1

INTRODUCTION
SQL is divided into the following

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Retrieval Language (DRL)

Transaction Control Language (TCL)

Data Control Language (DCL)

DDL -- create, alter, drop, truncate, rename

DML -- insert, update, delete
DRL -- select
TCL -- commit, rollback, savepoint
DCL -- grant, revoke
CREATE TABLE SYNTAX
Create table <table_name> (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 coln datatypen);
Ex:
SQL>

create table student (no number (2), name varchar (10), marks number (3));

INSERT
This will be used to insert the records into table.
We have two methods to insert.

a)

By value method

By address method

USING VALUE METHOD

Syntax:
insert into <table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 . Valuen);

Ex:
SQL>

insert into student values (1, sudha, 100);

SQL>

insert into student values (2, saketh, 200);

To insert a new record again you have to type entire insert command, if there are lot of
records this will be difficult.
This will be avoided by using address method.
b)

USING ADDRESS METHOD

Syntax:
insert into <table_name) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every insert you have to use forward slash.
Ex:
SQL>

insert into student values (&no, '&name', &marks);

Enter value for no: 1

Enter value for name: Jagan
Enter value for marks: 300
old
new

SQL>

1: insert into student values(&no, '&name', &marks)

1: insert into student values(1, 'Jagan', 300)
/

Enter value for no: 2

Enter value for name: Naren
Enter value for marks: 400
old
new
c)

1: insert into student values(&no, '&name', &marks)

1: insert into student values(2, 'Naren', 400)

INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS USING VALUE METHOD

Syntax:
insert into <table_name)(col1, col2, col3 Coln) values (value1, value2, value3 .

3
Valuen);
Ex:

d)

SQL>

insert into student (no, name) values (3, Ramesh);

SQL>

insert into student (no, name) values (4, Madhu);

INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED COLUMNS USING ADDRESS METHOD

Syntax:
insert into <table_name)(col1, col2, col3 coln) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every insert you have to use forward slash.
Ex:
SQL>

insert into student (no, name) values (&no, '&name');

Enter value for no: 5

Enter value for name: Visu
old
new

SQL>

1: insert into student (no, name) values(&no, '&name')

1: insert into student (no, name) values(5, 'Visu')
/

Enter value for no: 6

Enter value for name: Rattu
old
new

1: insert into student (no, name) values(&no, '&name')

1: insert into student (no, name) values(6, 'Rattu')

SELECTING DATA
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name>;

-- here * indicates all columns

or
Select col1, col2, coln from <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

4
--- ------

SQL>

SQL>

--------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

select no, name, marks from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- ------

--------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

select no, name from student;

NO NAME
--- ------1

Sudha

Saketh

Jagan

Naren

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

CONDITIONAL SELECTIONS AND OPERATORS

We have two clauses used in this

Where

Order by

USING WHERE
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <condition>;
the following are the different types of operators used in where clause.
Arithmetic operators
Comparison operators
Logical operators

Arithmetic operators

-- highest precedence

+, -, *, /
Comparison operators

=, !=, >, <, >=, <=, <>

between, not between

in, not in

null, not null

like

Logical operators

a)

USING

And

Or

not

-- lowest precedence

=, >, <, >=, <=, !=, <>

Ex:
SQL>

select * from student where no = 2;

SQL>

SQL>

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Naren

400

select * from student where no < 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

select * from student where no > 2;

SQL>

SQL>

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

select * from student where no <= 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

select * from student where no >= 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

7
--- -------

SQL>

SQL>

b)

---------

Saketh

200

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

select * from student where no != 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

select * from student where no <> 2;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

USING AND

This will gives the output when all the conditions become true.
Syntax:

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select * from <table_name> where <condition1> and <condition2> and .. <conditionn>;
Ex:

SQL>

c)

select * from student where no = 2 and marks >= 200;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

--------

Saketh

200

Naren

400

USING OR

This will gives the output when either of the conditions become true.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <condition1> and <condition2> or .. <conditionn>;
Ex:
SQL>

d)

select * from student where no = 2 or marks >= 200;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

USING BETWEEN

This will gives the output based on the column and its lower bound, upperbound.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> between <lower bound> and <upper bound>;

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Ex:
SQL>

e)

select * from student where marks between 200 and 400;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

USING NOT BETWEEN

This will gives the output based on the column which values are not in its lower bound,
upperbound.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> not between <lower bound> and <upper bound>;
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student where marks not between 200 and 400;
NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

1
f)

Sudha

100

USING IN

This will gives the output based on the column and its list of values specified.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> in ( value1, value2, value3 valuen);
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student where no in (1, 2, 3);

NO NAME

MARKS

10
--- -------

g)

---------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

Ramesh

USING NOT IN

This will gives the output based on the column which values are not in the list of values
specified.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> not in ( value1, value2, value3 valuen);
Ex:
SQL>

h)

select * from student where no not in (1, 2, 3);

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

USING NULL

This will gives the output based on the null values in the specified column.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> is null;
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student where marks is null;

NO NAME

MARKS

11
--- -------

i)

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

---------

USING NOT NULL

This will gives the output based on the not null values in the specified column.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> is not null;
Ex:
SQL>

j)

select * from student where marks is not null;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

USING LIKE

This will be used to search through the rows of database column based on the pattern you
specify.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> like <pattern>;
Ex:
i) This will give the rows whose marks are 100.

SQL>

select * from student where marks like 100;

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NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

ii) This will give the rows whose name start with S.

SQL>

select * from student where name like 'S%';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Saketh

200

iii) This will give the rows whose name ends with h.

SQL>

select * from student where name like '%h';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

Ramesh

200

iV) This will give the rows whose names second letter start with a.

SQL>

select * from student where name like '_a%';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

--------

Saketh

200

Jagan

300

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Rattu

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V) This will give the rows whose names third letter start with d.

SQL>

select * from student where name like '__d%';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

Madhu

100

Vi) This will give the rows whose names second letter start with t from ending.

SQL>

select * from student where name like '%_t%';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

Rattu

200

Vii) This will give the rows whose names third letter start with e from ending.

SQL>

select * from student where name like '%e__%';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Saketh

Ramesh

200

Viii) This will give the rows whose name cotains 2 as.

SQL>

select * from student where name like '%a% a %';

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

Jagan

300

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* You have to specify the patterns in like using underscore ( _ ).
USING ORDER BY
This will be used to ordering the columns data (ascending or descending).
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> order by <col> desc;
By default oracle will use ascending order.
If you want output in descending order you have to use desc keyword after the column.
Ex:
SQL>

SQL>

select * from student order by no;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

Sudha

100

Jagan

300

Saketh

200

Naren

400

Ramesh

Madhu

Visu

Rattu

select * from student order by no desc;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

6 Rattu
5 Visu
4 Madhu
3 Ramesh
2 Saketh

200

2 Naren

400

15
1 Sudha

100

1 Jagan

300

USING DML
USING UPDATE
This can be used to modify the table data.
Syntax:
Update <table_name> set <col1> = value1, <col2> = value2 where <condition>;
Ex:
SQL>

update student set marks = 500;

If you are not specifying any condition this will update entire table.

SQL>

update student set marks = 500 where no = 2;

SQL>

update student set marks = 500, name = 'Venu' where no = 1;

USING DELETE
This can be used to delete the table data temporarily.
Syntax:
Delete <table_name> where <condition>;
Ex:
SQL>

delete student;

If you are not specifying any condition this will delete entire table.

SQL>

delete student where no = 2;

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USING DDL
USING ALTER
This can be used to add or remove columns and to modify the precision of the datatype.
a)

ADDING COLUMN

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> add <col datatype>;
Ex:
SQL>

b)

alter table student add sdob date;

REMOVING COLUMN

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> drop <col datatype>;
Ex:
SQL>

c)

alter table student drop column sdob;

INCREASING OR DECREASING PRECISION OF A COLUMN

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> modify <col datatype>;
Ex:
SQL>

alter table student modify marks number(5);

* To decrease precision the column should be empty.

d)

MAKING COLUMN UNUSED

Syntax:

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alter table <table_name> set unused column <col>;
Ex:
SQL>

alter table student set unused column marks;

Even though the column is unused still it will occupy memory.

d)

DROPPING UNUSED COLUMNS

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> drop unused columns;
Ex:
SQL>

alter table student drop unused columns;

* You can not drop individual unused columns of a table.

e)

RENAMING COLUMN

Syntax:
alter table <table_name> rename column <old_col_name> to <new_col_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

alter table student rename column marks to smarks;

USING TRUNCATE
This can be used to delete the entire table data permanently.
Syntax:
truncate table <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

truncate table student;

USING DROP
This will be used to drop the database object;

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Syntax:
Drop table <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

drop table student;

USING RENAME
This will be used to rename the database object;
Syntax:
rename <old_table_name> to <new_table_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

rename student to stud;

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USING TCL
USING COMMIT
This will be used to save the work.
Commit is of two types.

a)

Implicit

Explicit

IMPLICIT

This will be issued by oracle internally in two situations.

b)

When any DDL operation is performed.

When you are exiting from SQL * PLUS.

EXPLICIT

This will be issued by the user.

Syntax:
Commit or commit work;
* When ever you committed then the transaction was completed.
USING ROLLBACK
This will undo the operation.
This will be applied in two methods.

Upto previous commit

Upto previous rollback

Syntax:
Roll or roll work;
Or
Rollback or rollback work;

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* While process is going on, if suddenly power goes then oracle will rollback the transaction.
USING SAVEPOINT
You can use savepoints to rollback portions of your current set of transactions.
Syntax:
Savepoint <savepoint_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

savepoint s1;

SQL>

insert into student values(1, a, 100);

SQL>

savepoint s2;

SQL>

insert into student values(2, b, 200);

SQL>

savepoint s3;

SQL>

insert into student values(3, c, 300);

SQL>

savepoint s4;

SQL>

insert into student values(4, d, 400);

Before rollback

SQL>

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

100

200

300

400

rollback to savepoint s3;

Or

SQL>

rollback to s3;

This will rollback last two records.

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SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

----------

100

200

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USING DCL
DCL commands are used to granting and revoking the permissions.
USING GRANT
This is used to grant the privileges to other users.
Syntax:
Grant <privileges> on <object_name> to <user_name> [with grant option];
Ex:
SQL>

grant select on student to sudha;

-- you can give individual privilege

SQL>

grant select, insert on student to sudha;

SQL>

grant all on student to sudha;

-- you can give set of privileges

-- you can give all privileges

The sudha user has to use dot method to access the object.
SQL>

select * from saketh.student;

The sudha user can not grant permission on student table to other users. To get this type of
option use the following.
SQL>

grant all on student to sudha with grant option;

Now sudha user also grant permissions on student table.

USING REVOKE
This is used to revoke the privileges from the users to which you granted the privileges.
Syntax:
Revoke <privileges> on <object_name> from <user_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

revoke select on student form sudha;

-- you can revoke individual privilege

SQL>

revoke select, insert on student from sudha;

SQL>

revoke all on student from sudha;

-- you can revoke set of privileges

-- you can revoke all privileges

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USING ALIASES
CREATE WITH SELECT
We can create a table using existing table [along with data].
Syntax:
Create table <new_table_name> [col1, col2, col3 ... coln] as select * from
<old_table_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

create table student1 as select * from student;

Creating table with your own column names.

SQL>

create table student2(sno, sname, smarks) as select * from student;

Creating table with specified columns.

SQL>

create table student3 as select no,name from student;

Creating table with out table data.

SQL>

create table student2(sno, sname, smarks) as select * from student where 1 = 2;

In the above where clause give any condition which does not satisfy.
INSERT WITH SELECT
Using this we can insert existing table data to a another table in a single trip. But the table
structure should be same.
Syntax:
Insert into <table1> select * from <table2>;
Ex:
SQL>

insert into student1 select * from student;

Inserting data into specified columns

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SQL>

insert into student1(no, name) select no, name from student;

COLUMN ALIASES
Syntax:
Select <orginal_col> <alias_name> from <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

select no sno from student;

or

SQL>

select no sno from student;

TABLE ALIASES
If you are using table aliases you can use dot method to the columns.
Syntax:
Select <alias_name>.<col1>, <alias_name>.<col2> <alias_name>.<coln> from
<table_name> <alias_name>;
Ex:
SQL>

select s.no, s.name from student s;

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USING MERGE
MERGE
You can use merge command to perform insert and update in a single command.
Ex:
SQL>

Merge into student1 s1

Using (select *From student2) s2
On(s1.no=s2.no)
When matched then
Update set marks = s2.marks
When not matched then
Insert (s1.no,s1.name,s1.marks)
Values(s2.no,s2.name,s2.marks);

In the above the two tables are with the same structure but we can merge different structured
tables also but the datatype of the columns should match.
Assume that student1 has columns like no,name,marks and student2 has columns like no,
name, hno, city.

SQL>

Merge into student1 s1

Using (select *From student2) s2
On(s1.no=s2.no)
When matched then
Update set marks = s2.hno
When not matched then
Insert (s1.no,s1.name,s1.marks)
Values(s2.no,s2.name,s2.hno);

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MULTIBLE INSERTS
We have table called DEPT with the following columns and data
DEPTNO

DNAME

LOC

--------

--------

----

10

accounting

new york

20

research

dallas

30

sales

Chicago

40

operations

boston

a)

CREATE STUDENT TABLE

SQL>

b)

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2),marks number(3));

MULTI INSERT WITH ALL FIELDS

SQL>

Insert all
Into student values(1,a,100)
Into student values(2,b,200)
Into student values(3,c,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=10;

-- This inserts 3 rows

c)

MULTI INSERT WITH SPECIFIED FIELDS

SQL>

insert all
Into student (no,name) values(4,d)
Into student(name,marks) values(e,400)
Into student values(3,c,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=10;

-- This inserts 3 rows

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d)

MULTI INSERT WITH DUPLICATE ROWS

SQL>

insert all
Into student values(1,a,100)
Into student values(2,b,200)
Into student values(3,c,300)
Select *from dept where deptno > 10;

-- This inserts 9 rows because in the select statement retrieves 3 records (3 inserts for each
row retrieved)
e)

MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED

SQL>

Insert all
When deptno > 10 then
Into student1 values(1,a,100)
When dname = SALES then
Into student2 values(2,b,200)
When loc = NEW YORK then
Into student3 values(3,c,300)
Select *from dept where deptno>10;

-- This inserts 4 rows because the first condition satisfied 3 times, second condition
satisfied once and the last none.
f)

MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED AND ELSE

SQL>

Insert all
When deptno > 100 then
Into student1 values(1,a,100)
When dname = S then
Into student2 values(2,b,200)
When loc = NEW YORK then
Into student3 values(3,c,300)
Else
Into student values(4,d,400)

28
Select *from dept where deptno>10;
-- This inserts 3 records because the else satisfied 3 times
g)

MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED AND FIRST

SQL>

Insert first
When deptno = 20 then
Into student1 values(1,a,100)
When dname = RESEARCH then
Into student2 values(2,b,200)
When loc = NEW YORK then
Into student3 values(3,c,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=20;

-- This inserts 1 record because the first clause avoid to check the remaining conditions
once the condition is satisfied.
h)

MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED, FIRST AND ELSE

SQL>

Insert first
When deptno = 30 then
Into student1 values(1,a,100)
When dname = R then
Into student2 values(2,b,200)
When loc = NEW YORK then
Into student3 values(3,c,300)
Else
Into student values(4,d,400)
Select *from dept where deptno=20;

-- This inserts 1 record because the else clause satisfied once

29
i)

MULTI INSERT WITH MULTIBLE TABLES

SQL>

Insert all
Into student1 values(1,a,100)
Into student2 values(2,b,200)
Into student3 values(3,c,300)
Select *from dept where deptno=10;

-- This inserts 3 rows

** You can use multi tables with specified fields, with duplicate rows, with conditions, with
first and else clauses.

30

FUNCTIONS
Functions can be categorized as follows.

Single row functions

Group functions

SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS

Single row functions can be categorized into five. These will be applied for each row and
produces individual output for each row.

Numeric functions

String functions

Date functions

Miscellaneous functions

Conversion functions

NUMERIC FUNCTIONS

Abs

Sign

Sqrt

Mod

Nvl

Power

Exp

Ln

Log

Ceil

Floor

Round

Trunk

Bitand

Greatest

31

a)

Least

Coalesce

ABS

Absolute value is the measure of the magnitude of value.

Absolute value is always a positive number.
Syntax: abs (value)
Ex:
SQL>

select abs(5), abs(-5), abs(0), abs(null) from dual;

ABS(5)

ABS(-5)

ABS(0) ABS(NULL)

---------- ----------

---------- -------------

5
b)

-5

SIGN

Sign gives the sign of a value.

Syntax: sign (value)
Ex:
SQL>

select sign(5), sign(-5), sign(0), sign(null) from dual;

SIGN(5)

SIGN(-5)

SIGN(0) SIGN(NULL)

----------

----------

---------- --------------

1
c)

-1

SQRT

This will give the square root of the given value.

Syntax: sqrt (value)

-- here value must be positive.

32
Ex:
SQL>

select sqrt(4), sqrt(0), sqrt(null), sqrt(1) from dual;

SQRT(4)

SQRT(0) SQRT(NULL)

SQRT(1)

----------

---------- ---------------

----------

2
d)

MOD

This will give the remainder.

Syntax: mod (value, divisor)
Ex:
SQL>

select mod(7,4), mod(1,5), mod(null,null), mod(0,0), mod(-7,4) from dual;

MOD(7,4)

MOD(1,5) MOD(NULL,NULL)

MOD(0,0) MOD(-7,4)

------------

---------- ---------------------

----------- -------------

3
e)

-3

NVL

This will substitutes the specified value in the place of null values.
Syntax: nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

--- -------

---------

SQL>

-- here for 3rd row marks value is null

100
200

select no, name, nvl(marks,300) from student;

33

NO NAME NVL(MARKS,300)
--- ------- ---------------------

SQL>

100

200

300

select nvl(1,2), nvl(2,3), nvl(4,3), nvl(5,4) from dual;

NVL(1,2)

NVL(2,3)

NVL(4,3)

NVL(5,4)

----------

----------

----------

----------

SQL>

select nvl(0,0), nvl(1,1), nvl(null,null), nvl(4,4) from dual;

NVL(0,0)

NVL(1,1) NVL(null,null) NVL(4,4)

----------

---------- -----------------

0
f)

---------4

POWER

Power is the ability to raise a value to a given exponent.

Syntax: power (value, exponent)
Ex:
SQL>

select power(2,5), power(0,0), power(1,1), power(null,null), power(2,-5) from

dual;
POWER(2,5) POWER(0,0) POWER(1,1) POWER(NULL,NULL) POWER(2,-5)
-------------- -------------- ----- --------- ----------------------- --------------32

g)

EXP

.03125

34

This will raise e value to the give power.

Syntax: exp (value)
Ex:
SQL>

select exp(1), exp(2), exp(0), exp(null), exp(-2) from dual;

EXP(1)

EXP(2)

EXP(0) EXP(NULL)

EXP(-2)

--------

---------

-------- -------------

----------

2.71828183 7.3890561
h)

.135335283

LN

This is based on natural or base e logarithm.

Syntax: ln (value)

-- here value must be greater than zero which is positive only.

Ex:
SQL>

select ln(1), ln(2), ln(null) from dual;

LN(1)

LN(2)

LN(NULL)

-------

-------

------------

.693147181

Ln and Exp are reciprocal to each other.

EXP
LN

i)

(3) = 20.0855369

(20.0855369) = 3

LOG

This is based on 10 based logarithm.

Syntax: log (10, value) -- here value must be greater than zero which is positive only.

35
Ex:
SQL>

select log(10,100), log(10,2), log(10,1), log(10,null) from dual;

LOG(10,100) LOG(10,2) LOG(10,1) LOG(10,NULL)
--------------2

LN

(value) =

SQL>

------------ -----------------

.301029996

LOG

(EXP(1), value)

select ln(3), log(exp(1),3) from dual;

LN(3)

LOG(EXP(1),3)

-------

-----------------

1.09861229
j)

-----------

1.09861229

CEIL

This will produce a whole number that is greater than or equal to the specified value.
Syntax: ceil (value)
Ex:
SQL>

select ceil(5), ceil(5.1), ceil(-5), ceil( -5.1), ceil(0), ceil(null) from dual;
CEIL(5) CEIL(5.1)

CEIL(-5) CEIL(-5.1)

CEIL(0) CEIL(NULL)

--------- -----------

---------- ------------

-------- --------------

5
k)

-5

-5

FLOOR

This will produce a whole number that is less than or equal to the specified value.
Syntax: floor (value)
Ex:

36
SQL>

select floor(5), floor(5.1), floor(-5), floor( -5.1), floor(0), floor(null) from dual;
FLOOR(5) FLOOR(5.1) FLOOR(-5) FLOOR(-5.1)

FLOOR(0) FLOOR(NULL)

----------- -------------

----------- ----------------

5
l)

------------ --------------

-5

-6

ROUND

This will rounds numbers to a given number of digits of precision.

