMPID, PID, HOURS,

START_DATE)
SQL command to create Works_On association :CREATE TABLE WORKS_ON
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(
EMPID INTEGER,
PID INTEGER,
HOURS INTEGER,
START_DATE DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (EMPID, PID),
FOREIGN KEY (EMPID) REFERENCES EMPLOYEE,
FOREIGN KEY (PID) REFERENCES PROJECT
);

Mapping Inheritance to Tables

To map inheritance, the primary key of the base table(s) is assigned as the
primary key as well as the foreign key in the derived table(s).

Example

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14. TESTING AND QUALITY

ASSURANCE

Once a program code is written, it must be tested to detect and subsequently

handle all errors in it. A number of schemes are used for testing purposes.
Another important aspect is the fitness of purpose of a program that ascertains
whether the program serves the purpose which it aims for. The fitness defines
the software quality.

Testing Object-Oriented Systems

Testing is a continuous activity during software development. In object-oriented
systems, testing encompasses three levels, namely, unit testing, subsystem
testing, and system testing.

Unit Testing
In unit testing, the individual classes are tested. It is seen whether the class
attributes are implemented as per design and whether the methods and the
interfaces are error-free. Unit testing is the responsibility of the application
engineer who implements the structure.

Subsystem Testing
This involves testing a particular module or a subsystem and is the responsibility
of the subsystem lead. It involves testing the associations within the subsystem
as well as the interaction of the subsystem with the outside. Subsystem tests
can be used as regression tests for each newly released version of the
subsystem.

System Testing
System testing involves testing the system as a whole and is the responsibility
of the quality-assurance team. The team often uses system tests as regression
tests when assembling new releases.

Object-Oriented Testing Techniques

Grey Box Testing
The different types of test cases that can be designed for testing object-oriented
programs are called grey box test cases. Some of the important types of grey
box testing are:
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

State model based testing : This encompasses state coverage, state

transition coverage, and state transition path coverage.

Use case based testing : Each scenario in each use case is tested.

Class diagram based testing : Each class, derived class, associations,

and aggregations are tested.

Sequence diagram based testing : The methods in the messages in the

sequence diagrams are tested.

Techniques for Subsystem Testing

The two main approaches of subsystem testing are:

Thread based testing : All classes that are needed to realize a single
use case in a subsystem are integrated and tested.

Use based testing : The interfaces and services of the modules at each
level of hierarchy are tested. Testing starts from the individual classes to
the small modules comprising of classes, gradually to larger modules, and
finally all the major subsystems.

Categories of System Testing

Alpha testing : This is carried out by the testing team within the
organization that develops software.

Beta testing : This is carried out by select group of co-operating

customers.

Acceptance testing : This is carried out by the customer before

accepting the deliverables.

Software Quality Assurance

Software Quality
Schulmeyer and McManus have defined software quality as the fitness for use
of the total software product. A good quality software does exactly what it is
supposed to do and is interpreted in terms of satisfaction of the requirement
specification laid down by the user.

Quality Assurance
Software quality assurance is a methodology that determines the extent to
which a software product is fit for use. The activities that are included for
determining software quality are:

Auditing
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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Development of standards and guidelines

Production of reports

Review of quality system

Quality Factors

Correctness :
Correctness
determines
requirements are appropriately met.

whether

the

software

Usability : Usability determines whether the software can be used by

different categories of users (beginners, non-technical, and experts).

Portability : Portability determines whether the software can operate in

different platforms with different hardware devices.

Maintainability : Maintainability determines the ease at which errors can

be corrected and modules can be updated.

Reusability : Reusability determines whether the modules and classes

can be reused for developing other software products.

Object-Oriented Metrics
Metrics can be broadly classified into three categories: project metrics, product
metrics, and process metrics.

Project Metrics
Project Metrics enable a software project manager to assess the status and
performance of an ongoing project. The following metrics are appropriate for
object-oriented software projects:

Number of scenario scripts

Number of key classes

Number of support classes

Number of subsystems

Product Metrics
Product metrics measure the characteristics of the software product that has
been developed. The product metrics suitable for object-oriented systems are:

Methods per Class : It determines the complexity of a class. If all the

methods of a class are assumed to be equally complex, then a class with
more methods is more complex and thus more susceptible to errors.

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Object-Oriented Analysis & Design

Inheritance Structure : Systems with several small inheritance lattices

are more wellstructured than systems with a single large inheritance
lattice. As a thumb rule, an inheritance tree should not have more than 7
( 2) number of levels and the tree should be balanced.

Coupling and Cohesion : Modules having low coupling and high

cohesion are considered to be better designed, as they permit greater
reusability and maintainability.

Response for a Class : It measures the efficiency of the methods that

are called by the instances of the class.

Process Metrics
Process metrics help in measuring how a process is performing. They are
collected over all projects over long periods of time. They are used as indicators
for long-term software process improvements. Some process metrics are:

Number of KLOC (Kilo Lines of Code)

Defect removal efficiency

Average number of failures detected during testing

Number of latent defects per KLOC

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