Syntax: round (value, precision)
Ex:
SQL>

select round(123.2345), round(123.2345,2), round(123.2354,2) from dual;

ROUND(123.2345) ROUND(123.2345,0) ROUND(123.2345,2) ROUND(123.2354,2)
---------------------

------------------------ ----------------------- -----------------------

123
SQL>

123

123.23

123.24

select round(123.2345,-1), round(123.2345,-2), round(123.2345,-3),

round(123.2345,-4) from dual;

ROUND(123.2345,-1) ROUND(123.2345,-2) ROUND(123.2345,-3) ROUND(123.2345,-4)

------------------------ ------------------------- -----------------------120

SQL>

100

------------------------

select round(123,0), round(123,1), round(123,2) from dual;

ROUND(123,0) ROUND(123,1) ROUND(123,2)
----------------- ----------------- ---------------123

SQL>

123

123

select round(-123,0), round(-123,1), round(-123,2) from dual;

ROUND(-123,0) ROUND(-123,1) ROUND(-123,2)
------------------ -----------------

-------------------

37
-123
SQL>

-123

-123

select round(123,-1), round(123,-2), round(123,-3), round(-123,-1), round(-123,2), round(-123,-3) from dual;

ROUND(123,-1) ROUND(123,-2) ROUND(123,-3) ROUND(-123,-1) ROUND(-123,-2)

ROUND(-123,-3)
------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- -------------- -------------120

100

-120

-100

SQL> select round(null,null), round(0,0), round(1,1), round(-1,-1), round(-2,-2) from

dual;
ROUND(NULL,NULL) ROUND(0,0) ROUND(1,1) ROUND(-1,-1) ROUND(-2,-2)
----------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------------- ---------------0
m)

TRUNC

This will truncates or chops off digits of precision from a number.

Syntax: trunc (value, precision)
Ex:
SQL>

select trunc(123.2345), trunc(123.2345,2), trunc(123.2354,2) from dual;

TRUNC(123.2345) TRUNC(123.2345,2) TRUNC(123.2354,2)
--------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------123

SQL>

123.23

123.23

select trunc(123.2345,-1), trunc(123.2345,-2), trunc(123.2345,-3),

trunc(123.2345,-4) from dual;

TRUNC(123.2345,-1) TRUNC(123.2345,-2) TRUNC(123.2345,-3) TRUNC(123.2345,-4)

------------------------ -----------------------120

100

----------------------- -----------------------0

38

SQL>

select trunc(123,0), trunc(123,1), trunc(123,2) from dual;

TRUNC(123,0) TRUNC(123,1) TRUNC(123,2)
---------------123

SQL>

---------------- ----------------123

123

select trunc(-123,0), trunc(-123,1), trunc(-123,2) from dual;

TRUNC(-123,0) TRUNC(-123,1) TRUNC(-123,2)
-----------------

----------------- -----------------

-123

SQL>

-123

-123

select trunc(123,-1), trunc(123,-2), trunc(123,-3), trunc(-123,-1), trunc(-123,2),

trunc(-123,-3) from dual;

TRUNC(123,-1) TRUNC(123,-2) TRUNC(123,-3) TRUNC(-123,-1) TRUNC(-123,2) TRUNC(123,-3)

------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- ------------- -------------120

SQL>

100

-120

-123

select trunc(null,null), trunc(0,0), trunc(1,1), trunc(-1,-1), trunc(-2,-2) from dual;

TRUNC(NULL,NULL) TRUNC(0,0) TRUNC(1,1) TRUNC(-1,-1) TRUNC(-2,-2)
----------------------- ------------- ------------- --------------- ---------------0

n)

BITAND

This will perform bitwise and operation.

Syntax: bitand (value1, value2)
Ex:
SQL>

select bitand(2,3), bitand(0,0), bitand(1,1), bitand(null,null), bitand(-2,-3) from

39
dual;
BITAND(2,3) BITAND(0,0) BITAND(1,1) BITAND(NULL,NULL) BITAND(-2,-3)
-------------- --------------- -------------2
o)

------------------------ -----------------

GREATEST

This will give the greatest number.

Syntax: greatest (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
Ex:
SQL>

select greatest(1, 2, 3), greatest(-1, -2, -3) from dual;

GREATEST(1,2,3) GREATEST(-1,-2,-3)
-------------------- ----------------------3

p)

-1

If all the values are zeros then it will display zero.

If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

LEAST

This will give the least number.

Syntax: least (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
Ex:
SQL>

select least(1, 2, 3), least(-1, -2, -3) from dual;

LEAST(1,2,3)

LEAST(-1,-2,-3)

-------------------- ----------------------1

-3

If all the values are zeros then it will display zero.

-4

40

q)

If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.-

If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

COALESCE

This will return first non-null value.

Syntax: coalesce (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
Ex:
SQL>

select coalesce(1,2,3), coalesce(null,2,null,5) from dual;

COALESCE(1,2,3) COALESCE(NULL,2,NULL,5)
-------------------

-------------------------------

STRING FUNCTIONS

Initcap

Upper

Lower

Length

Rpad

Lpad

Ltrim

Rtrim

Trim

Translate

Replace

Soundex

Concat ( || Concatenation operator)

Ascii

Chr

Substr

Instr

Decode

41

a)

Greatest

Least

Coalesce

INITCAP

This will capitalize the initial letter of the string.

Syntax: initcap (string)
Ex:
SQL>

select initcap('computer') from dual;

INITCAP
----------Computer

b)

UPPER

This will convert the string into uppercase.

Syntax: upper (string)
Ex:
SQL>

select upper('computer') from dual;

UPPER
----------COMPUTER

c)

LOWER

This will convert the string into lowercase.

Syntax: lower (string)
Ex:
SQL>

select lower('COMPUTER') from dual;

42

LOWER
----------computer
d)

LENGTH

This will give length of the string.

Syntax: length (string)
Ex:
SQL>

select length('computer') from dual;

LENGTH
----------8

e)

RPAD

This will allows you to pad the right side of a column with any set of characters.
Syntax: rpad (string, length, [ padding_char])
Ex:
SQL>

select rpad('computer',15,'*'), rpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;

RPAD('COMPUTER' RPAD('COMPUTER'
---------------------- ---------------------computer*******

computer*#*#*#*

-- Default padding character was blank space.

43
f)

LPAD

This will allows you to pad the left side of a column with any set of characters.
Syntax: lpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex:
SQL>

select lpad('computer',15,'*'), lpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;

LPAD('COMPUTER' LPAD('COMPUTER'
---------------------

---------------------

*******computer

*#*#*#*computer

-- Default padding character was blank space.

g)

LTRIM

This will trim off unwanted characters from the left end of string.
Syntax: ltrim (string , [unwanted_chars])
Ex:
SQL>

select ltrim('computer','co'), ltrim('computer','com') from dual;

LTRIM( LTRIM
-------- --------mputer

SQL>

puter

select ltrim('computer','puter'), ltrim('computer','omputer') from dual;

LTRIM('C LTRIM('C
---------computer

---------computer

-- If you havent specify any unwanted characters it will display entire string.

44
h)

RTRIM

This will trim off unwanted characters from the right end of string.
Syntax: rtrim (string [, unwanted_chars])
Ex:
SQL>

select rtrim('computer','er'), rtrim('computer','ter') from dual;

RTRIM( RTRIM
-------- --------comput

SQL>

compu

select rtrim('computer','comput), rtrim('computer','compute') from dual;

RTRIM('C RTRIM('C
---------computer

---------computer

-- If you havent specify any unwanted characters it will display entire string.
i)

TRIM

This will trim off unwanted characters from the both sides of string.
Syntax: trim (unwanted_chars from string)
Ex:
SQL>

select trim( 'i' from 'indiani') from dual;

TRIM(
----ndian

SQL>

select trim( leading'i' from 'indiani') from dual;

TRIM(L

-- this will work as

LTRIM

45
-----ndiani

SQL>

select trim( trailing'i' from 'indiani') from dual;

-- this will work as

TRIM(T
-----Indian
j)

TRANSLATE

This will replace the set of characters, character by character.

Syntax: translate (string, old_chars, new_chars)
Ex:
SQL>

select translate('india','in','xy') from dual;

TRANS
-------xydxa

k)

REPLACE

This will replace the set of characters, string by string.

Syntax: replace (string, old_chars [, new_chars])
Ex:
SQL>

select replace('india','in','xy'), replace(india,in) from dual;

REPLACE

REPLACE

----------- ----------Xydia

dia

RTRIM

46
l)

SOUNDEX

This will be used to find words that sound like other words, exclusively used in where clause.
Syntax: soundex (string)
Ex:
SQL>

select * from emp where soundex(ename) = soundex('SMIT');

EMPNO ENAME

JOB

MGR HIREDATE

-------- --------

-----

----- ------------

CLERK

7902

7369
m)

SMITH

17-DEC-80

SAL

DEPTNO

--------- ---------500

20

CONCAT

This will be used to combine two strings only.

Syntax: concat (string1, string2)
Ex:
SQL>

select concat('computer',' operator') from dual;

CONCAT('COMPUTER'
------------------------computer operator

If you want to combine more than two strings you have to use concatenation operator (||).

SQL>

select 'how' || ' are' || ' you' from dual;

'HOW'||'ARE
--------------how are you

n)

ASCII

47
This will return the decimal representation in the database character set of the first
character of the string.
Syntax: ascii (string)
Ex:
SQL>

select ascii('a'), ascii('apple') from dual;

ASCII('A') ASCII('APPLE')
------------ -----------------97

o)

97

CHR

This will return the character having the binary equivalent to the string in either the
database character set or the national character set.
Syntax: chr (number)
Ex:
SQL>

select chr(97) from dual;

CHR
----a

p)

SUBSTR

This will be used to extract substrings.

Syntax: substr (string, start_chr_count [, no_of_chars])
Ex:
SQL>

select substr('computer',2), substr('computer',2,5), substr('computer',3,7) from

dual;

48

SUBSTR( SUBST SUBSTR

---------- ------- -------omputer omput mputer

If no_of_chars parameter is negative then it will display nothing.

If both parameters except string are null or zeros then it will display nothing.

If no_of_chars parameter is greater than the length of the string then it ignores
and calculates based on the orginal string length.

q)

If start_chr_count is negative then it will extract the substring from right end.
1

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

INSTR

This will allows you for searching through a string for set of characters.
Syntax: instr (string, search_str [, start_chr_count [, occurrence] ])
Ex:
SQL>

select instr('information','o',4,1), instr('information','o',4,2) from dual;

INSTR('INFORMATION','O',4,1) INSTR('INFORMATION','O',4,2)
------------------------------------ ------------------------------------4

10

If you are not specifying start_chr_count and occurrence then it will start search from
the beginning and finds first occurrence only.

r)

If both parameters start_chr_count and occurrence are null, it will display nothing.

DECODE

Decode will act as value by value substitution.

For every value of field, it will checks for a match in a series of if/then tests.

49
Syntax: decode (value, if1, then1, if2, then2, . else);
Ex:
SQL>

select sal, decode(sal,500,'Low',5000,'High','Medium') from emp;

SAL

DECODE

-----

---------

500
2500

SQL>

Low
Medium

2000

Medium

3500

Medium

3000

Medium

5000

High

4000

Medium

5000

High

1800

Medium

1200

Medium

2000

Medium

2700

Medium

2200

Medium

3200

Medium

select decode(1,1,3), decode(1,2,3,4,4,6) from dual;

DECODE(1,1,3) DECODE(1,2,3,4,4,6)
----------------- -----------------------3
6

If the number of parameters are odd and different then decode will display nothing.

If the number of parameters are even and different then decode will display last
value.

s)

If all the parameters are null then decode will display nothing.

If all the parameters are zeros then decode will display zero.

GREATEST

This will give the greatest string.

50

Syntax: greatest (strng1, string2, string3 stringn)

Ex:
SQL>

select greatest('a', 'b', 'c'), greatest('satish','srinu','saketh') from dual;

GREAT GREAT
------- ------c

t)

srinu

If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

LEAST

This will give the least string.

Syntax: greatest (strng1, string2, string3 stringn)
Ex:
SQL>

select least('a', 'b', 'c'), least('satish','srinu','saketh') from dual;

LEAST LEAST
------- ------a

u)

saketh

If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.

If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.

COALESCE

This will gives the first non-null string.

Syntax: coalesce (strng1, string2, string3 stringn)

51

Ex:
SQL>

select coalesce('a','b','c'), coalesce(null,'a',null,'b') from dual;

COALESCE COALESCE
-----------

-----------

DATE FUNCTIONS

Sysdate

Current_date

Current_timestamp

Systimestamp

Localtimestamp

Dbtimezone

Sessiontimezone

To_char

To_date

Add_months

Months_between

Next_day

Last_day

Extract

Greatest

Least

Round

Trunc

New_time

Coalesce

Oracle default date format is

DD-MON-YY.

We can change the default format to our desired format by using the following command.

SQL>

alter session set nls_date_format = DD-MONTH-YYYY;

52
But this will expire once the session was closed.
a)

SYSDATE

This will give the current date and time.

Ex:
SQL>

select sysdate from dual;

SYSDATE
----------24-DEC-06

b)

CURRENT_DATE

This will returns the current date in the sessions timezone.

Ex:
SQL>

select current_date from dual;

CURRENT_DATE
-----------------24-DEC-06

c)

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

This will returns the current timestamp with the active time zone information.
Ex:
SQL>

select current_timestamp from dual;

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
--------------------------------------------------------------------------24-DEC-06 03.42.41.383369 AM +05:30

d)

SYSTIMESTAMP

53
This will returns the system date, including fractional seconds and time zone of the
database.
Ex:
SQL>

select systimestamp from dual;

SYSTIMESTAMP
--------------------------------------------------------------------------24-DEC-06 03.49.31.830099 AM +05:30

e)

LOCALTIMESTAMP

This will returns local timestamp in the active time zone information, with no time zone
information shown.
Ex:
SQL>

select localtimestamp from dual;

LOCALTIMESTAMP
--------------------------------------------------------------------------24-DEC-06 03.44.18.502874 AM

f)

DBTIMEZONE

This will returns the current database time zone in UTC format. (Coordinated Universal Time)
Ex:
SQL>

select dbtimezone from dual;

DBTIMEZONE
---------------07:00

g)

SESSIONTIMEZONE

This will returns the value of the current sessions time zone.
Ex:
SQL>

select sessiontimezone from dual;

54
SESSIONTIMEZONE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------+05:30

h)

TO_CHAR

This will be used to extract various date formats.

The available date formats as follows.
Syntax: to_char (date, format)
DATE FORMATS

--

No of days in week

DD

--

No of days in month

DDD

--

No of days in year

MM

--

No of month

MON

--

Three letter abbreviation of month

MONTH

--

Fully spelled out month

RM

--

Roman numeral month

DY

--

Three letter abbreviated day

DAY

--

Fully spelled out day

--

Last one digit of the year

YY

--

Last two digits of the year

YYY

--

Last three digits of the year

YYYY

--

Full four digit year

SYYYY

--

Signed year

--

One digit year from ISO standard

IY

--

Two digit year from ISO standard

IYY

--

Three digit year from ISO standard

IYYY

--

Four digit year from ISO standard

Y, YYY

--

Year with comma

YEAR

--

Fully spelled out year

CC

--

Century

--

No of quarters

55
W

--

No of weeks in month

WW

--

No of weeks in year

IW

--

No of weeks in year from ISO standard

HH

--

Hours

MI

--

Minutes

SS

--

Seconds

FF

--

Fractional seconds

--

Displays AM or PM depending upon time of day

--

Displays A.M or P.M depending upon time of day

--

Displays AD or BC depending upon the date

--

Displays AD or BC depending upon the date

FM

--

Prefix to month or day, suppresses padding of month or day

TH

--

Suffix to a number

SP

--

suffix to a number to be spelled out

SPTH

--

Suffix combination of TH and SP to be both spelled out

THSP

--

same as SPTH

or

AM
A.M
AD
A.D

PM

or

or
or

P.M

BC
B.C

Ex:
SQL>

select to_char(sysdate,'dd month yyyy hh:mi:ss am dy') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD MONTH YYYYHH:MI
---------------------------------------------------24 december 2006 02:03:23 pm sun

SQL>

select to_char(sysdate,'dd month year') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDMONTHYEAR')
------------------------------------------------------24 december two thousand six
SQL>

select to_char(sysdate,'dd fmmonth year') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD FMMONTH YEAR')
-------------------------------------------------------

56
24 december two thousand six
SQL>

select to_char(sysdate,'ddth DDTH') from dual;

TO_CHAR(S
-----------24th 24TH

SQL>

select to_char(sysdate,'ddspth DDSPTH') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPTHDDSPTH
-----------------------------------------twenty-fourth TWENTY-FOURTH

SQL>

select to_char(sysdate,'ddsp Ddsp DDSP ') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPDDSPDDSP')
-----------------------------------------------twenty-four Twenty-Four TWENTY-FOUR

i)

TO_DATE

This will be used to convert the string into data format.

Syntax: to_date (date)
Ex:
SQL>

select to_char(to_date('24/dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'dd * month * day') from

dual;
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('24/DEC/20
-------------------------24 * december * Sunday

57
-- If you are not using to_char oracle will display output in default date format.
j)

ADD_MONTHS

This will add the specified months to the given date.

Syntax: add_months (date, no_of_months)
Ex:
SQL>

select add_months(to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), 5) from dual;

ADD_MONTHS
---------------11-JUN-90

SQL>

select add_months(to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), -5) from dual;

ADD_MONTH
--------------11-AUG-89

k)

If no_of_months is zero then it will display the same date.

If no_of_months is null then it will display nothing.

MONTHS_BETWEEN

This will give difference of months between two dates.

Syntax: months_between (date1, date2)
Ex:
SQL>

select months_between(to_date('11-aug-1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), to_date('11-jan1990','dd-mon-yyyy')) from dual;

MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE('11-AUG-1990','DD-MON-YYYY'),TO_DATE('11-JAN1990','DD-MON-YYYY'))

58
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
SQL>

select months_between(to_date('11-jan-1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), to_date('11-aug1990','dd-mon-yyyy')) from dual;

MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE('11-JAN-1990','DD-MON-YYYY'),TO_DATE('11-AUG1990','DD-MON-YYYY'))
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
l)

NEXT_DAY

This will produce next day of the given day from the specified date.
Syntax: next_day (date, day)
Ex:
SQL>

select next_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-mon-yyyy'),'sun') from dual;

NEXT_DAY(
------------31-DEC-06

-- If the day parameter is null then it will display nothing.

m)

LAST_DAY

This will produce last day of the given date.

Syntax: last_day (date)
Ex:
SQL>

select last_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-mon-yyyy'),'sun') from dual;

LAST_DAY(

59
------------31-DEC-06

n)

EXTRACT

This is used to extract a portion of the date value.

Syntax: extract ((year | month | day | hour | minute | second), date)
Ex:
SQL>

select extract(year from sysdate) from dual;

EXTRACT(YEARFROMSYSDATE)
-----------------------------------2006

-- You can extract only one value at a time.

o)

GREATEST

This will give the greatest date.

Syntax: greatest (date1, date2, date3 daten)
Ex:
SQL>

select greatest(to_date('11-jan-90','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11-mar-90','dd-monyy'),to_date('11-apr-90','dd-mon-yy')) from dual;

GREATEST(
------------11-APR-90

p)

LEAST

60
This will give the least date.
Syntax: least (date1, date2, date3 daten)
Ex:
SQL>

select least(to_date('11-jan-90','dd-mon-yy'),to_date('11-mar-90','dd-monyy'),to_date('11-apr-90','dd-mon-yy')) from dual;

LEAST(
------------11-JAN-90

q)

ROUND

Round will rounds the date to which it was equal to or greater than the given date.
Syntax: round (date, (day | month | year))

If the second parameter was year then round will checks the month of the given date in the
following ranges.
JAN

--

JUN

JUL

--

DEC

If the month falls between JAN and JUN then it returns the first day of the current year.
If the month falls between JUL and DEC then it returns the first day of the next year.
If the second parameter was month then round will checks the day of the given date in the
following ranges.
1

--

15

16

--

31

If the day falls between 1 and 15 then it returns the first day of the current month.
If the day falls between 16 and 31 then it returns the first day of the next month.

61

If the second parameter was day then round will checks the week day of the given date in
the following ranges.
SUN

--

WED

THU

--

SUN

If the week day falls between SUN and WED then it returns the previous sunday.
If the weekday falls between THU and SUN then it returns the next sunday.

If the second parameter was null then it returns nothing.

If the you are not specifying the second parameter then round will resets the time to the
begining of the current day in case of user specified date.
If the you are not specifying the second parameter then round will resets the time to the

begining of the next day in case of sysdate.

Ex:
SQL>

select round(to_date('24-dec-04','dd-mon-yy'),'year'), round(to_date('11-mar06','dd-mon-yy'),'year') from dual;

ROUND(TO_ ROUND(TO_

SQL>

------------

---------------

01-JAN-05

01-JAN-06

select round(to_date('11-jan-04','dd-mon-yy'),'month'), round(to_date('18-jan04','dd-mon-yy'),'month') from dual;

ROUND(TO_ ROUND(TO_
------------- --------------01-JAN-04

SQL>

01-FEB-04

select round(to_date('26-dec-06','dd-mon-yy'),'day'), round(to_date('29-dec06','dd-mon-yy'),'day') from dual;

ROUND(TO_ ROUND(TO_
-------------- -------------24-DEC-06

31-DEC-06

62
SQL>

select to_char(round(to_date('24-dec-06','dd-mon-yy')), 'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am')

from dual;
TO_CHAR(ROUND(TO_DATE('
--------------------------------24 dec 2006 12:00:00 am

r)

TRUNC

Trunc will chops off the date to which it was equal to or less than the given date.
Syntax: trunc (date, (day | month | year))

If the second parameter was year then it always returns the first day of the current year.

If the second parameter was month then it always returns the first day of the current
month.

If the second parameter was day then it always returns the previous sunday.

If the second parameter was null then it returns nothing.

If the you are not specifying the second parameter then trunk will resets the time to the
begining of the current day.

Ex:
SQL>

select trunc(to_date('24-dec-04','dd-mon-yy'),'year'), trunc(to_date('11-mar06','dd-mon-yy'),'year') from dual;

TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- -------------01-JAN-04

SQL>

01-JAN-06

select trunc(to_date('11-jan-04','dd-mon-yy'),'month'), trunc(to_date('18-jan04','dd-mon-yy'),'month') from dual;

TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- ------------01-JAN-04

01-JAN-04

63
SQL>

select trunc(to_date('26-dec-06','dd-mon-yy'),'day'), trunc(to_date('29-dec-06','ddmon-yy'),'day') from dual;

TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- -------------24-DEC-06 24-DEC-06

SQL>

select to_char(trunc(to_date('24-dec-06','dd-mon-yy')), 'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am')

from dual;
TO_CHAR(TRUNC(TO_DATE('
--------------------------------24 dec 2006 12:00:00 am

s)

NEW_TIME

This will give the desired timezones date and time.

Syntax: new_time (date, current_timezone, desired_timezone)
Available timezones are as follows.
TIMEZONES

Ex:

AST/ADT

--

Atlantic standard/day light time

BST/BDT

--

Bering standard/day light time

CST/CDT

--

Central standard/day light time

EST/EDT

--

Eastern standard/day light time

GMT

--

Greenwich mean time

HST/HDT

--

Alaska-Hawaii standard/day light time

MST/MDT

--

Mountain standard/day light time

NST

--

Newfoundland standard time

PST/PDT

--

Pacific standard/day light time

YST/YDT

--

Yukon standard/day light time

64
SQL>

select to_char(new_time(sysdate,'gmt','yst'),'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;

TO_CHAR(NEW_TIME(SYSDAT
----------------------------------24 dec 2006 02:51:20 pm

SQL>

select to_char(new_time(sysdate,'gmt','est'),'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;

TO_CHAR(NEW_TIME(SYSDAT
----------------------24 dec 2006 06:51:26 pm

t)

COALESCE

This will give the first non-null date.

Syntax: coalesce (date1, date2, date3 daten)
Ex:
SQL>

select coalesce('12-jan-90','13-jan-99'), coalesce(null,'12-jan-90','23-mar-98',null)

from dual;
COALESCE( COALESCE(
------------- -----------12-jan-90

12-jan-90

MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS

a)

Uid

User

Vsize

Rank

Dense_rank

UID

This will returns the integer value corresponding to the user currently logged in.

65

Ex:
SQL>

select uid from dual;

UID
---------319

b)

USER

This will returns the logins user name.

Ex:
SQL>

select user from dual;

USER
---------------SAKETH

c)

VSIZE

This will returns the number of bytes in the expression.

Ex:
SQL>

select vsize(123), vsize('computer'), vsize('12-jan-90') from dual;

VSIZE(123) VSIZE('COMPUTER') VSIZE('12-JAN-90')
------------- ----------------------- ---------------------3

d)

RANK

This will give the non-sequential ranking.

Ex:

66
SQL>

select rownum,sal from (select sal from emp order by sal desc);
ROWNUM

SAL

---------- ----------

SQL>

5000

3000

3000

2975

2850

2450

1600

1500

1300

10

1250

11

1250

12

1100

13

1000

14

950

15

800

select rank(2975) within group(order by sal desc) from emp;

RANK(2975)WITHINGROUP(ORDERBYSALDESC)
--------------------------------------------------------4

d)

DENSE_RANK

This will give the sequential ranking.

Ex:
SQL>

select dense_rank(2975) within group(order by sal desc) from emp;

DENSE_RANK(2975)WITHINGROUP(ORDERBYSALDESC)
----------------------------------------------------------------3

67

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS

a)

Bin_to_num

Chartorowid

Rowidtochar

To_number

To_char

To_date

BIN_TO_NUM

This will convert the binary value to its numerical equivalent.

Syntax: bin_to_num( binary_bits)
Ex:
SQL>

select bin_to_num(1,1,0) from dual;

BIN_TO_NUM(1,1,0)
-----------------------6

b)

If all the bits are zero then it produces zero.

If all the bits are null then it produces an error.

CHARTOROWID

This will convert a character string to act like an internal oracle row identifier or rowid.
c)

ROWIDTOCHAR

This will convert an internal oracle row identifier or rowid to character string.
d)

TO_NUMBER

This will convert a char or varchar to number.

68

e)

TO_CHAR

This will convert a number or date to character string.

f)

TO_DATE

This will convert a number, char or varchar to a date.

GROUP FUNCTIONS

Sum

Avg

Max

Min

Count

Group functions will be applied on all the rows but produces single output.
a)

SUM

This will give the sum of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: sum (column)
Ex:
SQL>

select sum(sal) from emp;

SUM(SAL)
---------38600

b)

AVG

This will give the average of the values of the specified column.

69

Syntax: avg (column)

Ex:
SQL>

select avg(sal) from emp;

AVG(SAL)
--------------2757.14286

c)

MAX

This will give the maximum of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: max (column)
Ex:
SQL>

select max(sal) from emp;

MAX(SAL)
---------5000

d)

MIN

This will give the minimum of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: min (column)
Ex:
SQL>

select min(sal) from emp;

MIN(SAL)
---------500

e)

COUNT

70
This will give the count of the values of the specified column.
Syntax: count (column)
Ex:
SQL>

select count(sal),count(*) from emp;

COUNT(SAL)

COUNT(*)

--------------

------------

14

14

CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are categorized as follows.
Domain integrity constraints
Not null
Check

Entity integrity constraints

Unique
Primary key

Referential integrity constraints

Foreign key

Constraints are always attached to a column not a table.

We can add constraints in three ways.
Column level

-- along with the column definition

Table level

-- after the table definition

Alter level

-- using alter command

While adding constraints you need not specify the name but the type only, oracle will internally
name the constraint.

71
If you want to give a name to the constraint, you have to use the constraint clause.
NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values.
We can add this constraint in column level only.
Ex:
SQL>

create table student(no number(2) not null, name varchar(10), marks number(3));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) constraint nn not null, name varchar(10), marks
number(3));

CHECK
This is used to insert the values based on specified condition.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3) check

(marks > 300));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3) constraint ch

check(marks > 300));

TABLE LEVEL

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), check

(marks > 300));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

ch check(marks > 300));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL>

alter table student add check(marks>300);

SQL>

alter table student add constraint ch check(marks>300);

72
UNIQUE
This is used to avoid duplicates but it allow nulls.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) unique, name varchar(10), marks number(3));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) constraint un unique, name varchar(10), marks

number(3));

TABLE LEVEL

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3),

unique(no));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

un unique(no));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL>

alter table student add unique(no);

SQL>

alter table student add constraint un unique(no);

PRIMARY KEY
This is used to avoid duplicates and nulls. This will work as combination of unique and not null.
Primary key always attached to the parent table.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) primary key, name varchar(10), marks number(3));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) constraint pk primary key, name varchar(10),

marks number(3));

73
TABLE LEVEL

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3),

primary key(no));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

pk primary key(no));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL>

alter table student add primary key(no);

SQL>

alter table student add constraint pk primary key(no);

FOREIGN KEY
This is used to reference the parent table primary key column which allows duplicates.
Foreign key always attached to the child table.
We can add this constraint in table and alter levels only.
Ex:
TABLE LEVEL

SQL>

create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2),

primary key(empno), foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno));

SQL>

create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2),

constraint pk primary key(empno), constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references
dept(deptno));

ALTER LEVEL

SQL>

alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno);

SQL>

alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno);

Once the primary key and foreign key relationship has been created then you can not remove
any parent record if the dependent childs exists.
USING ON DELTE CASCADE
By using this clause you can remove the parent record even it childs exists.

74
Because when ever you remove parent record oracle automatically removes all its dependent
records from child table, if this clause is present while creating foreign key constraint.
Ex:
TABLE LEVEL

SQL>

create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2),

primary key(empno), foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete cascade);

SQL>

create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2),

constraint pk primary key(empno), constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references
dept(deptno) on delete cascade);

ALTER LEVEL

SQL>

alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete cascade;

SQL>

alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on

delete cascade;

COMPOSITE KEYS
A composite key can be defined on a combination of columns.
We can define composite keys on entity integrity and referential integrity constraints.
Composite key can be defined in table and alter levels only.
Ex:
UNIQUE (TABLE LEVEL)

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3),

unique(no,name));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

un unique(no,name));

UNIQUE (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL>

alter table student add unique(no,name);

SQL>

alter table student add constraint un unique(no,name);

75
PRIMARY KEY (TABLE LEVEL)

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3),

primary key(no,name));

SQL>

create table student(no number(2) , name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

pk primary key(no,name));

PRIMARY KEY (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL>

alter table student add primary key(no,anme);

SQL>

alter table student add constraint pk primary key(no,name);

FOREIGN KEY (TABLE LEVEL)

SQL>

create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), dname

varchar(10), primary key(empno), foreign key(deptno,dname) references
dept(deptno,dname));

SQL>

create table emp(empno number(2), ename varchar(10), deptno number(2), dname

varchar(10), constraint pk primary key(empno), constraint fk foreign
key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname));

FOREIGN KEY (ALTER LEVEL)

SQL>

alter table emp add foreign key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname);

SQL>

alter table emp add constraint fk foreign key(deptno,dname) references

dept(deptno,dname);

DEFERRABLE CONSTRAINTS
Each constraint has two additional attributes to support deferred checking of constraints.

Deferred initially immediate

Deferred initially deferred

Deferred initially immediate checks for constraint violation at the time of insert.
Deferred initially deferred checks for constraint violation at the time of commit.

76

Ex:
SQL>

create table student(no number(2), name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

un unique(no) deferred initially immediate);

SQL>

create table student(no number(2), name varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint

un unique(no) deferred initially deferred);

SQL>

alter table student add constraint un unique(no) deferrable initially deferred;

SQL>

set constraints all immediate;

This will enable all the constraints violations at the time of inserting.
SQL>

set constraints all deferred;

This will enable all the constraints violations at the time of commit.
OPERATIONS WITH CONSTRAINTS
Possible operations with constraints as follows.

Enable

Disable

Enforce

Drop

ENABLE

This will enable the constraint. Before enable, the constraint will check the existing data.
Ex:
SQL>

alter table student enable constraint un;

DISABLE

This will disable the constraint.

Ex:

77
SQL>

alter table student enable constraint un;

ENFORCE

This will enforce the constraint rather than enable for future inserts or updates.
This will not check for existing data while enforcing data.
Ex:
SQL>

alter table student enforce constraint un;

DROP

This will remove the constraint.

Ex:
SQL>

alter table student drop constraint un;

Once the table is dropped, constraints automatically will drop.

78

CASE AND DEFAULT

CASE
Case is similar to decode but easier to understand while going through coding
Ex:
SQL>

Select sal,
Case sal
When 500 then low
When 5000 then high
Else medium
End case
From emp;
SAL

CASE

-----

--------

500

low

2500

medium

2000

medium

3500

medium

3000

medium

79
5000

high

4000

medium

5000

high

1800

medium

1200

medium

2000

medium

2700

medium

2200

medium

3200

medium

DEFAULT
Default can be considered as a substitute behavior of not null constraint when applied to new
rows being entered into the table.
When you define a column with the default keyword followed by a value, you are actually
telling the database that, on insert if a row was not assigned a value for this column, use the
default value that you have specified.
Default is applied only during insertion of new rows.
Ex:
SQL>

create table student(no number(2) default 11,name varchar(2));

SQL>

insert into student values(1,'a');

SQL>

insert into student(name) values('b');

SQL>

select * from student;

NO

NAME

------ --------1

11

SQL>

insert into student values(null, c);

SQL>

select * from student;

80

NO

NAME

------ --------1

11

b
C

-- Default can not override nulls.

ABSTRACT DATA TYPES

Some times you may want type which holds all types of data including numbers, chars and
special characters something like this. You can not achieve this using pre-defined types.
You can define custom types which holds your desired data.
Ex:
Suppose in a table we have address column which holds hno and city information.
We will define a custom type which holds both numeric as well as char data.
CREATING ADT

SQL>

create type addr as object(hno number(3),city varchar(10)); /

CREATING TABLE BASED ON ADT

SQL>

create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2),address addr);

INSERTING DATA INTO ADT TABLES

SQL>

insert into student values(1,'a',addr(111,'hyd'));

SQL>

insert into student values(2,'b',addr(222,'bang'));

SQL>

insert into student values(3,'c',addr(333,'delhi'));

81
SELECTING DATA FROM ADT TABLES

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME ADDRESS(HNO, CITY)

--- ------- ------------------------1

ADDR(111, 'hyd')

ADDR(222, 'bang')

ADDR(333, 'delhi')

SQL>

select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from student s;

NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY

---- ------- ----------------- ---------------1

111

hyd

222

bang

333

delhi

UPDATE WITH ADT TABLES

SQL>

update student s set s.address.city = 'bombay' where s.address.hno = 333;

SQL>

select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from student s;

NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY
---- ------- ----------------- ---------------1

111

hyd

222

bang

333

bombay

DELETE WITH ADT TABLES

SQL>

delete student s where s.address.hno = 111;

SQL>

select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from student s;

NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY
---- ------- ----------------- ---------------2

222

bang

82
3

333

bombay

DROPPING ADT

SQL>

drop type addr;

OBJECT VIEWS AND METHODS

OBJECT VIEWS
If you want to implement objects with the existing table, object views come into picture.
You define the object and create a view which relates this object to the existing table nothing
but object view.
Object views are used to relate the user defined objects to the existing table.
Ex:
1) Assume that the table student has already been created with the following columns
SQL>

create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10),hno number(3),city

varchar(10));

2) Create the following types

SQL>

create type addr as object(hno number(2),city varchar(10));/

SQL>

create type stud as object(name varchar(10),address addr);/

3) Relate the objects to the student table by creating the object view
SQL>

create view student_ov(no,stud_info) as select no,stud(name,addr(hno,city)) from

student;

4) Now you can insert data into student table in two ways
a) By regular insert
SQL>

Insert into student values(1,sudha,111,hyd);

b) By using object view

83
SQL>

Insert into student_ov values(1,stud(sudha,addr(111,hyd)));

METHODS
You can define methods which are nothing but functions in types and apply in the tables which
holds the types;
Ex:
1) Defining methods in types
SQL>

Create type stud as object(name varchar(10),marks number(3),

Member function makrs_f(marks in number) return number,
Pragma restrict_references(marks_f,wnds,rnds,wnps,fnps));/

2) Defining type body

SQL>

Create type body stud as

Member function marks_f(marks in number) return number is
Begin
Return (marks+100);
End marks_f;
End;/

3) Create a table using stud type

SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),info stud);

4) Insert some data into student table

SQL>

Insert into student values(1,stud(sudha,100));

5) Using method in select

SQL>

Select s.info.marks_f(s.info.marks) from student s;

-- Here we are using the pragma restrict_references to avoid the writes to the database.

84

VARRAYS AND NESTED TABLES

VARRAYS
A varying array allows you to store repeating attributes of a record in a single row but with
limit.
Ex:
1) We can create varrays using oracle types as well as user defined types.
a) Varray using pre-defined types
SQL>

Create type va as varray(5) of varchar(10);/

b) Varrays using user defined types

SQL>

Create type addr as object(hno number(3),city varchar(10));/

SQL>

Create type va as varray(5) of addr;/

2) Using varray in table

SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10),address va);

3) Inserting values into varray table

SQL>

Insert into student values(1,sudha,va(addr(111,hyd)));

SQL>

Insert into student values(2,jagan,va(addr(111,hyd),addr(222,bang)));

4) Selecting data from varray table

SQL>

Select * from student;

-- This will display varray column data along with varray and adt;
SQL>

Select no,name, s.* from student s1, table(s1.address) s;

-- This will display in general format

5) Instead of s.* you can specify the columns in varray

85
SQL>

Select no,name, s.hno,s.city from student s1,table(s1.address) s;

-- Update and delete not possible in varrays.

-- Here we used table function which will take the varray column as input for producing
output excluding varray and types.

NESTED TABLES
A nested table is, as its name implies, a table within a table. In this case it is a table that is
represented as a column within another table.
Nested table has the same effect of varrays but has no limit.
Ex:
1) We can create nested tables using oracle types and user defined types which has no limit
a) Nested tables using pre-defined types
SQL>

Create type nt as table of varchar(10);/

b) Nested tables using user defined types

SQL>

Create type addr as object(hno number(3),city varchar(10));/

SQL>

Create type nt as table of addr;/

2) Using nested table in table

SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10),address nt) nested table

address store as student_temp;

3) Inserting values into table which has nested table

SQL>

Insert into student values (1,sudha,nt(addr(111,hyd)));

SQL>

Insert into student values (2,jagan,nt(addr(111,hyd),addr(222,bang)));

4) Selecting data from table which has nested table

SQL>

Select * from student;

-- This will display nested table column data along with nested table and adt;
SQL>

Select no,name, s.* from student s1, table(s1.address) s;

-- This will display in general format

5) Instead of s.* you can specify the columns in nested table
SQL>

Select no,name, s.hno,s.city from student s1,table(s1.address) s;

86
6) Inserting nested table data to the existing row
SQL>

Insert into table(select address from student where no=1)

values(addr(555,chennai));

7) Update in nested tables

SQL>

Update table(select address from student where no=2) s set s.city=bombay where
s.hno = 222;

8) Delete in nested table

SQL>

Delete table(select address from student where no=3) s where s.hno=333;

DATA MODEL

ALL_COLL_TYPES

ALL_TYPES

DBA_COLL_TYPES

DBA_TYPES

USER_COLL_TYPES

USER_TYPES

87

FLASHBACK QUERY
Used to retrieve the data which has been already committed with out going for recovery.
Flashbacks are of two types

Time base flashback

SCN based flashback (SCN stands for System Change Number)

Ex:
1) Using time based flashback
a)

SQL>

Select *from student;

-- This will display all the rows

b)

SQL>

Delete student;

c)

SQL>

Commit;

d)

SQL>

Select *from student;

-- this will commit the work.

-- Here it will display nothing

e) Then execute the following procedures
f)

SQL>

Exec dbms_flashback.enable_at_time(sysdate-2/1440)

SQL>

Select *from student;

-- Here it will display the lost data

-- The lost data will come but the current system time was used
g)

SQL>

Exec dbms_flashback.disable

-- Here we have to disable the flashback to enable it again

88

2) Using SCN based flashback

a) Declare a variable to store SCN
SQL>

Variable s number

b) Get the SCN

SQL>

Exec :s := exec dbms_flashback.get_system_change_number

c) To see the SCN

SQL>

Print s

d) Then execute the following procedures

SQL>

Exec dbms_flashback.enable_at_system_change_number(:s)

SQL>

Exec dbms_flashback.disable

EXTERNAL TABLES
You can user external table feature to access external files as if they are tables inside the
database.
When you create an external table, you define its structure and location with in oracle.
When you query the table, oracle reads the external table and returns the results just as if the
data had been stored with in the database.
ACCESSING EXTERNAL TABLE DATA
To access external files from within oracle, you must first use the create directory command to
define a directory object pointing to the external file location
Users who will access the external files must have the read and write privilege on the
directory.
Ex:
CREATING DIRECTORY AND OS LEVEL FILE

SQL>

Sqlplus system/manager

SQL>

Create directory saketh_dir as /Visdb/visdb/9.2.0/external;

SQL>

Grant all on directory saketh_dir to saketh;

SQL>

Conn saketh/saketh

SQL>

Spool dept.lst

SQL>

Select deptno || , || dname || , || loc from dept;

89
SQL>

Spool off

CREATING EXTERNAL TABLE

SQL>

Create table dept_ext

(deptno number(2),
Dname varchar(14),
Loc varchar(13))
Organization external ( type oracle_loader
Default directory saketh_dir
Access parameters
( records delimited by newline
Fields terminated by ,
( deptno number(2),
Dname varchar(14),
Loc varchar(13)))
Location (/Visdb/visdb/9.2.0/dept.lst));

SELECTING DATA FROM EXTERNAL TABLE

SQL>

select * from dept_ext;

This will read from dept.lst which is a operating system level file.
LIMITATIONS ON EXTERNAL TABLES

a) You can not perform insert, update, and delete operations

a) Indexing not possible
b) Constraints not possible
BENEFITS OF EXTERNAL TABLES

a) Queries of external tables complete very quickly even though a full table scan id required
with each access
b) You can join external tables to each other or to standard tables

90

REF DEREF VALUE

REF

The ref function allows referencing of existing row objects.

Each of the row objects has an object id value assigned to it.

The object id assigned can be seen by using ref function.

DEREF

The deref function performs opposite action.

It takes a reference value of object id and returns the value of the row objects.

VALUE

Even though the primary table is object table, still it displays the rows in general format.

To display the entire structure of the object, this will be used.

Ex:
1) create vendot_adt type
SQL>

Create type vendor_adt as object (vendor_code number(2), vendor_name

varchar(2), vendor_address varchar(10));/

2) create object tables vendors and vendors1

91
SQL>

Create table vendors of vendor_adt;

SQL>

Create table vendors1 of vendor_adt;

3) insert the data into object tables

SQL>

insert into vendors values(1, a, hyd);

SQL>

insert into vendors values(2, b, bang);

SQL>

insert into vendors1 values(3, c, delhi);

SQL>

insert into vendors1 values(4, d, chennai);

4) create another table orders which holds the vendor_adt type also.
SQL>

Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt);

Or

SQL>

Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt with rowid);

5) insert the data into orders table

The vendor_info column in the following syntaxes will store object id of any table which
is referenced by vendor_adt object ( both vendors and vendors1).

SQL>

insert into orders values(11,(select ref(v) from vendors v where vendor_code = 1));

SQL>

insert into orders values(12,(select ref(v) from vendors v where vendor_code = 2));

SQL>

insert into orders values(13,(select ref(v1) from vendors1 v1 where vendor_code =

1));

SQL>

insert into orders values(14,(select ref(v1) from vendors1 v1 where vendor_code =

1));

6) To see the object ids of vendor table

SQL>

Select ref(V) from vendors v;

7) If you see the vendor_info of orders it will show only the object ids not the values, to see
the values
SQL>

Select deref(o.vendor_info) from orders o;

8) Even though the vendors table is object table it will not show the adt along with data, to
see the data along with the adt
SQL>Select

* from vendors;

This will give the data without adt.

SQL>Select

value(v) from vendors v;

This will give the columns data along wih the type.
REF CONSTRAINTS

92

Ref can also acts as constraint.

Even though vendors1 also holding vendor_adt, the orders table will store the object ids of
vendors only because it is constrained to that table only.
The vendor_info column in the following syntaxes will store object ids of vendors only.
SQL>

Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt scope is

vendors);
Or

SQL>

Create table orders (order_no number(2), vendor_info ref vendor_adt constraint fk

references vendors);

OBJECT VIEWS WITH REFERENCES

To implement the objects and the ref constraints to the existing tables, what we can do?
Simply drop the both tables and recreate with objects and ref constrains.
But you can achieve this with out dropping the tables and without losing the data by creating
object views with references.
Ex:
a) Create the following tables
SQL>

Create table student1(no number(2) primary key,name varchar(2),marks

number(3));

SQL>

Create table student2(no number(2) primary key,hno number(3),city varchar(10),id

number(2),foreign Key(id) references student1(no));

b) Insert the records into both tables

SQL>

insert into student1(1,a,100);

SQL>

insert into student1(2,b,200);

SQL>

insert into student2(11,111,hyd,1);

SQL>

insert into student2(12,222,bang,2);

SQL>

insert into student2(13,333,bombay,1);

c) Create the type

SQL>

create or replace type stud as object(no number(2),name varchar(2),marks

93
number(3));/
d) Generating OIDs
SQL>

Create or replace view student1_ov of stud with object identifier(or id) (no) as
Select * from Student1;

e) Generating references
SQL>

Create or replace view student2_ov as select no,hno,city,make_ref(student1_ov,id)

id from Student2;

d) Query the following

SQL>

select *from student1_ov;

SQL>

select ref(s) from student1_ov s;

SQL>

select values(s) from student1_ov;

SQ>

select *from student2_ov;

SQL>

select deref(s.id) from student2_ov s;

PARTITIONS
A single logical table can be split into a number of physically separate pieces based on ranges
of key values. Each of the parts of the table is called a partition.
A non-partitioned table can not be partitioned later.
TYPES

Range partitions

List partitions

Hash partitions

Sub partitions

ADVANTAGES

Reducing downtime for scheduled maintenance, which allows maintenance operations to

be carried out on selected partitions while other partitions are available to users.

Reducing downtime due to data failure, failure of a particular partition will no way affect
other partitions.

Partition independence allows for concurrent use of the various partitions for various
purposes.

94
ADVANTAGES OF PARTITIONS BY STORING THEM IN DIFFERENT TABLESPACES

Reduces the possibility of data corruption in multiple partitions.

Back up and recovery of each partition can be done independently.

DISADVANTAGES

Partitioned tables cannot contain any columns with long or long raw datatypes, LOB
types or object types.

RANGE PARTITIONS
a) Creating range partitioned table
SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2)) partition by range(no) (partition

p1 values less than(10), partition p2 values less than(20), partition p3 values less
than(30),partition p4 values less than(maxvalue));

** if you are using maxvalue for the last partition, you can not add a partition.
b) Inserting records into range partitioned table
SQL>

Insert into student values(1,a);

-- this will go to p1

SQL>

Insert into student values(11,b);

-- this will go to p2

SQL>

Insert into student values(21,c);

-- this will go to p3

SQL>

Insert into student values(31,d);

-- this will go to p4

c) Retrieving records from range partitioned table

SQL>

Select *from student;

SQL>

Select *from student partition(p1);

d) Possible operations with range partitions

Add
Drop
Truncate
Rename
Split

95
Move
Exchange
e) Adding a partition
SQL>

Alter table student add partition p5 values less than(40);

f) Dropping a partition
SQL>

Alter table student drop partition p4;

g) Renaming a partition
SQL>

Alter table student rename partition p3 to p6;

h) Truncate a partition
SQL>

Alter table student truncate partition p6;

i) Splitting a partition
SQL>

Alter table student split partition p2 at(15) into (partition p21,partition p22);

j) Exchanging a partition
SQL>

Alter table student exchange partition p1 with table student2;

k) Moving a partition
SQL>

Alter table student move partition p21 tablespace saketh_ts;

LIST PARTITIONS
a) Creating list partitioned table
SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2)) partition by list(no) (partition p1

values(1,2,3,4,5), partition p2 values(6,7,8,9,10),partition p3 values(11,12,13,14,15),

partition p4 values(16,17,18,19,20));
b) Inserting records into list partitioned table
SQL>

Insert into student values(1,a);

-- this will go to p1

SQL>

Insert into student values(6,b);

-- this will go to p2

SQL>

Insert into student values(11,c);

-- this will go to p3

SQL>

Insert into student values(16,d);

-- this will go to p4

c) Retrieving records from list partitioned table

SQL>

Select *from student;

SQL>

Select *from student partition(p1);

d) Possible operations with list partitions

Add
Drop
Truncate

96
Rename
Move
Exchange
e) Adding a partition
SQL>

Alter table student add partition p5 values(21,22,23,24,25);

f) Dropping a partition
SQL>

Alter table student drop partition p4;

g) Renaming a partition
SQL>

Alter table student rename partition p3 to p6;

h) Truncate a partition
SQL>

Alter table student truncate partition p6;

i) Exchanging a partition
SQL>

Alter table student exchange partition p1 with table student2;

j) Moving a partition
SQL>

Alter table student move partition p2 tablespace saketh_ts;

HASH PARTITIONS
a) Creating hash partitioned table
SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2)) partition by hash(no) partitions

5;

Here oracle automatically gives partition names like

SYS_P1
SYS_P2
SYS_P3
SYS_P4
SYS_P5
b) Inserting records into hash partitioned table
it will insert the records based on hash function calculated by taking the partition key
SQL>

Insert into student values(1,a);

SQL>

Insert into student values(6,b);

SQL>

Insert into student values(11,c);

SQL>

Insert into student values(16,d);

c) Retrieving records from hash partitioned table

SQL>

Select *from student;

97
SQL>

Select *from student partition(sys_p1);

d) Possible operations with hash partitions

Add
Truncate
Rename
Move
Exchange
e) Adding a partition
SQL>

Alter table student add partition p6 ;

f) Renaming a partition
SQL>

Alter table student rename partition p6 to p7;

g) Truncate a partition
SQL>

Alter table student truncate partition p7;

h) Exchanging a partition
SQL>

Alter table student exchange partition sys_p1 with table student2;

i) Moving a partition
SQL>

Alter table student move partition sys_p2 tablespace saketh_ts;

SUB-PARTITIONS WITH RANGE AND HASH

Subpartitions clause is used by hash only. We can not create subpartitions with list and hash
partitions.
a) Creating subpartitioned table
SQL>

Create table student(no number(2),name varchar(2),marks number(3))

Partition by range(no) subpartition by hash(name) subpartitions 3
(Partition p1 values less than(10),partition p2 values less than(20));

This will create two partitions p1 and p2 with three subpartitions for each partition
P1

SYS_SUBP1
SYS_SUBP2
SYS_SUBP3

P2

SYS_SUBP4
SYS_SUBP5
SYS_SUBP6

98
** if you are using maxvalue for the last partition, you can not add a partition.
b) Inserting records into subpartitioned table
SQL>

Insert into student values(1,a);

-- this will go to p1

SQL>

Insert into student values(11,b);

-- this will go to p2

c) Retrieving records from subpartitioned table

SQL>

Select *from student;

SQL>

Select *from student partition(p1);

SQL>

Select *from student subpartition(sys_subp1);

d) Possible operations with subpartitions

Add
Drop
Truncate
Rename
Split
e) Adding a partition
SQL>

Alter table student add partition p3 values less than(30);

f) Dropping a partition
SQL>

Alter table student drop partition p3;

g) Renaming a partition
SQL>

Alter table student rename partition p2 to p3;

h) Truncate a partition
SQL>

Alter table student truncate partition p1;

i) Splitting a partition
SQL>

Alter table student split partition p3 at(15) into (partition p31,partition p32);

DATA MODEL

ALL_IND_PARTITIONS

ALL_IND_SUBPARTITIONS

ALL_TAB_PARTITIONS

ALL_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS

DBA_IND_PARTITIONS

DBA_IND_SUBPARTITIONS

DBA_TAB_PARTITIONS

DBA_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS

99

USER_IND_PARTITIONS

USER_IND_SUBPARTITIONS

USER_TAB_PARTITIONS

USER_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS

GROUP BY AND HAVING

GROUP BY
Using group by, we can create groups of related information.
Columns used in select must be used with group by, otherwise it was not a group by
expression.
Ex:
SQL>

select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;

DEPTNO

SUM(SAL)

---------- ----------

SQL>

10

8750

20

10875

30

9400

select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno,job;

DEPTNO JOB

SUM(SAL)

100
---------- ---------

----------

10

CLERK

1300

10

MANAGER

2450

10

PRESIDENT

5000

20

ANALYST

6000

20

CLERK

1900

20

MANAGER

2975

30

CLERK

30

MANAGER

2850

30

SALESMAN

5600

950

HAVING
This will work as where clause which can be used only with group by because of absence of
where clause in group by.
Ex:
SQL>

select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group by deptno,job having sum(sal) > 3000;
DEPTNO

JOB

TSAL

---------- ---------

SQL>

----------

10

PRESIDENT

5000

20

ANALYST

6000

30

SALESMAN

5600

select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group by deptno,job having sum(sal) > 3000
order by job;
DEPTNO

JOB

---------- ---------

TSAL
----------

20

ANALYST

6000

10

PRESIDENT

5000

30

SALESMAN

5600

ORDER OF EXECUTION

101

Group the rows together based on group by clause.

Calculate the group functions for each group.

Choose and eliminate the groups based on the having clause.

Order the groups based on the specified column.

ROLLUP GROUPING CUBE

These are the enhancements to the group by feature.

USING ROLLUP
This will give the salaries in each department in each job category along wih the total salary
fot individual departments and the total salary of all the departments.
SQL>

Select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(deptno,job);

DEPTNO

JOB

---------- ---------

SUM(SAL)
----------

10

CLERK

1300

10

MANAGER

2450

10

PRESIDENT

5000

10

8750

20

ANALYST

6000

20

CLERK

1900

102
20

MANAGER

20

2975
10875

30

CLERK

30

MANAGER

2850

30

SALESMAN

5600

30

950

9400
29025

USING GROUPING
In the above query it will give the total salary of the individual departments but with a
blank in the job column and gives the total salary of all the departments with blanks in
deptno and job columns.
To replace these blanks with your desired string grouping will be used
SQL>

select decode(grouping(deptno),1,'All Depts',deptno),decode(grouping(job),1,'All

jobs',job),sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(deptno,job);
DECODE(GROUPING(DEPTNO),1,'ALLDEPTS',DEP DECODE(GR
----------------------------------- ---------------------------------10

CLERK

SUM(SAL)
-------------1300

10

MANAGER

2450

10

PRESIDENT

5000

10

All jobs

8750

20

ANALYST

6000

20

CLERK

1900

20

MANAGER

2975

20

All jobs

30

CLERK

30

MANAGER

2850

30

SALESMAN

5600

30

All jobs

9400

All Depts

All jobs

29025

10875
950

Grouping will return 1 if the column which is specified in the grouping function has been

103
used in rollup.
Grouping will be used in association with decode.
USING CUBE
This will give the salaries in each department in each job category, the total salary for
individual departments, the total salary of all the departments and the salaries in each job
category.

SQL>

select decode(grouping(deptno),1,All Depts,deptno),decode(grouping(job),1,All

Jobs,job),sum(sal) from emp group by cube(deptno,job);
DECODE(GROUPING(DEPTNO),1,'ALLDEPTS',DEP DECODE(GR

SUM(SAL)

----------------------------------- ------------------------------------ -----------10

CLERK

1300

10

MANAGER

2450

10

PRESIDENT

5000

10

All Jobs

8750

20

ANALYST

6000

20

CLERK

1900

20

MANAGER

2975

20

All Jobs

30

CLERK

30

MANAGER

30

SALESMAN

5600

30

All Jobs

9400

All Depts

ANALYST

6000

All Depts

CLERK

4150

All Depts

MANAGER

8275

All Depts

PRESIDENT

5000

All Depts

SALESMAN

5600

All Depts

All Jobs

10875
950
2850

29025

104

SET OPERATORS
TYPES

Union

Union all

Intersect

Minus

UNION
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student1 union select * from student2;

UNION ALL

105
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the same structure but including
duplicates.
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student1 union all select * from student2;

INTERSECT
This will give the common records of multiple tables having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student1 intersect select * from student2;

MINUS
This will give the records of a table whose records are not in other tables having the same
structure.
Ex:
SQL>

select * from student1 minus select * from student2;

106

VIEWS
A view is a database object that is a logical representation of a table. It is delivered from a
table but has no storage of its own and often may be used in the same manner as a table.
A view takes the output of the query and treats it as a table, therefore a view can be thought of
as a stored query or a virtual table.
TYPES

Simple view

Complex view

Simple view can be created from one table where as complex view can be created from
multiple tables.
WHY VIEWS?

Provides additional level of security by restricting access to a predetermined set of rows

and/or columns of a table.

107

Hide the data complexity.

Simplify commands for the user.

VIEWS WITHOUT DML

Read only view

View with group by

View with aggregate functions

View with rownum

Partition view

View with distinct

Ex:
SQL>

Create view dept_v as select *from dept with read only;

SQL>

Create view dept_v as select deptno, sum(sal) t_sal from emp group by deptno;

SQL>

Create view stud as select rownum no, name, marks from student;

SQL>

Create view student as select *from student1 union select *from student2;

SQL>

Create view stud as select distinct no,name from student;

VIEWS WITH DML

View with not null column -- insert with out not null column not possible
-- update not null column to null is not possible
-- delete possible

View with out not null column which was in base table -- insert not possible
-- update, delete possible

View with expression -- insert , update not possible

-- delete possible

View with functions (except aggregate) -- insert, update not possible

-- delete possible

View was created but the underlying table was dropped then we will get the message
like view has errors .

View was created but the base table has been altered but still the view was with the
initial definition, we have to replace the view to affect the changes.

Complex view (view with more than one table) -- insert not possible
-- update, delete possible (not always)

108

CREATING VIEW WITHOUT HAVING THE BASE TABLE

SQL>

Create force view stud as select *From student;

-- Once the base table was created then the view is validated.
VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT

SQL>

Create view stud as select *from student where marks = 500 with check option constraint
Ck;

- Insert possible with marks value as 500

- Update possible excluding marks column
- Delete possible
DROPPING VIEWS

SQL>

drop view dept_v;

SYNONYM AND SEQUENCE

SYNONYM
A synonym is a database object, which is used as an alias for a table, view or sequence.
TYPES

Private

Public

Private synonym is available to the particular user who creates.

Public synonym is created by DBA which is available to all the users.
ADVANTAGES

Hide the name and owner of the object.

Provides location transparency for remote objects of a distributed database.

109
CREATE AND DROP

SQL>

create synonym s1 for emp;

SQL>

create public synonym s2 for emp;

SQL>

drop synonym s1;

SEQUENCE
A sequence is a database object, which can generate unique, sequential integer values.
It can be used to automatically generate primary key or unique key values.
A sequence can be either in an ascending or descending order.
Syntax:
Create sequence <seq_name> [increment bty n] [start with n] [maxvalue n] [minvalue n]
[cycle/nocycle] [cache/nocache];
By defalult the sequence starts with 1, increments by 1 with minvalue of 1 and with nocycle,
nocache.
Cache option pre-alloocates a set of sequence numbers and retains them in memory for faster
access.
Ex:
SQL>

create sequence s;

SQL>

create sequence s increment by 10 start with 100 minvalue 5 maxvalue 200 cycle
cache 20;

USING SEQUENCE

SQL>

create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10));

SQL>

insert into student values(s.nextval, saketh);

Initially currval is not defined and nextval is starting value.

After that nextval and currval are always equal.

CREATING ALPHA-NUMERIC SEQUENCE

110
SQL>

create sequence s start with 111234;

SQL>

Insert into student values (s.nextval || translate

(s.nextval,1234567890,abcdefghij));

ALTERING SEQUENCE

We can alter the sequence to perform the following.

Set or eliminate minvalue or maxvalue.

Change the increment value.

Change the number of cached sequence numbers.

Ex:
SQL>

alter sequence s minvalue 5;

SQL>

alter sequence s increment by 2;

SQL>

alter sequence s cache 10;

DROPPING SEQUENCE

SQL>

drop sequence s;

JOINS
The purpose of a join is to combine the data across tables.
A join is actually performed by the where clause which combines the specified rows of tables.
If a join involves in more than two tables then oracle joins first two tables based on the joins
condition and then compares the result with the next table and so on.
TYPES
Equi join
Non-equi join
Self join
Natural join
Cross join
Outer join

Left outer

Right outer

111

Full outer

Inner join
Using clause
On clause
Assume that we have the following tables.
SQL>

select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

------ ---------- ----------

SQL>

10

mkt

hyd

20

fin

bang

30

hr

bombay

select * from emp;

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

222

sudha

333
444

analyst

444

10

clerk

333

20

jagan

manager

111

10

madhu

engineer

222

40

EQUI JOIN
A join which contains an = operator in the joins condition.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno=d.deptno;

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

112

USING CLAUSE

SQL>

select empno,ename,job ,dname,loc from emp e join dept d using(deptno);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

ON CLAUSE

SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e join dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

NON-EQUI JOIN
A join which contains an operator other than = in the joins condition.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno > d.deptno;

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------222

sudha

clerk

mkt

hyd

444

madhu

engineer

mkt

hyd

444

madhu

engineer

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer

hr

bombay

113
SELF JOIN
Joining the table itself is called self join.
Ex:
SQL>

select e1.empno,e2.ename,e1.job,e2.deptno from emp e1,emp e2 where

e1.empno=e2.mgr;
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

jagan

analyst

10

222

madhu

clerk

40

333

sudha

manager

20

444

saketh

engineer

10

NATURAL JOIN
Natural join compares all the common columns.

Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp natural join dept;

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

CROSS JOIN
This will gives the cross product.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp cross join dept;

114
EMPNO ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

444

madhu

engineer

mkt

hyd

111

saketh

analyst

fin

bang

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

333

jagan

manager

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer

fin

bang

111

saketh

analyst

hr

bombay

222

sudha

clerk

hr

bombay

333

jagan

manager

hr

bombay

444

madhu

engineer

hr

bombay

OUTER JOIN
Outer join gives the non-matching records along with matching records.

LEFT OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the records which are in left hand side table
those that are not in right hand side table.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e left outer join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or

SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno=d.deptno(+);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

115
222

sudha

clerk

fin

444

madhu

engineer

bang

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the records which are in right hand side table
those that are not in left hand side table.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e right outer join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or

SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e,dept d where e.deptno(+) = d.deptno;

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

hr

bombay

FULL OUTER JOIN

This will display the all matching records and the non-matching records from both tables.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e full outer join dept d

on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

444

madhu

engineer
hr

bombay

116
INNER JOIN
This will display all the records that have matched.
Ex:
SQL>

select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp inner join dept using(deptno);

EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------111

saketh

analyst

mkt

hyd

333

jagan

manager

mkt

hyd

222

sudha

clerk

fin

bang

SUBQUERIES AND EXISTS

SUBQUERIES
Nesting of queries, one within the other is termed as a subquery.
A statement containing a subquery is called a parent query.
Subqueries are used to retrieve data from tables that depend on the values in the table itself.
TYPES

Single row subqueries

Multi row subqueries

Multiple subqueries

Correlated subqueries

117
SINGLE ROW SUBQUERIES

In single row subquery, it will return one value.

Ex:
SQL>

select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp where empno = 7566);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

HIREDATE

SAL

COMM

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------ ------- ---------- ---------7788

SCOTT

ANALYST

7566

7839

KING

PRESIDENT

7902

FORD

ANALYST

7566

19-APR-87

3000

20

17-NOV-81 5000

10

03-DEC-81

20

3000

MULTI ROW SUBQUERIES

In multi row subquery, it will return more than one value. In such cases we should include
operators like any, all, in or not in between the comparision operator and the subquery.

Ex:
SQL>

select * from emp where sal > any (select sal from emp where sal between 2500 and
4000);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

HIREDATE

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- -----------

SQL>

SAL

COMM

DEPTNO

-------- ---------- ----------

7566

JONES

MANAGER

7839 02-APR-81

2975

20

7788

SCOTT

ANALYST

7566 19-APR-87

3000

20

7839

KING

PRESIDENT

17-NOV-81

5000

10

7902

FORD

ANALYST

7566 03-DEC-81

3000

20

select * from emp where sal > all (select sal from emp where sal between 2500 and
4000);
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

HIREDATE

SAL

COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------- ------ ---------- ----------

118
7839

KING

PRESIDENT

17-NOV-81 5000

10

MULTIPLE SUBQUERIES

There is no limit on the number of subqueries included in a where clause. It allows nesting of a
query within a subquery.
Ex:
SQL>

select * from emp where sal = (select max(sal) from emp where sal < (select
max(sal) from emp));
EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

HIREDATE

SAL

COMM

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ------------ ------- ---------- ---------7788

7902

SCOTT

ANALYST 7566

19-APR-87

3000

20

FORD

ANALYST

03-DEC-81

3000

20

7566

CORRELATED SUBQUERIES

A subquery is evaluated once for the entire parent statement where as a correlated subquery is
evaluated once for every row processed by the parent statement.
Ex:
SQL>

select distinct deptno from emp e where 5 <= (select count(ename) from emp where
e.deptno = deptno);
DEPTNO
---------20
30

EXISTS
Exists function is a test for existence. This is a logical test for the return of rows from a query.
Ex:
Suppose we want to display the department numbers which has more than 4 employees.
SQL>

select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno having count(*) > 4;

119
DEPTNO

COUNT(*)

---------

----------

20

30

From the above query can you want to display the names of employees?
SQL>

select deptno,ename, count(*) from emp group by deptno,ename having count(*) > 4;

no rows selected
The above query returns nothing because combination of deptno and ename never return
more than one count.
The solution is to use exists which follows.
SQL>

select deptno,ename from emp e1 where exists (select * from emp e2

where e1.deptno=e2.deptno group by e2.deptno having count(e2.ename) > 4) order by
deptno,ename;

DEPTNO

ENAME

---------- ----------

NOT EXISTS

20

ADAMS

20

FORD

20

JONES

20

SCOTT

20

SMITH

30

ALLEN

30

BLAKE

30

JAMES

30

MARTIN

30

TURNER

30

WARD

120
SQL>

select deptno,ename from emp e1 where not exists (select * from emp e2
where e1.deptno=e2.deptno group by e2.deptno having count(e2.ename) > 4) order by
deptno,ename;
DEPTNO ENAME
--------- ---------10

CLARK

10

KING

10

MILLER

WALKUP TREES AND INLINE VIEW

WALKUP TREES
Using hierarchical queries, you can retrieve data based on a natural hierarchical relationship
between rows in a table. However, where a hierarchical relationship exists between the rows
of a table, a process called tree walking enables the hierarchy to be constructed.
Ex:
SQL>

select ename || '==>' || prior ename, level from emp start with ename = 'KING'
connect by prior empno=mgr;
ENAME||'==>'||PRIORENAM

LEVEL

------------------------------------

--------

KING==>

JONES==>KING

121
SCOTT==>JONES

ADAMS==>SCOTT

FORD==>JONES

SMITH==>FORD

BLAKE==>KING

ALLEN==>BLAKE

WARD==>BLAKE

MARTIN==>BLAKE

TURNER==>BLAKE

JAMES==>BLAKE

CLARK==>KING

MILLER==>CLARK

In the above
Start with clause specifies the root row of the table.
Level pseudo column gives the 1 for root , 2 for child and so on.
Connect by prior clause specifies the columns which has parent-child relationship.

INLINE VIEW OR TOP-N ANALYSIS

In the select statement instead of table name, replacing the select statement is known as inline
view.
Ex:
SQL>

Select ename, sal, rownum rank from (select *from emp order by sal);
ENAME

SAL

RANK

---------- ---------- ---------SMITH

800

JAMES

950

ADAMS

1100

WARD

1250

MARTIN
MILLER

1250
1300

5
6

122
TURNER

1500

ALLEN

1600

CLARK

2450

BLAKE

2850

10

JONES

2975

11

SCOTT

3000

12

FORD

3000

13

KING

5000

14

LOCKS
Locks are the mechanisms used to prevent destructive interaction between users accessing
same resource simultaneously. Locks provides high degree of data concurrency.
TYPES

Row level locks

Table level locks

ROW LEVEL LOCKS

In the row level lock a row is locked exclusively so that other cannot modify the row until the
transaction holding the lock is committed or rolled back. This can be done by using select..for
update clause.

123

Ex:
SQL>

select * from emp where sal > 3000 for update of comm.;

TABLE LEVEL LOCKS

A table level lock will protect table data thereby guaranteeing data integrity when data is being
accessed concurrently by multiple users. A table lock can be held in several modes.

Share lock

Share update lock

Exclusive lock

SHARE LOCK

A share lock locks the table allowing other users to only query but not insert, update or delete
rows in a table. Multiple users can place share locks on the same resource at the same time.
Ex:
SQL>

lock table emp in share mode;

SHARE UPDATE LOCK

It locks rows that are to be updated in a table. It permits other users to concurrently query,
insert , update or even lock other rows in the same table. It prevents the other users from
updating the row that has been locked.
Ex:
SQL>

lock table emp in share update mode;

EXCLUSIVE LOCK

Exclusive lock is the most restrictive of tables locks. When issued by any user, it allows the
other user to only query. It is similar to share lock but only one user can place exclusive lock
on a table at a time.
Ex:

124
SQL>

lock table emp in share exclusive mode;

NOWAIT
If one user locked the table without nowait then another user trying to lock the same table
then he has to wait until the user who has initially locked the table issues a commit or rollback
statement. This delay could be avoided by appending a nowait clause in the lock table
command.
Ex:
SQL>

lock table emp in exclusive mode nowait.

DEADLOCK
A deadlock occurs when tow users have a lock each on separate object, and they want to
acquire a lock on the each others object. When this happens, the first user has to wait for the
second user to release the lock, but the second user will not release it until the lock on the first
users object is freed. In such a case, oracle detects the deadlock automatically and solves the
problem by aborting one of the two transactions.

INDEXES

Index is typically a listing of keywords accompanied by the location of information on a

subject. We can create indexes explicitly to speed up SQL statement execution on a table. The
index points directly to the location of the rows containing the value.
WHY INDEXES?
Indexes are most useful on larger tables, on columns that are likely to appear in where clauses
as simple equality.
TYPES

Unique index

125

Non-unique index

Btree index

Bitmap index

Composite index

Reverse key index

Function-based index

Descending index

Domain index

Object index

Cluster index

Text index

Index organized table

Partition index
Local index
Local prefixed
Local non-prefixed
Global index

Global prefixed

Global non-prefixed

UNIQUE INDEX
Unique indexes guarantee that no two rows of a table have duplicate values in the columns
that define the index. Unique index is automatically created when primary key or unique
constraint is created.
Ex:
SQL>

create unique index stud_ind on student(sno);

NON-UNIQUE INDEX
Non-Unique indexes do not impose the above restriction on the column values.
Ex:

126
SQL>

create index stud_ind on student(sno);

BTREE INDEX or ASCENDING INDEX

The default type of index used in an oracle database is the btree index. A btree index is
designed to provide both rapid access to individual rows and quick access to groups of rows
within a range. The btree index does this by performing a succession of value comparisons.
Each comparison eliminates many of the rows.
Ex:
SQL>

create index stud_ind on student(sno);

BITMAP INDEX
This can be used for low cardinality columns: that is columns in which the number of distinct
values is snall when compared to the number of the rows in the table.
Ex:
SQL>

create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sex);

COMPOSITE INDEX
A composite index also called a concatenated index is an index created on multiple columns of
a table. Columns in a composite index can appear in any order and need not be adjacent
columns of the table.
Ex:
SQL>

create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sno, sname);

REVERSE KEY INDEX

A reverse key index when compared to standard index, reverses each byte of the column being
indexed while keeping the column order. When the column is indexed in reverse mode then the
column values will be stored in an index in different blocks as the starting value differs. Such

127
an arrangement can help avoid performance degradations in indexes where modifications to
the index are concentrated on a small set of blocks.
Ex:
SQL>

create index stud_ind on student(sno, reverse);

We can rebuild a reverse key index into normal index using the noreverse keyword.
Ex:
SQL>

alter index stud_ind rebuild noreverse;

FUNCTION BASED INDEX

This will use result of the function as key instead of using column as the value for the key.
Ex:
SQL>

create index stud_ind on student(upper(sname));

DESCENDING INDEX
The order used by B-tree indexes has been ascending order. You can categorize data in B-tree
index in descending order as well. This feature can be useful in applications where sorting
operations are required.
Ex:
SQL>

create index stud_ind on student(sno desc);

TEXT INDEX
Querying text is different from querying data because words have shades of meaning,
relationships to other words, and opposites. You may want to search for words that are near
each other, or words that are related to thers. These queries would be extremely difficult if all

128
you had available was the standard relational operators. By extending

SQL

to include text

indexes, oracle text permits you to ask very complex questions about the text.
To use oracle text, you need to create a text index on the column in which the text is stored.
Text index is a collection of tables and indexes that store information about the text stored in
the column.
TYPES

There are several different types of indexes available in oracle 9i. The first,
supported in oracle 8i as well as oracle 9i. As of oracle 9i, you can use the

CTXCAT

CONTEXT

is

text index fo

further enhance your text index management and query capabilities.

The

CONTEXT

CTXCAT

CTXRULE

CTXCAT

index type supports the transactional synchronization of data between the base

table and its text index. With

CONTEXT

indexes, you need to manually tell oracle to update the

values in the text index after data changes in base table.

CTXCAT

index types do not generate

score values during the text queries.

HOW TO CREATE TEXT INDEX?

You can create a text index via a special version of the create index comman. For context
index, specify the ctxsys.context index type and for ctxcat index, specify the ctxsys.ctxcat
index type.
Ex:
Suppose you have a table called BOOKS with the following columns
Title, Author, Info.

SQL>

create index book_index on books(info) indextype is ctxsys.context;

SQL>

create index book_index on books(info) indextype is ctxsys.ctxcat;

TEXT QUERIES

129

Once a text index is created on the info column of

BOOKS

table, text-searching capabilities

increase dynamically.
CONTAINS & CATSEARCH

CONTAINS

function takes two parameters the column name and the search string.

Syntax:
Contains(indexed_column, search_str);
If you create a

CTXCAT

index, use the

CATSEARCH

function in place of

CONTAINS. CATSEARCH

takes

three parameters the column name, the search string and the index set.
Syntax:
Contains(indexed_column, search_str, index_set);
HOW A TEXT QEURY WORKS?

When a function such as

CONTAINS

or

CATSEARCH

is used in query, the text portion of the query is

processed by oracle text. The remainder of the query is processed just like a regular query
within the database. The result of the text query processing and the regular query processing
are merged to return a single set of records to the user.
SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF A WORD

The following queries will search for a word called prperty whose score is greater than zero.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property) > 0;

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property, null) > 0;

Suppose if you want to know the score of the property in each book, if score values for
individual searches range from 0 to 10 for each occurrence of the string within the text then
use the score function.

SQL>

select title, score(10) from books where contains(info, property, 10) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF MULTIPLE WORDS

130

The following queries will search for two words.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property

Instead of using

AND

AND

harvests) > 0;

AND

harvests, null) > 0;

you could hae used an ampersand(&). Before using this method, set

define off so the & character will not be seen as part of a variable name.

SQL>

set define off

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property & harvests) > 0;

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property harvests, null) > 0;

The following queries will search for more than two words.
SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property harvests workers, null) > 0;

AND

harvests

AND

workers) > 0;

The following queries will search for either of the two words.
SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

Instead of

OR

OR

harvests) > 0;

you can use a vertical line (|).

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property

In the following queries the

ACCUM(accumulate)

harvests) > 0;
|

harvests, null) > 0;

operator adds together the scores of the

individual searches and compares the accumulated score to the threshold value.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property

Instead of

OR

ACCUM

harvests) > 0;

ACCUM

harvests, null) > 0;

you can use a comma(,).

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property , harvests) > 0;

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property , harvests, null) > 0;

131

In the following queries the

MINUS

operator subtracts the score of the second terms search

from the score of the first terms search.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property

Instead of

MINUS

you can use and instead of

NOT

MINUS
NOT

harvests) > 0;

harvests, null) > 0;

you can use ~.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, property

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, property

harvests) > 0;
~

harvests, null) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF A PHRASE

The following queries will search for the phrase. If the search phrase includes a reserved word
within oracle text, the you must use curly braces ({}) to enclose text.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, transactions {and} finances) > 0;

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, transactions {and} finances, null) > 0;

You can enclose the entire phrase within curly braces, in which case any reserved words within
the phrase will be treated as part of the search criteria.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, {transactions and finances}) > 0;

SQL>

select * from books where catsearch(info, {transactions and finances}, null) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT ARE NEAR EACH OTHER

The following queries will search for the words that are in between the search terms.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, workers

Instead of

SQL>

NEAR

NEAR

harvests) > 0;

you can use ;.

select * from books where contains(info, workers ; harvests) > 0;

132
In

CONTEXT

index queries, you can specify the maximum number of words between the search

terms.
SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, NEAR((workers, harvests),10) > 0;

USING WILDCARDS DURING SEARCHES

You can use wildcards to expand the list of valid search terms used during your query. Just as
in regular text-string wildcard processing, two wildcards are available.
%

percent sign; multiple-character wildcard

underscore; single-character wildcard

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, worker%) > 0;

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, work___) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT SHARE THE SAME STEM

Rather than using wildcards, you can use stem-expansion capabilities to expand the list of text
strings. Given the stem of a word, oracle will expand the list of words to search for to include
all words having the same stem. Sample expansions are show here.
Play

SQL>

plays playing played playful

select * from books where contains(info, $manage) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR FUZZY MATCHES

A fuzzy match expands the specified search term to include words that are spelled similarly but
that do not necessarily have the same word stem. Fuzzy matches are most helpful when the
text contains misspellings. The misspellings can be either in the searched text or in the search
string specified by the user during the query.
The following queries will not return anything because its search does not contain the word
hardest.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, hardest) > 0;

133

It does, however, contains the word harvest. A fuzzy match will return the books containing
the word harvest even though harvest has a different word stem thant the word used as the
search term.
To use a fuzzy match, precede the search term with a question mark, with no space between
the question mark and the beginning of the search term.

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, ?hardest) > 0;

SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT SOUND LIKE OTHER WORDS

SOUNDEX, expands search terms based on how the word sounds. The SOUNDEX expansion
method uses the same text-matching logic available via the SOUNDEX function in SQL.
To use the SOUNDEX option, you must precede the search term with an exclamation mark(!).

SQL>

select * from books where contains(info, !grate) > 0;

INDEX SYNCHRONIZATION

When using

CONTEXT

indexes, you need to manage the text index contents; the text indexes are

not updated when the base table is updated. When the table was updated, its text index is out
of sync with the base table. To sync of the index, execute the
CTX_DDL

SQL>

SYNC_INDEX

procedure of the

package.

exec

CTX_DDL.SYNC_INDEX(book_index);

INDEX SETS

Historically, problems with queries of text indexes have occurred when other criteria are used
alongside text searches as part of the where clause. To improve the mixed query capability,
oracle features index sets. The indexes within the index set may be structured relational
columns or on text columns.

134
To create an index set, use the

CTX_DDL

package to create the index set and add indexes to it.

When you create a text index, you can then specify the index set it belongs to.

SQL>

exec CTX_DDL.CREATE_INDEX_SET(books_index_set);

The add non-text indexes.

SQL>

exec

CTX_DDL.ADD_INDEX(books_index_set,

Now create a

CTXCAT

title_index);

text index. Specify ctxsys.ctxcat as the index type, and list the index set in

the parameters clause.

SQL>

create index book_index on books(info) indextype is ctxsys.ctxcat parameters(index set

books_index_set);
INDEX-ORGANIZED TABLE
An index-organized table keeps its data sorted according to the primary key column values for
the table. Index-organized tables store their data as if the entire table was stored in an index.
An index-organized table allows you to store the entire tables data in an index.
Ex:
SQL>

create table student (sno number(2),sname varchar(10),smarks number(3) constraint

pk primary key(sno) organization index;

PARTITION INDEX
Similar to partitioning tables, oracle allows you to partition indexes too. Like table partitions,
index partitions could be in different tablespaces.
LOCAL INDEXES

Local keyword tells oracle to create a separte index for each partition.

In the local prefixed index the partition key is specified on the left prefix. When the
underlying table is partitioned baes on, say two columns then the index can be prefixed
on the first column specified.

135

Local prefixed indexes can be unique or non unique.

Local indexes may be easier to manage than global indexes.

Ex:
SQL>

create index stud_index on student(sno) local;

GLOBAL INDEXES

A global index may contain values from multiple partitions.

An index is global prefixed if it is partitioned on the left prefix of the index columns.

The global clause allows you to create a non-partitioned index.

Global indexes may perform uniqueness checks faster than local (partitioned) indexes.

You cannot create global indexes for hash partitions or subpartitions.

Ex:
SQL>

create index stud_index on student(sno) global;

Similar to table partitions, it is possible to move them from one device to another. But unlike
table partitions, movement of index partitions requires individual reconstruction of the index or
each partition (only in the case of global index).
Ex:
SQL>

alter index stud_ind rebuild partition p2

Index partitions cannot be dropped manually.

They are dropped implicitly when the data they refer to is dropped from the partitioned
table.

MONITORING USE OF INDEXES

Once you turned on the monitoring the use of indexes, then we can check whether the table is
hitting the index or not.
To monitor the use of index use the follwing syntax.

136

Syntax:
alter index index_name monitoring usage;
then check for the details in V$OBJECT_USAGE view.
If you want to stop monitoring use the following.
Syntax:
alter index index_name nomonitoring usage;
DATA MODEL

ALL_INDEXES

DBA_INDEXES

USER_INDEXES

ALL_IND-COLUMNS

DBA-IND_COLUMNS

USER_IND_COLUMNS

ALL_PART_INDEXES

DBA_PART_INDEXES

USER_PART_INDEXES

V$OBJECT_USAGE

SQL*PLUS COMMNANDS
These commands does not require statement terminator and applicable to the sessions , those
will be automatically cleared when session was closed.
BREAK
This will be used to breakup the data depending on the grouping.

137

Syntax:
Break or bre [on <column_name> on report]
COMPUTE
This will be used to perform group functions on the data.
Syntax:
Compute or comp [group_function of column_name on breaking_column_name or
report]
TTITLE
This will give the top title for your report. You can on or off the ttitle.
Syntax:
Ttitle or ttit [left | center | right] title_name skip n other_characters
Ttitle or ttit [on or off]
BTITLE
This will give the bottom title for your report. You can on or off the btitle.
Syntax:
Btitle or btit [left | center | right] title_name skip n other_characters
Btitle or btit [on or off]
Ex:
SQL>

bre on deptno skip 1 on report

SQL>

comp sum of sal on deptno

SQL>

comp sum of sal on report

SQL>

ttitle center 'EMPLOYEE DETAILS' skip1 center '----------------'

SQL>

btitle center '** THANKQ **'

SQL>

select * from emp order by deptno;

138
Output:
EMPLOYEE DETAILS
----------------------EMPNO

ENAME

JOB

MGR

---------- ---------- ---------

HIREDATE

SAL

COMM

DEPTNO

------- -------------- -------- ---------- ----------

7782

CLARK

MANAGER

7839

7839

KING

PRESIDENT

7934

MILLER CLERK

7782

09-JUN-81

2450

17-NOV-81

5000

23-JAN-82

1300

10

----------

**********

8750
7369

SMITH

CLERK

7902

17-DEC-80

800

7876

ADAMS CLERK

7788

23-MAY-87

1100

7902

FORD

ANALYST

7566

03-DEC-81

3000

7788

SCOTT ANALYST

7566

19-APR-87

3000

7566

JONES MANAGER

7839

02-APR-81

2975

sum
20

----------

**********

10875

sum

7499

ALLEN

SALESMAN

7698

20-FEB-81

1600

7698

BLAKE

MANAGER

7839

01-MAY-81

2850

7654

MARTIN SALESMAN

7698

28-SEP-81

1250

7900

JAMES

7698

03-DEC-81

950

7844

TURNER SALESMAN

7698

08-SEP-81

1500

7521

WARD

7698

22-FEB-81

1250

500

CLERK
SALESMAN

---------9400
---------sum

29025
** THANKQ **

CLEAR

300

30

1400

**********
sum

139

This will clear the existing buffers or break or computations or columns formatting.
Syntax:
Clear or cle buffer | bre | comp | col;
Ex:
SQL>

clear buffer
Buffer cleared

SQL>

clear bre
Breaks cleared

SQL>

clear comp
Computes cleared

SQL>

clear col
Columns cleared

CHANGE
This will be used to replace any strings in

SQL

statements.

Syntax:
Change or c/old_string/new_string
If the old_string repeats many times then new_string replaces the first string only.
Ex:
SQL>

select * from det;

select * from det

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist
SQL>

c/det/dept

1* select * from dept

SQL>

140
DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------------- ----------10

ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

ALLAS

30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

COLUMN
This will be used to increase or decrease the width of the table columns.
Syntax:
Column or col <column_name> format <num_format|text_format>
Ex:
SQL>

col deptno format 999

SQL>

col dname format a10

SAVE
This will be used to save your current SQL statement as SQL Script file.
Syntax:
Save or sav <file_name>.[extension] replace or rep
If you want to save the filename with existing filename the you have to use replace option.
By default it will take sql as the extension.
Ex:
SQL>

save ss
Created file ss.sql

SQL>

save ss replace
Wrote file ss.sql

EXECUTE

141
This will be used to execute stored subprograms or packaged subprograms.
Syntax:
Execute or exec <subprogram_name>
Ex:
SQL>

exec sample_proc

SPOOL
This will record the data when you spool on, upto when you say spool off. By default it will give
lst as extension.
Syntax:
Spool on | off | out | <file_name>.[Extension]
Ex:
SQL>

spool on

SQL>

select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME
--------- --------------

LOC
----------

10

ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

SQL>

spool off

SQL>

ed on.lst
SQL>

select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME
--------- --------------

LOC
----------

10

ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

142
30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

SQL>

spool off

LIST
This will give the current

SQL

statement.

Syntax:
List or li [start_line_number] [end_line_number]
Ex:
SQL>

select

2 *
3 from
4 dept;
SQL>

list

1 select
2 *
3 from
4* dept
SQL>

list 1

1* select
SQL>

list 3

3* from
SQL>

list 1 3

1 select
2 *
3* from
INPUT
This will insert the new line to the current

SQL

statement.

143
Syntax:
Input or in <string>
Ex:
SQL>

select *

SQL>

list

1* select *
SQL>

input from dept

SQL>

list

1 select *
2* from dept
APPEND
This will adds a new string to the existing string in the

SQL

statement without any space.

Syntax:
Append or app <string>
Ex:
SQL>

select *

SQL>

list

1* select *
SQL>

append from dept

1* select * from dept

SQL>

list

1* select * from dept

DELETE
This will delete the current

SQL

statement lines.

Syntax:
Delete or del <start_line_number> [<end_line_number>]

144

Ex:
SQL>

select

2 *
3 from
4 dept
5 where
6 deptno
7 >10;
SQL>

list

1 select
2 *
3 from
4 dept
5 where
6 deptno
7* >10
SQL>

del 1

SQL>

list

1 *
2 from
3 dept
4 where
5 deptno
6* >10
SQL>

del 2

SQL>

list

1 *
2 dept
3 where
4 deptno
5* >10
SQL>

del 2 4

SQL>

list

1 *

145
2* >10
SQL>

del

SQL>

list

1 *
VARIABLE
This will be used to declare a variable.
Syntax:
Variable or var <variable_name> <variable_type>
Ex:
SQL>

var dept_name varchar(15)

SQL>

select dname into dept_name from dept where deptno = 10;

PRINT
This will be used to print the output of the variables that will be declared at
Syntax:
Print <variable_name>
Ex:
SQL>

print dept_name
DEPT_NAME
-------------ACCOUNTING

START
This will be used to execute

SQL

scripts.

Syntax:
start <filename_name>.sql

SQL

level.

146

Ex:
SQL>

start ss.sql

SQL>

@ss.sql

-- this will execute sql script files only.

HOST
This will be used to interact with the

OS

level from

SQL.

Syntax:
Host [operation]
Ex:
SQL>

host

SQL>

host dir

SHOW
Using this, you can see several commands that use the set command and status.
Syntax:
Show all | <set_command>
Ex:
SQL>

show all

appinfo is OFF and set to "SQL*Plus"

arraysize 15
autocommit OFF
autoprint OFF
autorecovery OFF
autotrace OFF
blockterminator "." (hex 2e)
btitle OFF and is the first few characters of the next SELECT statement
cmdsep OFF
colsep " "
compatibility version NATIVE

147
concat "." (hex 2e)
copycommit 0
COPYTYPECHECK is ON
define "&" (hex 26)
describe DEPTH 1 LINENUM OFF INDENT ON
echo OFF
editfile "afiedt.buf"
embedded OFF
escape OFF
FEEDBACK ON for 6 or more rows
flagger OFF
flush ON
SQL>

sho verify

verify OFF
RUN
This will runs the command in the buffer.
Syntax:
Run | /
Ex:
SQL>

run

SQL>

STORE
This will save all the set command statuses in a file.
Syntax:
Store set <filename>.[extension] [create] | [replace] | [append]
Ex:
SQL>

store set my_settings.scmd

Created file my_settings.scmd

148
SQL>

store set my_settings.cmd replace

Wrote file my_settings.cmd

SQL>

store set my_settings.cmd append

Appended file to my_settings.cmd

FOLD_AFTER
This will fold the columns one after the other.
Syntax:
Column <column_name> fold_after [no_of_lines]
Ex:
SQL>

col deptno fold_after 1

SQL>

col dname fold_after 1

SQL>

col loc fold_after 1

SQL>

set heading off

SQL>

select * from dept;

10
ACCOUNTING
NEW YORK
20
RESEARCH
DALLAS
30
SALES
CHICAGO
40
OPERATIONS
BOSTON

FOLD_BEFORE

149
This will fold the columns one before the other.
Syntax:
Column <column_name> fold_before [no_of_lines]
DEFINE
This will give the list of all the variables currently defined.
Syntax:
Define [variable_name]
Ex:
SQL>

define

DEFINE _DATE

= "16-MAY-07" (CHAR)

DEFINE _CONNECT_IDENTIFIER = "oracle" (CHAR)

DEFINE _USER
DEFINE _PRIVILEGE

= "SCOTT" (CHAR)
= "" (CHAR)

DEFINE _SQLPLUS_RELEASE = "1001000200" (CHAR)

DEFINE _EDITOR
DEFINE _O_VERSION

= "Notepad" (CHAR)
= "Oracle Database 10g Enterprise Edition Release 10.1.0.2.0
Production With the Partitioning, OLAP and Data Mining
options" (CHAR)

DEFINE _O_RELEASE

= "1001000200" (CHAR)

SET COMMANDS
These commands does not require statement terminator and applicable to the sessions , those
will be automatically cleared when session was closed.
LINESIZE
This will be used to set the linesize. Default linesize is 80.
Syntax:

150
Set linesize <value>
Ex:
SQL>

set linesize 100

PAGESIZE
This will be used to set the pagesize. Default pagesize is 14.
Syntax:
Set pagesize <value>
Ex:
SQL>

set pagesize 30

DESCRIBE
This will be used to see the objects structure.
Syntax:
Describe or desc <object_name>
Ex:
SQL>

desc dept

Name

Null?

Type

----------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------DEPTNO

NOT NULL NUMBER(2)

DNAME

VARCHAR2(14)

LOC

VARCHAR2(13)

PAUSE
When the displayed data contains hundreds or thousands of lines, when you select it then it
will automatically scrolls and displays the last page data. To prevent this you can use this

151
pause option. By using this it will display the data correspoinding to the pagesize with a break
which will continue by hitting the return key. By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set pause on | off
Ex:
SQL>

set pause on

FEEDBACK
This will give the information regarding howmany rows you selected the object. By default the
feedback message will be displayed, only when the object contains more than 5 rows.
Syntax:
Set feedback <value>
Ex:
SQL>

set feedback 4

SQL>

select * from dept;

DEPTNO

DNAME

LOC

---------- -------------- ------------10

ACCOUNTING

NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

4 rows selected.
HEADING
If you want to display data without headings, then you can achieve with this. By default
heading is on.

152
Syntax:
Set heading on | off
Ex:
SQL>

set heading off

SQL>

select * from dept;

10

ACCOUNTING

NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

SERVEROUTPUT
This will be used to display the output of the PL/SQL programs. By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set serveroutput on | off
Ex:
SQL>

set serveroutput on

TIME
This will be used to display the time. By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set time on | off
Ex:
SQL>

set time on

19:56:33

SQL>

TIMING
This will give the time taken to execute the current

SQL

statement. By default this will be off.

153

Syntax:
Set timing on | off
Ex:
SQL>

set timing on

SQL>

select * from dept;

DEPTNO

DNAME

LOC

---------- -------------- ------------10

ACCOUNTING

NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

Elapsed: 00:00:00.06
SQLPROMPT
This will be used to change the

SQL

prompt.

Syntax:
Set sqlprompt <prompt>

Ex:
SQL>

set sqlprompt 'ORACLE>'

ORACLE>

SQLCASE
This will be used to change the case of the
Syntax:
Set sqlcase upper | mixed | lower

SQL

statements. By default the case is mixed.

154
Ex:
SQL>

set sqlcase upper

SQLTERMINATOR
This will be used to change the terminator of the

SQL

statements. By default the terminator is ;.

Syntax:
Set sqlterminator <termination_character>
Ex:
SQL>

set sqlterminator :

SQL>

select * from dept:

DEFINE
By default if the & character finds then it will treat as bind variable and ask for the input.
Suppose your want to treat it as a normal character while inserting data, then you can prevent
this by using the define option. By default this will be on
Syntax:
Set define on | off
Ex:
SQL>insert

into dept values(50,'R&D','HYD');

Enter value for d:

old
new

SQL>

1: insert into dept values(50,'R&D','HYD')

1: INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(50,'R','HYD')
set define off

SQL>insert

NEWPAGE

into dept values(50,'R&D','HYD');

-- here it wont ask for value

155
This will shows how many blank lines will be left before the report. By default it will leave one
blank line.
Syntax:
Set newpage <value>
Ex:
SQL>

set newpage 10

The zero value for newpage does not produce zero blank lines instead it switches to a special
property which produces a top-of-form character (hex 13) just before the date on each page.
Most modern printers respond to this by moving immediately to the top of the next page,
where the priting of the report will begin.
HEADSEP
This allow you to indicate where you want to break a page title or a column heading that runs
longer than one line. The default heading separator is vertical bar (|).
Syntax:
Set headsep <separation_char>
Ex:
SQL>

select * from dept;

DEPTNO

DNAME

LOC

---------- -------------- ------------10

ACCOUNTING

NEW YORK

20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

30

SALES

CHICAGO

40

OPERATIONS

BOSTON

SQL>

set headsetp !

SQL>

col dname heading 'DEPARTMENT ! NAME'

156
SQL>

/
DEPARTMENT

DEPTNO

NAME

LOC

---------- ----------------10

ACCOUNTING

---------NEW YORK

20 RESEARCH

DALLAS

30 SALES

CHICAGO

40 OPERATIONS

BOSTON

ECHO
When using a bind variable, the

SQL

statement is maintained by echo. By default this is off.

Syntax:
Set echo on | off
VERIFY
When using a bind variable, the old and new statements will be maintained by verify. By
default this is on.
Syntax:
Set verify on | off

Ex:
SQL>

select * from dept where deptno = &dno;

Enter value for dno: 10

old
new

1: select * from dept where deptno = &dno

1: select * from dept where deptno = 10

DEPTNO

DNAME

LOC

---------- ---------------- ----------10

ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

157

SQL>

set verify off

SQL>

select * from dept where deptno = &dno;

Enter value for dno: 20

DEPTNO DNAME

LOC

---------- ------------- ----------20

RESEARCH

DALLAS

PNO
This will give displays the page numbers. By default the value would be zero.
Ex:
SQL>

col hiredate new_value xtoday noprint format a1 trunc

SQL>

ttitle left xtoday right 'page' sql.pno

SQL>

select * from emp where deptno = 10;

09-JUN-81
EMPNO

ENAME

page
JOB

MGR

SAL COMM

DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------------- --------- ----- ---------- ---------7782 CLARK

MANAGER

7839 KING

PRESIDENT

7934 MILLER

CLERK

In the above noprint tells

SQLPLUS

7839
7782

2450

10

5000

10

1300

10

not to display this column when it prints the results of the

statement. Dates that have been reformatted by

TO_CHAR

SQL

get a default width of about 100

characters. By changing the format to a1 trunc, you minimize this effect. NEW_VALUE inserts
contents of the column retrieved by the SQL statement into a variable called xtoday.

158

SPECIAL FILES
LOGIN.sql
If you would like

SQLPLUS

to define your own environmental settings, put all the required

commands in a file named login.sql. This is a special filename that

SQLPLUS

always looks for

whenever it starts up. If it finds login.sql, it executes any commands in it as if you had entered
then by hand. You can put any command in login.sql that you can use in

SQLPLUS,

including

159
SQLPLUS

commands and

SQL

statements. All ot them executed before

SQLPLUS

gives you the

SQL>

prompt.
GLOGIN.sql
This is used in the same ways as

LOGIN.sql

but to establish default

SQLPLUS

settings for all users

of a database.

IMP QUERIES
1) To find the nth row of a table

SQL>

Select *from emp where rowid = (select max(rowid) from emp where rownum <= 4);
Or

SQL>

Select *from emp where rownum <= 4 minus select *from emp where rownum <= 3;

160
2) To find duplicate rows

SQL>

Select *from emp where rowid in (select max(rowid) from emp group by empno,
ename, mgr, job, hiredate, comm, deptno, sal);
Or

SQL>

Select empno,ename,sal,job,hiredate,comm , count(*) from emp group by

empno,ename,sal,job,hiredate,comm having count(*) >=1;

3) To delete duplicate rows

SQL>

Delete emp where rowid in (select max(rowid) from emp group by

empno,ename,mgr,job,hiredate,sal,comm,deptno);

4) To find the count of duplicate rows

SQL>

Select ename, count(*) from emp group by ename having count(*) >= 1;

5) How to display alternative rows in a table?

SQL>

select *from emp where (rowid,0) in (select rowid,mod(rownum,2) from emp);

6) Getting employee details of each department who is drawing maximum sal?

SQL>

select *from emp where (deptno,sal) in

( select deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno);

7) How to get number of employees in each department , in which department is having

more than 2500 employees?

SQL>

Select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno having count(*) >2500;

8) To reset the time to the beginning of the day

SQL>

Select to_char(trunc(sysdate),dd-mon-yyyy hh:mi:ss am) from dual;

161
9) To find nth maximum sal

SQL>

Select *from emp where sal in (select max(sal) from (select *from emp order by sal)
where rownum <= 5);

INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERSTICS

Highly structured, readable and accessible language.

Standard and Protable language.

Embedded language.

Improved execution authority.

162
10g FEATURES

Optimized compiler

.
To change the optimizer settings for the entire database, set the database parameter
PLSQL_OPTIMIZE_LEVEL.

Valid settings are as follows

No optimization

Moderate optimization

Aggressive optimization

These settings are also modifiable for the current session.

SQL>

alter session set plsql_optimze_level=2;

Oracle retains optimizer settings on a module-by-module basis. When you recompile a

particular module with nondefault settings, the settings will stick allowing you to
recompile later on using

REUSE SETTINGS.

SQL>

Alter procedure proc compile plsql_optimize_level=1;

SQL>

Alter procedure proc compile reuse settings;

Compile-time warnings.

Starting with oracle database 10g release 1 you can enable additional compile-time
warnings to help make your programs more robust. The compiler can detect potential
runtime problems with your code, such as identifying lines of code that will never be run.
This process, also known as lint checking.
To enable these warnings fo the entire database, set the database parameter
PLSQL_WARNINGS.

SQL>

These settings are also modifiable for the current session.

alter session set plsql_warnings = enable:all;

The above can be achieved using the built-in package

Conditional compilation.

DBMS_WARNING.

163
Conditional compilation allows the compiler to allow to compile selected parts of a
program based on conditions you provide with the $IF directive.

Support for non-sequential collections in

FORALL.

Improved datatype support.

Backtrace an exception to its line number.

When handling an error, how can you find the line number on which the error was
originally raised?
In earlier release, the only way to do this was allow you exception to go unhandled and
then view the full error trace stack.
Now you can call

DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_ERROR_BACKTRACE

function to obtain that stack and

manipulate it programmatically within your program.

Set operators for nested tables.

Support for regular expressions.

Oracle database 10g supports the use of regular expressions inside

PL/SQL

code via four

new built-in functions.

REGEXP_LIKE

REGEXP_INSTR

REGEXP_SUBSTR

REGEXP_REPLACE

Programmer-defined quoting mechanism.

Starting with oracle database 10g release 1, you can define your own quoting
mechanism for string literals in both

SQL

and

PL/SQL.

Use the characters q(q followed by a single quote) to note the programmer-defined
deliemeter for you string literal.

164

Ex:
DECLARE

v varchar(10) := 'computer';
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(q'*v = *' || v);

dbms_output.put_line(q'$v = $' || v);
END;

Output:
v = computer
v = computer

Many new built-in packages.

DBMS_SCHEDULER
Represents a major update to

DBMS_JOB.

DBMS_SCHEDULER

provides much improved

functionality for scheduling and executing jobs defined via stored procedures.
DBMS_CRYPTO
Offers the ability to encrypt and decrypt common oracle datatype, including
and

CLOBs.

RAWs, BLOBs,

It also provides globalization support for encrypting data across different

charactersets.
DBMS_MONITOR
Provides an

API

to control additional tracing and statistics gathering of sessions.

DBMS_WARNING
Provides an

API

into the

PL/SQL

compiler warnings module, allowing you to read and

change settings that control which warnings are suppressed, displayed, or treated as
errors.
STANDARD PACKAGE

165
Oracle has defined in this special package. Oracle defines quite a few identifiers in this
package, including built-in exceptions, functions and subtypes.
You can reference the built-in form by prefixing it with
The basic unit in any

PL/SQL

program is block. All

STANDARD.

PL/SQL

programs are composed of blocks

which can occur sequentially or nested.

BLOCK STRUCTURE
Declare
-- declarative section
Begin
-- executable section
Exception
-- exception section
End;
In the above declarative and exceptiona sections are optional.
BLOCK TYPES

Anonymous blocks

Named blocks
Labeled blocks
Subprograms
Triggers

ANONYMOUS BLOCKS

Anonymous blocks implies basic block structure.

Ex:
BEGIN

Dbms_output.put_line(My first program):

166
END;
LABELED BLOCKS

Labeled blocks are anonymous blocks with a label which gives a name to the block.
Ex:
<<my_bloock>>
BEGIN

Dbms_output.put_line(My first program):

END;

SUBPROGRAMS

Subprograms are procedures and functions. They can be stored in the database as stand-alone
objects, as part of package or as methods of an object type.
TRIGGERS

Triggers consists of a

PL/SQL

block that is associated with an event that occur in the database.

NESTED BLOCKS
A block can be nested within the executable or exception section of an outer block.
IDENTIFIERS
Identifiers are used to name

PL/SQL

objects, such as variables, cursors, types and subprograms.

Identifiers consists of a letter, optionally followed by any sequence of characters, including

letters, numbers, dollar signs, underscores, and pound signs only. The maximum length for an
identifier is 30 characters.
QUOTED IDENTIFIERS
If you want to make an identifier case sensitive, include characters such as spaces or use a
reserved word, you can enclose the identifier in double quotation marks.

167
Ex:
DECLARE

"a" number := 5;
"A" number := 6;
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a);

dbms_output.put_line('A = ' || A);
END;

Output:
a=6
A=6
COMMENTS
Comments improve readability and make your program more understandable. They are ignored
by the

PL/SQL

compiler. There are two types of comments available.

Single line comments

Multiline comments

SINGLE LINE COMMENTS

A single-line comment can start any point on a line with two dashes and continues until the end
of the line.
Ex:
BEGIN

Dbms_output.put_line(hello);

-- sample program

END;
MULTILINE COMMENTS

Multiline comments start with the /* delimiter and ends with */ delimiter.
Ex:
BEGIN

Dbms_output.put_line(hello);
END;

/* sample program */

168

VARIABLE DECLERATIONS
Variables can be declared in declarative section of the block;
Ex:
DECLARE

a number;
b number := 5;
c number default 6;
CONSTANT DECLERATIONS
To declare a constant, you include the

CONSTANT

keyword, and you must supply a default value.

Ex:
DECLARE

b constant number := 5;
c constant number default 6;
NOT NULL CLAUSE
You can also specify that the variable must be not null.
Ex:
DECLARE

b constant number not null:= 5;

c number not null default 6;
ANCHORED DECLERATIONS
PL/SQL

offers two kinds of achoring.

Scalar anchoring

Record anchoring

SCALAR ANCHORING

169

Use the %TYPE attribute to define your variable based on tables column of some other

PL/SQL

scalar variable.
Ex:
DECLARE

dno dept.deptno%type;
Subtype t_number is number;
a t_number;
Subtype t_sno is student.sno%type;
V_sno t_sno;
RECORD ANCHORING

Use the %ROWTYPE attribute to define your record structure based on a table.
Ex:
DECLARE

V_dept dept%rowtype;
BENEFITS OF ANCHORED DECLARATIONS

Synchronization with database columns.

Normalization of local variables.

PROGRAMMER-DEFINED TYPES
With the SUBTYPE statement,

PL/SQL

allows you to define your own subtypes or aliases of

predefined datatypes, sometimes referred to as abstract datatypes.

There are two kinds of subtypes.

Constrained

Unconstrained

CONSTRAINED SUBTYPE

A subtype that restricts or constrains the values normally allowd by the datatype itself.

170
Ex:
Subtype positive is binary_integer range 1..2147483647;
In the above declaration a variable that is declared as positive can store only ingeger greater
than zero even though binary_integer ranges from -2147483647..+2147483647.
UNCONSTRAINED SUBTYPE
A subtype that does not restrict the values of the original datatype in variables declared with
the subtype.
Ex:
Subtype float is number;
DATATYPE CONVERSIONS

PL/SQL

can handle conversions between different families among the datatypes.

Conversion can be done in two ways.

Explicit conversion

Implicit conversion

EXPLICIT CONVERSION

This can be done using the built-in functions available.

IMPLICIT CONVERSION

PL/SQL will automatically convert between datatype families when possible.

Ex:
DECLARE

a varchar(10);
BEGIN

select deptno into a from dept where dname='ACCOUNTING';

END;

171
In the above variable a is char type and deptno is number type even though, oracle will
automatically converts the numeric data into char type assigns to the variable.

PL/SQL

can automatically convert between

Characters and numbers

Characters and dates

VARIABLE SCOPE AND VISIBILITY

The scope of a variable is the portion of the program in which the variable can be accessed. For
PL/SQL

variables, this is from the variable declaration until the end of the block. When a variable

goes out of scope, the

PL/SQL

engine will free the memory used to store the variable.

The visibility of a variable is the portion of the program where the variable can be accessed
without having to qualify the reference. The visibility is always within the scope. If it is out of
scope, it is not visible.
Ex1:
DECLARE

a number;

-- scope of a

BEGIN
-------DECLARE

b number;

-- scope of b

BEGIN

----END;

-----END;

Ex2:
DECLARE

a number;
b number;
BEGIN

-- a , b available here
DECLARE

172
b char(10);
BEGIN

-- a and char type b is available here

END;

----END;

Ex3:
<<my_block>>
DECLARE

a number;
b number;
BEGIN

-- a , b available here
DECLARE

b char(10);
BEGIN

-- a and char type b is available here

-- number type b is available using <<my_block>>.b
END;

-----END;

PL/SQL CONTROL STRUCTURES

PL/SQL

has a variety of control structures that allow you to control the behaviour of the block as

it runs. These structures include conditional statements and loops.

If-then-else

Case
Case with no else
Labeled case
Searched case

Simple loop

While loop

For loop

173

Goto and Labels

IF-THEN-ELSE
Syntax:
If <condition1> then
Sequence of statements;
Elsif <condition1> then
Sequence of statements;

Else
Sequence of statements;
End if;
Ex:
DECLARE

dno number(2);
BEGIN

select deptno into dno from dept where dname = 'ACCOUNTING';

if dno = 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

NEW YORK');

elsif dno = 20 then

dbms_output.put_line('Location is

DALLAS');

elsif dno = 30 then

dbms_output.put_line('Location is

CHICAGO');

dbms_output.put_line('Location is

BOSTON');

else
end if;
END;

Output:
Location is
CASE

NEW YORK

174
Syntax:
Case test-variable
When value1 then sequence of statements;
When value2 then sequence of statements;

When valuen then sequence of statements;

Else sequence of statements;
End case;
Ex:
DECLARE

dno number(2);
BEGIN

select deptno into dno from dept where dname = 'ACCOUNTING';

case dno
when 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

NEW YORK');

when 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

DALLAS');

when 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

CHICAGO');

dbms_output.put_line('Location is

BOSTON');

else
end case;
END;

Output:
Location is

NEW YORK

CASE WITHOUT ELSE

Syntax:
Case test-variable
When value1 then sequence of statements;

175
When value2 then sequence of statements;

When valuen then sequence of statements;

End case;
Ex:
DECLARE

dno number(2);
BEGIN

select deptno into dno from dept where dname = 'ACCOUNTING';

case dno
when 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

NEW YORK');

when 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

DALLAS');

when 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

CHICAGO');

when 40 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is
end case;
END;

Output:
Location is

NEW YORK

LABELED CASE
Syntax:
<<label>>
Case test-variable
When value1 then sequence of statements;
When value2 then sequence of statements;

When valuen then sequence of statements;

End case;

BOSTON');

176
Ex:
DECLARE

dno number(2);
BEGIN

select deptno into dno from dept where dname = 'ACCOUNTING';

<<my_case>>
case dno
when 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

NEW YORK');

when 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

DALLAS');

when 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

CHICAGO');

when 40 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

BOSTON');

end case my_case;

END;

Output:
Location is

NEW YORK

SEARCHED CASE
Syntax:
Case
When <condition1> then sequence of statements;
When <condition2> then sequence of statements;

When <conditionn> then sequence of statements;

End case;
Ex:
DECLARE

dno number(2);
BEGIN

select deptno into dno from dept where dname = 'ACCOUNTING';

177
case dno
when dno = 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is

NEW YORK');

when dno = 20 then

dbms_output.put_line('Location is

DALLAS');

when dno = 30 then

dbms_output.put_line('Location is

CHICAGO');

when dno = 40 then

dbms_output.put_line('Location is
end case;
END;

Output:
Location is

NEW YORK

SIMPLE LOOP
Syntax:
Loop
Sequence of statements;
Exit when <condition>;
End loop;
In the syntax exit when <condition> is equivalent to
If <condition> then
Exit;
End if;
Ex:
DECLARE

i number := 1;
BEGIN

loop
dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
i := i + 1;
exit when i > 5;

BOSTON');

178
end loop;
END;

Output:
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
i=5
WHILE LOOP
Syntax:
While <condition> loop
Sequence of statements;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE

i number := 1;
BEGIN

While i <= 5 loop

dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
i := i + 1;
end loop;
END;

Output:
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
i=5
FOR LOOP

179
Syntax:
For <loop_counter_variable> in low_bound..high_bound loop
Sequence of statements;
End loop;
Ex1:
BEGIN

For i in 1..5 loop

dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
end loop;
END;

Output:
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
i=5
Ex2:
BEGIN

For i in reverse 1..5 loop

dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
end loop;
END;

Output:
i=5
i=4
i=3
i=2
i=1
NULL STATEMENT
Usually when you write a statement in a program, you want it to do something. There are
cases, however, when you want to tell
NULL

comes.

PL/SQL

to do absolutely nothing, and that is where the

180

The

NULL

statement deos nothing except pass control to the next executable statement.

You can use

NULL

statement in the following situations.

Improving program readability.

Sometimes, it is helpful to avoid any ambiguity inherent in an

IF

statement that doesnt

cover all possible cases. For example, when you write an IF statement, you do not have to
include an

ELSE

clause.

Nullifying a raised exception.

When you dont want to write any special code to handle an exception, you can use the
NULL statement to make sure that a raised exception halts execution of the current

PL/SQL

block but does not propagate any exceptions to enclosing blocks.

Using null after a label.

In some cases, you can pair

NULL

with

statements. For example, I use a

GOTO

statement to quickly move to the end of my program

GOTO

to avoid having to execute additional

if the state of my data indicates that no further processing is required. Because I do not
have to do anything at the termination of the program, I place a

NULL

statement after the

label because at least one executable statement is required there. Even though

NULL

deos

nothing, it is still an executable statement.

GOTO AND LABELS
Syntax:
Goto label;
Where label is a label defined in the

PL/SQL

block. Labels are enclosed in double angle brackets.

When a goto statement is evaluated, control immediately passes to the statement identified by
the label.
Ex:
BEGIN

For i in 1..5 loop

dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
if i = 4 then

181
goto exit_loop;
end if;
end loop;
<<exit_loop>>
Null;
END;

Output:
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
RESTRICTIONS ON GOTO

It is illegal to branch into an inner block, loop.

At least one executable statement must follow.

It is illegal to branch into an if statement.

It is illegal to branch from one if statement to another if statement.

It is illegal to branch from exception block to the current block.

PRAGMAS
Pragmas are compiler directives. They serve as instructions to the
compiler will act on the pragma during the compilation of the block.
Syntax:
PRGAMA

PL/SQL

instruction_to_compiler.

offers several pragmas:

PL/SQL

compiler. The

182

AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION

EXCEPTION_INIT

RESTRICT_REFERENCES

SERIALLY_REUSABLE

183

SUBPROGRAMS
PROCEDURES
A procedure is a module that performs one or more actions.
Syntax:
Procedure [schema.]name [(parameter1 [,parameter2 ])]
[authid definer | current_user] is
-- [declarations]
Begin
-- executable statements
[Exception
-- exception handlers]
End [name];
In the above authid clause defines whether the procedure will execute under the authority of
the definer of the procedure or under the authority of the current user.
FUNCTIONS
A function is a module that returns a value.
Syntax:
Function [schema.]name [(parameter1 [,parameter2 ])]
Return return_datatype
[authid definer | current_user]
[deterministic]
[parallel_enable] is
-- [declarations]
Begin
-- executable statements

184
[Exception
-- exception handlers]
End [name];
In the above authid clause defines whether the procedure will execute under the authority of
the definer of the procedure or under the authority of the current user.
Deterministic clause defines, an optimization hint that lets the system use a saved copy of the
functions return result, if available. The quety optimizer can choose whether to use the saved
copy or re-call the function.
Parallel_enable clause defines, an optimization hint that enables the function to be executed in
parallel when called from within

SELECT

statement.

PARAMETER MODES
In (Default)
Out
In out

IN

In parameter will act as pl/sql constant.

OUT

Out parameter will act as unintialized variable.

You cannot provide a default value to an out parameter.

Any assignments made to out parameter are rolled back when an exception is raised in
the program.

An actual parameter corresponding to an out formal parameter must be a variable.

IN OUT

In out parameter will act as initialized variable.

An actual parameter corresponding to an in out formal parameter must be a variable.

185

DEFAULT PARAMETERS
Default Parameters will not allow in the beginning and middle.
Out and In Out parameters can not have default values.
Ex:
procedure p(a in number default 5, b in number default 6, c in number default 7) valid
procedure p(a in number, b in number default 6, c in number default 7) valild
procedure p(a in number, b in number, c in number default 7) valild
procedure p(a in number, b in number default 6, c in number) invalild
procedure p(a in number default 5, b in number default 6, c in number) invalild
procedure p(a in number default 5, b in number, c in number) invalild
NOTATIONS
Notations are of two types.

Positional notation

Name notation

We can combine positional and name notation but positional notation can not be followed by
the name notation.
Ex:
Suppose we have a procedure proc(a number,b number,c number) and we have one
anonymous block which contains v1,v2, and v3;

SQL>

exec proc (v1,v2,v3)

-- Positional notation

SQL>

exec proc (a=>v1,b=>v2,c=>v3)

-- Named notation

FORMAL AND ACTUAL PARAMETERS

Parametes which are in calling subprogram are actual parameters.

Parametes which are in called subprogram are formal parameters.

186

If any subprogram was called, once the call was completed then the values of formal
parameters are copied to the actual parameters.

Ex1:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE SAMPLE(a

in number,b out number,c in out number) is

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('After call');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a ||' b = ' || b || ' c = ' || c);
b := 10;
c := 20;
dbms_output.put_line('After assignment');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a ||' b = ' || b || ' c = ' || c);
END SAMPLE;
DECLARE

v1 number := 4;
v2 number := 5;
v3 number := 6;
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Before call');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 = ' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
sample(v1,v2,v3);
dbms_output.put_line('After completion of call');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 = ' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
END;

Output:
Before call
v1 = 4 v2 = 5 v3 = 6
After call
a=4b= c=6
After assignment
a = 4 b = 10 c = 20
After completion of call
v1 = 4 v2 = 10 v3 = 20

187
Ex2:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUN(a

in number,b out number,c in out number) return number

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('After call');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a || ' b = ' || b || ' c = ' || c);
dbms_output.put_line('Before assignement Result = ' || (a*nvl(b,1)*c));
b := 5;
c := 7;
dbms_output.put_line('After assignment');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a || ' b = ' || b || ' c = ' || c);
return (a*b*c);
END FUN;
DECLARE

v1 number := 1;
v2 number := 2;
v3 number := 3;
v number;
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Before call');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 = ' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
v := fun(v1,v2,v3);
dbms_output.put_line('After call completed');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 = ' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
dbms_output.put_line('Result = ' || v);
END;

Output:
Before call
v1 = 1 v2 = 2 v3 = 3
After call
a=1b= c=3
Before assignement Result = 3
After assignment
a=1b=5c=7
After call completed
v1 = 1 v2 = 5 v3 = 7

IS

188
Result = 35

RESTRICTIONS ON FORMAL PARAMETERS

By declaring with specified size in actual parameters.

By declaring formal parameters with %type specifier.

USING NOCOPY

Nocopy is a hint, not a command. This means that the compiler might silently decide that
it cant fulfill your request for a nocopy parameter.

The copying from formal to actual can be restricted by issuing nocopy qualifier.

To pass the out and in out parameters by reference use nocopy qualifier.

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE PROC(a

in out nocopy number) IS

BEGIN
---END PROC;

CALL AND EXEC

Call is a

SQL

statement, which can be used to execute subprograms like exec.

Syntax:
Call subprogram_name([argument_list]) [into host_variable];

The parantheses are always required, even if the subprogram takes no arguments.

We can not use call with out and in out parameters.

Call is a

The

We can not use exec with out or in out parameters.

Exec is not valid inside a

SQL

INTO

statement, it is not valid inside a

PL/SQL

block;

clause is used for the output variables of functions only.

PL/SQL

block;

189
Ex1:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROC IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('hello world');
END PROC;

Output:
SQL>

call proc();
hello world

Ex2:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROC(a

in number,b in number)

IS

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a || ' b = ' || b);

END PROC;

Output:
SQL>

call proc(5,6);
a=5b=6

Ex3:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION FUN RETURN VARCHAR IS
BEGIN

return 'hello world';

END FUN;

Output:
SQL>

variable v varchar(20)

SQL>

call fun() into :v;

SQL>

print v
hello world

CALL BY REFERENCE AND CALL BY VALUE

In parameters by default call by reference where as out and in out call by value.

When parameter passed by reference, a pointer to the actual parameter is passed to the
corresponding formal parameter.

190

When parameter passed by value it copies the value of the actual parameter to the
formal parameter.

Call by reference is faster than the call by value because it avoids the copying.

SUBPROGRAMS OVERLOADING

Possible with different number of parameters.

Possible with different types of data.

Possible with same type with objects.

Can not be possible with different types of modes.

We can overload local subprograms also.

Ex:
SQL>

create or replace type t1 as object(a number);/

SQL>

create or replace type t1 as object(a number);/

DECLARE

i t1 := t1(5);
j t2 := t2(5);
PROCEDURE P(m t1) IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || m.a);

END P;
PROCEDURE P(n t2) IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('b = ' || n.b);

END P;
PROCEDURE PRODUCT(a number,b number) IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Product of a,b = ' || a * b);

END PRODUCT;
PROCEDURE PRODUCT(a number,b number,c number) IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Product of a,b = ' || a * b * c);

END PRODUCT;
BEGIN

p(i);

191
p(j);
product(4,5);
product(4,5,6);
END;

Output:
a=5
b=5
Product of a,b = 20
Product of a,b = 120
BENEFITS OF OVERLOADING

Supporting many data combinations

Fitting the program to the user.

RESTRICTIONS ON OVERLOADING

Overloaded programs with parameter lists that differ only by name must be called using
named notation.

The parameter list of overloaded programs must differ by more than parameter mode.

All of the overloaded programs must be defined within the same

Overloaded functions must differ by more than their return type.

PL/SQL

scope or block.

IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT SUBPROGRAMS

When a stored subprogram is created, it is stored in the data dictionary.

The subprogram is stored in compile form which is known as p-code in addition to the
source text.

The p-code has all of the references in the subprogram evaluated, and the source code is
translated into a form that is easily readable by

PL/SQL

engine.

When the subprogram is called, the p-code is read from the disk, if necessary, and
executed.

192

Once it reads from the disk, the p-code is stored in the shared pool portion of the system
global area

(SGA),

where it can be accessed by multiple users as needed.

Like all of the contents of the shared pool, p-code is aged out of the shared pool
according to a least recently used

(LRU)

algorithm.

Subprograms can be local.

Local subprograms must be declared in the declarative section of

PL/SQL

block and called

from the executable section.

Subprograms can not have the declarative section separately.

Stored subprograms can have local subprograms;

Local subprograms also can have local subprograms.

If the subprogram contains a variable with the same name as the column name of the
table then use the dot method to differentiate (subprogram_name.sal).

Subprograms can be invalidated.

PROCEDURES V FUNCTIONS

Procedures may return through out and in out parameters where as function must
return.

Procedures can not have return clause where as functions must.

We can use call statement directly for executing procedure where as we need to declare
a variable in case of functions.

Functions can use in select statements where as procedures can not.

Functions can call from reports environment where as procedures can not.

We can use exec for executing procedures where as functions can not.

Function can be used in dbms_output where as procedure can not.

Procedure call is a standalone executable statement where as function call is a part of an

executable statement.

STORED V LOCAL SUBPROGRAMS

The stored subprogram is stored in compiled p-code in the database, when the procedure
is called it does not have to be compiled.
The local subprogram is compiled as part of its containing block. If the containing block
is anonymous and is run multiple times, the subprogram has to be compiled each time.

193

Stored subprograms can be called from any block submitted by a user who has execute
privileges on the subprogram.
Local subprograms can be called only from the block containing the subprogram.

By keeping the stored subprogram code separate from the calling block, the calling block
is shorter and easier to understand.
The local subprogram and the calling block are one and the same, which can lead to part
confusion. If a change to the calling block is made, the subprogram will be recompiled as
of the recompilation of the containing block.

The compiled p-code can be pinned in the shared pool using the DBMS_SHARED_POOL
Package. This can improve performance.
Local subprograms cannot be pinned in the shared pool by themselves.

Stand alone stored subprograms can not be overloaded, but packaged subprograms can
be overloaded within the same package.

Local subprograms can be overloaded within the same block.

Ex1:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Stored subprogram');
END;

Output:
SQL>

exec p

Stored subprogram
Ex2:
DECLARE
PROCEDURE P IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Local subprogram');
END;
BEGIN

p;
END;

Output:

194
Local subprogram
COMPILING SUBPROGRAMS

SQL>

Alter procedure P1 compile;

SQL>

Alter function F1 compile;

SUBPROGRAMS DEPENDECIES

A stored subprogram is marked as invalid in the data dictionary if it has compile errors.

A stored subprogram can also become invalid if a DDL operation is performed on one of
its dependent objects.

If a subprogram is invalidated, the

PL/SQL

engine will automatically attempt to recompile

in the next time it is called.

If we have two procedures like P1 and P2 in which P1 depends on P2. If we compile P2

then P1 is invalidated.

SUBPROGRAMS DEPENDENCIES IN REMOTE DATABASES

We will call remote subprogram using connect string like P1@ORACLE;

If we have two procedures like P1 and P2 in which P1 depends on P2 but P2 was in

remote database. If we compile P2 it will not invalidate P1 immediately because the data
dictionary does not track remote dependencies.

Instead the validity of remote objects is checked at runtime. When P1 is called, the
remote data dictionary is queried to determine the status of P2.

P1 and P2 are compared to see it P1 needs to be recompiled, there are two different
methods of comparision
Timestamp Model
Signature Model

TIMESTAMP MODEL

This is the default model used by oracle.

195

With this model, the timestamps of the last modifications of the two objects are
compared.

The last_ddl_time field of user_objects contains the timestamp.

If the base object has a newer timestamp than the dependent object, the dependent
object will be recompiled.

ISSUES WITH THIS MODEL

If the objects are in different time zones, the comparison is invalid.

When P1 is in a client side

PL/SQL

engine such as oracle forms, in this case it may not

possible to recompile P1, because the source for it may not be included with the forms.
SIGNATURE MODEL

When a procedure is created, a signature is stored in the data dictionary in addition to

the p-code.

The signature encodes the types and order of the parametes.

When P1 is compiled the first time, the signature of P2 is included. Thus, P1 only needs
to recompiled when the signature of P2 changes.

In order to use the signature model, the parameter

set to

SIGNATURE.

REMOTE_DEPENDENCIES_MODE

must be

This is a parameter in the database initialization file.

THREE WAYS OF SETTING THIS MODE

Add the line

REMOTE_DEPENDENCIES_MODE=SIGNATURE

to the database initialization file. The

next time the database is started, the mode will be set to

SIGNATURE

for all sessions.

Alter system set remote_dependencies_mode = signature;

This will affect the entire database (all sessions) from the time the statement is issued.
You must have the

ALTER SYSTEM

privilege to issue this command.

Alter session set remote_dependencies_mode = signature;

This will only affect your session

ISSUES WITH THIS MODEL

Signatures dont get modified if the default values of formal parameters are changed.

196

Suppose P2 has a default value for one of its parameters, and P1 is using this default
value. If the default in the specification for P2 is changed, P1 will not be recompiled
by default. The old value for the default parameter will still be used until P1 is manually
recompiled.

If P1 is calling a packaged procedure P2, and a new overloaded version of P2 is added to

the remote package, the signature is not changed. P1 will still use the old version
(not the new overloaded one) until P1 is recompiled manually.

FORWARD DECLERATION
Before going to use the procedure in any other subprogram or other block , you must declare
the prototype of the procedure in declarative section.
Ex1:
DECLARE
PROCEDURE P1 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('From procedure p1');

p2;
END P1;
PROCEDURE P2 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('From procedure p2');

p3;
END P2;
PROCEDURE P3 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('From procedure p3');

END P3;
BEGIN

p1;
END;

Output:
p2;
*

197
ERROR at line 5:
ORA-06550: line 5, column 1:
PLS-00313: 'P2' not declared in this scope
ORA-06550: line 5, column 1:
PL/SQL: Statement ignored
ORA-06550: line 10, column 1:
PLS-00313: 'P3' not declared in this scope
ORA-06550: line 10, column 1:
PL/SQL: Statement ignored
Ex2:
DECLARE
PROCEDURE P2;

-- forward declaration

PROCEDURE P3;
PROCEDURE P1 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('From procedure p1');

p2;
END P1;
PROCEDURE P2 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('From procedure p2');

p3;
END P2;
PROCEDURE P3 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('From procedure p3');

END P3;
BEGIN

p1;
END;

Output:
From procedure p1
From procedure p2
From procedure p3
PRIVILEGES AND STORED SUBPROGRAMS

198

EXECUTE PREVILEGE

For stored subprograms and packages the relevant privilege is

EXECUTE.

If user A had the procedure called emp_proc then user A grants execute privilege on
procedure to user B with the following command.
SQL>

Grant execute on emp_proc to user B.

Then user B can run the procedure by issuing

SQL>

Exec user A.emp_proc

User A created the following procedure

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS

cursor is select *from student1;

BEGIN

for v in c loop
insert into student2 values(v.no,v.name,v.marks);
end loop;
END P;

User A granted execute privilege to userB using

SQL>

grant execute on p to userB

Then userB executed the procedure

SQL>

Exec userA.p

If suppose userB also having student2 table then which table will populate whether userAs or
userBs.
The answer is userAs student2 table only because by default the procedure will execute under
the privlige set of its owner.
The above procedure is known as definers procedure.
HOW TO POPULATE USER Bs TABLE

Oracle introduces Invokers and Definers rights.

199
By default it will use the definers rights.
An invokers rights routine can be created by using

AUTHID

clause to populate the

userBs table.
It is valid for stand-alone subprograms, package specifications, and object type
specifications only.
userA created the following procedure
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P
AUTHID CURRENT_USER IS

cursor is select *from student1;

BEGIN

for v in c loop
insert into student2 values(v.no,v.name,v.marks);
end loop;
END P;

Then grant execute privilege on p to userB.

Executing the procedure by userB, which populates userBs table.
The above procedure is called invokers procedure.
Instead of current_user of authid clause, if you use definer then it will be called definer
procedure.
STORED SUBPROGRAMS AND ROLES

we have two users saketh and sudha in which saketh has student table and sudha does not.
Sudha is going to create a procedure based on student table owned by saketh. Before doing
this saketh must grant the permissions on this table to sudha.

SQL>

conn saketh/saketh

SQL>

grant all on student to sudha;

then sudha can create procedure

SQL>

conn sudha/sudha

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS

200
cursor c is select *from saketh.student;
BEGIN

for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line(No = || v.no);
end loop;
END P;

here procedure will be created.

If the same privilege was granted through a role it wont create the procedure.
Examine the following code

SQL>

conn saketh/saketh

SQL>

create role saketh_role;

SQL>

grant all on student to saketh_role;

SQL>

grant saketh_role to sudha;

then conn sudha/sudha

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS

cursor c is select *from saketh.student;

BEGIN

for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line(No = || v.no);
end loop;
END P;

The above code will raise error instead of creating procedure .

This is because of early binding which

PL/SQL

uses by default in which references are evaluated

in compile time but when you are using a role this will affect immediately.

ISSUES WITH INVOKERS RIGHTS

In an invokers rights routine, external references in

SQL

statements will be resolved

using the callers privilege set.

But references in

PL/SQL

statements are still resolved under the owners privilege set.

201
TRIGGERS, VIEWS AND INVOKERS RIGHTS

A database trigger will always be executed with definers rights and will execute under
the privilege set of the schema that owns the triggering table.

This is also true for

PL/SQL

function that is called from a view. In this case, the function

will execute under the privilege set of the views owner.

PACKAGES
A package is a container for related objects. It has specification and body. Each of them is
stored separately in data dictionary.
PACKAGE SYNTAX
Create or replace package <package_name> is
-- package specification includes subprograms signatures, cursors and global or public
variables.
End <package_name>;
Create or replace package body <package_name> is
-- package body includes body for all the subprograms declared in the spec, private
Variables and cursors.
Begin
-- initialization section
Exception
-- Exception handling seciton
End <package_name>;
IMPORTANT POINGS ABOUT PACKAGES

202

The first time a packaged subprogram is called or any reference to a packaged variable
or type is made, the package is instantiated.

Each session will have its own copy of packaged variables, ensuring that two sessions
executing subprograms in the same package use different memory locations.

In many cases initialization needs to be run the first time the package is instantiated
within a session. This can be done by adding initialization section to the package body
after all the objects.

Packages are stored in the data dictionary and can not be local.

Packaged subprograms has an advantage over stand alone subprogram.

When ever any reference to package, the whole package p-code was stored in shared
pool of

SGA.

Package may have local subprograms.

You can include authid clause inside the package spec not in the body.

The execution section of a package is know as initialization section.

You can have an exception section at the bottom of a package body.

Packages subprograms are not invalidated.

COMPILING PACKAGES

SQL>

Alter package PKG compile;

SQL>

Alter package PKG compile specification;

SQL>

Alter package PKG compile body;

PACKAGE DEPENDENCIES

The package body depends on the some objects and the package header.

The package header does not depend on the package body, which is an advantage of
packages.

We can change the package body with out changing the header.

PACKAGE RUNTIME STATE

Package runtime state is differ for the following packages.

Serially reusable packages

203
Non serially reusable packages

SERIALLY REUSABLE PACKAGES

To force the oracle to use serially reusable version then include

both package spec and body, Examine the following package.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

pragma serially_reusable;
procedure emp_proc;
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS

pragma serially_reusable;
cursor c is select ename from emp;
PROCEDURE EMP_PROC IS

v_ename emp.ename%type;
v_flag boolean := true;
v_numrows number := 0;
BEGIN

if not c%isopen then

open c;
end if;
while v_flag loop
fetch c into v_ename;
v_numrows := v_numrows + 1;
if v_numrows = 5 then
v_flag := false;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' || v_ename);
end loop;
END EMP_PROC;
END PKG;

SQL>

exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename =

SMITH

Ename =

ALLEN

PRAGMA SERIALLY_REUSABLE

in

204
Ename =

WARD

Ename = JONES
Ename =

SQL>

MARTIN

exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename =

SMITH

Ename =

ALLEN

Ename =

WARD

Ename =

JONES

Ename =

MARTIN

The above package displays the same output for each execution even though the cursor
is not closed.

Because the serially reusable version resets the state of the cursor each time it was
called.

NON SERIALL Y REUSABLE PACKAGES

This is the default version used by the oracle, examine the following package.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

procedure emp_proc;
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY IS

cursor c is select ename from emp;

PROCEDURE EMP_PROC IS

v_ename emp.ename%type;
v_flag boolean := true;
v_numrows number := 0;
BEGIN

if not c%isopen then

open c;
end if;
while v_flag loop
fetch c into v_ename;

205
v_numrows := v_numrows + 1;
if v_numrows = 5 then
v_flag := false;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' || v_ename);
end loop;
END EMP_PROC;
END PKG;

SQL>

SQL>

exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename =

SMITH

Ename =

ALLEN

Ename =

WARD

Ename =

JONES

Ename =

MARTIN

exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename =

BLAKE

Ename =

CLARK

Ename =

SCOTT

Ename =

KING

Ename =

TURNER

The above package displays the different output for each execution even though the
cursor is not closed.

Because the non-serially reusable version remains the state of the cursor over database
calls.

DEPENDENCIES OF PACKAGE RUNTIME STATE

Dependencies can exists between package state and anonymous blocks.

Examine the following program
Create this package in first session
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

206
v number := 5;
procedure p;
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS

PROCEDURE P IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('v = ' || v);

v := 10;
dbms_output.put_line('v = ' || v);
END P;
END PKG;

Connect to second session, run the following code.

BEGIN

pkg.p;
END;

The above code wil work.

Go back to first session and recreate the package using create.
Then connect to second session and run the following code again.
BEGIN

pkg.p;
END;

This above code will not work because of the following.

The anonymous block depends on pkg. This is compile time dependency.

There is also a runtime dependency on the packaged variables, since each session has its
own copy of packaged variables.

Thus when pkg is recompiled the runtime dependency is followed, which invalidates the
block and raises the oracle error.

Runtime dependencies exist only on package state. This includes variables and cursors
declared in a package.

207

If the package had no global variables, the second execution of the anonymous block
would have succeeded.

PURITY LEVELS
In general, calls to subprograms are procedural, they cannot be called from

SQL

statements.

However, if a stand-alone or packaged function meets certain restrictions, it can be called

during execution of a SQL statement.
User-defined functions are called the same way as built-in functions but it must meet different
restrictions. These restrictions are defined in terms of purity levels.
There are four types of purity levels.

WNDS

--

Writes No Database State

RNDS

--

Reads No Database State

WNPS

--

Writes No Package State

RNPS

--

Reads No Package State

In addition to the preceding restrictions, a user-defined function must also meet the following
requirements to be called from a

SQL

statement.

The function has to be stored in the database, either stand-alone or as part of a package.

The function can take only in parametes.

The formal parameters must use only database types, not

PL/SQL

types such as boolean

or record.

The return type of the function must also be a database type.

The function must not end the current transaction with commit or rollback, or rollback to
a savepoint prior to the function execution.

It also must not issue any alter session or alter system commands.

RESTRICT_REFERENCES

For packaged functions, however, the

purity level of a given function.

RESTRICT_REFERENCES

pragma is required to specify the

208

Syntax:
PRAGMA RESTRICT_REFERENCES(subprogram_name

or package_name,

WNDS [,WNPS] [,RNDS]

[,RNPS]);

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

function fun1 return varchar;

pragma restrict_references(fun1,wnds);
function fun2 return varchar;
pragma restrict_references(fun2,wnds);
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS

FUNCTION FUN1

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

update dept set deptno = 11;

return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

update dept set dname ='aa';

return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;

The above package body will not created, it will give the following erros.
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN1' violates its associated pragma
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN2' violates its associated pragma
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2
BEGIN

return varchar

IS

209
return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;

Now the package body will be created.

DEFAULT

If there is no

RESTRICT_REFERENCES

pragma associated with a given packaged function, it will not

have any purity level asserted. However, you can change the default purity level for a package.
The

DEFAULT

keyword is used instead of the subprogram name in the pragma.

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

pragma restrict_references(default,wnds);
function fun1 return varchar;
function fun2 return varchar;
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS

FUNCTION FUN1

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

update dept set deptno = 11;

return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

update dept set dname ='aa';

return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;

The above package body will not created, it will give the following erros because the pragma
will apply to all the functions.
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN1' violates its associated pragma
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN2' violates its associated pragma

210
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;

Now the package body will be created.

TRUST

If the

TRUST

keyword is present, the restrictions listed in the pragma are not enforced. Rather,

they are trusted to be true.

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

function fun1 return varchar;

pragma restrict_references(fun1,wnds,trust);
function fun2 return varchar;
pragma restrict_references(fun2,wnds,trust);
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS

FUNCTION FUN1

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

update dept set deptno = 11;

return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2

return varchar

IS

BEGIN

update dept set dname ='aa';

return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;

211
The above package will be created successfully.
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT RESTRICT_REFERENCES

This pragma can appear anywhere in the package specification, after the function
declaration.

It can apply to only one function definition.

For overload functions, the pragma applies to the nearest definition prior to the pragma.

This pragma is required only for packages functions not for stand-alone functions.

The Pragma can be declared only inside the package specification.

The pragma is checked at compile time, not runtime.

It is possible to specify without any purity levels when trust or combination of default
and trust keywords are present.

PINNING IN THE SHARED POOL

The shared pool is the portion of the SGS that contains, among other things, the p-code of
compiled subprograms as they are run. The first time a stored a store subprogram is called, the
p-code is loaded from disk into the shared pool. Once the object is no longer referenced, it is
free to be aged out. Objects are aged out of the shared pool using an

LRU(Least

Recently Used)

algorithm.
The

DBMS_SHARED_POOL

package allows you to pin objects in the shared pool. When an object is

pinned, it will never be aged out until you request it, no matter how full the pool gets or how
often the object is accessed. This can improve performance, as it takes time to reload a
package from disk.

DBMS_SHARED_POOL

has four procedures

KEEP

UNKEEP

SIZES

ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD

212
KEEP

The

DBMS_SHARED_POOL.KEEP

procedure is used to pin objects in the pool.

Syntax:
PROCEDURE KEEP(object_name

varchar2,flag char default P);

Here the flag represents different types of flag values for different types of objects.
P

--

Package, function or procedure

--

Sequence

--

Trigger

--

SQL Cursor

--

Object type

JS

--

Java source

JC

--

Java class

JR

--

Java resource

JD

--

Java shared data

UNKEEP

UNKEEP

is the only way to remove a kept object from the shared pool, without restarting the

database. Kept objects are never aged out automatically.

Syntax:
PROCEDURE UNKEEP(object_name

varchar2, flag char default P);

SIZES

SIZES

will echo the contents of the shared pool to the screen.

Syntax:
PROCEDURE SIZES(minsize

number);

Objects with greater than the minsize will be returned.

data.

SIZES

uses

DBMS_OUTPUT

to return the

213
ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD

When the database determines that there is not enough memory in the shared pool to satisfy a
given request, it will begin aging objects out until there is enough memory. It enough objects
are aged out, this can have a performance impact on other database sessions. The
ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD

can be used to remedy this.

Syntax:
PROCEDURE ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD(threshold_size

number);

Once this procedure is called, oracle will not start aging objects from the pool unless at least
threshold_size bytes is needed.

DATA MODEL FOR SUBPROGRAMS AND PACKAGES

USER_OBJECTS

USER_SOURCE

USER_ERRORS

DBA_OBJECTS

DBA_SOURCE

DBA_ERRORS

ALL_OBJECTS

ALL_SOURCE

ALL_ERRORS

214

CURSORS
Cursor is a pointer to memory location which is called as context area which contains the
information necessary for processing, including the number of rows processed by the
statement, a pointer to the parsed representation of the statement, and the active set which is
the set of rows returned by the query.
Cursor contains two parts
Header
Body

Header includes cursor name, any parameters and the type of data being loaded.
Body includes the select statement.
Ex:
Cursor c(dno in number) return dept%rowtype is select *from dept;
In the above

215
Header cursor c(dno in number) return dept%rowtype
Body select *from dept
CURSOR TYPES

Implicit (SQL)

Explicit
Parameterized cursors
REF cursors

CURSOR STAGES

Open

Fetch

Close

CURSOR ATTRIBUTES

%found

%notfound

%rowcount

%isopen

%bulk_rowcount

%bulk_exceptions

CURSOR DECLERATION
Syntax:
Cursor <cursor_name> is select statement;
Ex:
Cursor c is select *from dept;

216
CURSOR LOOPS

Simple loop

While loop

For loop

SIMPLE LOOP

Syntax:
Loop
Fetch <cursor_name> into <record_variable>;
Exit when <cursor_name> % notfound;
<statements>;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE

cursor c is select * from student;

v_stud student%rowtype;
BEGIN

open c;
loop
fetch c into v_stud;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' || v_stud.name);
end loop;
close c;
END;

Output:
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
WHILE LOOP

217

Syntax:
While <cursor_name> % found loop
Fetch <cursor_name> nto <record_variable>;
<statements>;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE

cursor c is select * from student;

v_stud student%rowtype;
BEGIN

open c;
fetch c into v_stud;
while c%found loop
fetch c into v_stud;
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' || v_stud.name);
end loop;
close c;
END;

Output:
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
FOR LOOP

Syntax:
for <record_variable> in <cursor_name> loop
<statements>;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE

cursor c is select * from student;

BEGIN

218
for v_stud in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' || v_stud.name);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
PARAMETARIZED CURSORS
This was used when you are going to use the cursor in more than one place with

different values for the same where clause.

Cursor parameters must be in mode.

Cursor parameters may have default values.

The scope of cursor parameter is within the select statement.

Ex:
DECLARE

cursor c(dno in number) is select * from dept where deptno = dno;

v_dept dept%rowtype;
BEGIN

open c(20);
loop
fetch c into v_dept;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' || v_dept.dname || ' Loc = ' || v_dept.loc);
end loop;
close c;
END;

Output:
Dname =

RESEARCH

Loc =

DALLAS

219
PACKAGED CURSORS WITH HEADER IN SPEC AND BODY IN PACKAGE BODY

cursors declared in packages will not close automatically.

In packaged cursors you can modify the select statement without making any changes to
the cursor header in the package specification.

Packaged cursors with must be defined in the package body itself, and then use it as
global for the package.

You can not define the packaged cursor in any subprograms.

Cursor declaration in package with out body needs the return clause.

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS

cursor c return dept%rowtype is select * from dept;

procedure proc is
END PKG;

CREATE OR REPLACE PAKCAGE BODY PKG IS

cursor c return dept%rowtype is select * from dept;

PROCEDURE PROC IS
BEGIN

for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno = ' || v.deptno || ' Dname = ' || v.dname || '
Loc = ' || v.loc);
end loop;
END PROC;
END PKG;

Output:
SQL>

exec pkg.proc
Deptno = 10 Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Deptno = 20 Dname =

RESEARCH

Deptno = 30 Dname =

SALES

Deptno = 40 Dname =

OPERATIONS

Loc =

Loc =

Loc =

NEW YORK

DALLAS

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

CREATE OR REPLACE PAKCAGE BODY PKG IS

cursor c return dept%rowtype is select * from dept where deptno > 20;
PROCEDURE PROC IS
BEGIN

220
for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno = ' || v.deptno || ' Dname = ' || v.dname || '
Loc = ' || v.loc);
end loop;
END PROC;
END PKG;

Output:
SQL>

exec pkg.proc
Deptno = 30 Dname =

SALES

Loc =

Deptno = 40 Dname =

OPERATIONS

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

REF CURSORS AND CURSOR VARIABLES

This is unconstrained cursor which will return different types depends upon the user
input.

Ref cursors can not be closed implicitly.

Ref cursor with return type is called strong cursor.

Ref cursor with out return type is called weak cursor.

You can declare ref cursor type in package spec as well as body.

You can declare ref cursor types in local subprograms or anonymous blocks.

Cursor variables can be assigned from one to another.

You can declare a cursor variable in one scope and assign another cursor variable with
different scope, then you can use the cursor variable even though the assigned cursor
variable goes out of scope.

Cursor variables can be passed as a parameters to the subprograms.

Cursor variables modes are in or out or in out.

Cursor variables can not be declared in package spec and package body (excluding
subprograms).

You can not user remote procedure calls to pass cursor variables from one server to
another.

Cursor variables can not use for update clause.

You can not assign nulls to cursor variables.

You can not compare cursor variables for equality, inequality and nullity.

221
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE REF_CURSOR(TABLE_NAME IN VARCHAR) IS

type t is ref cursor;

c t;
v_dept dept%rowtype;
type r is record(ename emp.ename%type,job emp.job%type,sal emp.sal%type);
v_emp r;
v_stud student.name%type;
BEGIN

if table_name =

'DEPT'

then

open c for select * from dept;

elsif table_name =

then

'EMP'

open c for select ename,job,sal from emp;

elsif table_name =

'STUDENT'

then

open c for select name from student;

end if;
loop
if table_name =

'DEPT'

then

fetch c into v_dept;

exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno = ' || v_dept.deptno || ' Dname = ' ||
v_dept.dname

|| ' Loc = ' || v_dept.loc);

elsif table_name =

'EMP'

then

fetch c into v_emp;

exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' || v_emp.ename || ' Job = ' || v_emp.job || ' Sal
= ' || v_emp.sal);
elsif table_name =

'STUDENT'

then

fetch c into v_stud;

exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' || v_stud);
end if;
end loop;
close c;
END;

222
Output:
SQL>

Deptno = 10 Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Deptno = 20 Dname =

RESEARCH

Deptno = 30 Dname =

SALES

Deptno = 40 Dname =

OPERATIONS

SQL>

SQL>

exec ref_cursor('DEPT')
Loc =

Loc =

Loc =

NEW YORK

DALLAS

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

exec ref_cursor('EMP')

Ename =

SMITH

Job =

CLERK

Ename =

ALLEN

Job =

SALESMAN

Sal = 1600

Ename =

WARD

Job =

SALESMAN

Sal = 1250

Ename =

JONES

Job =

MANAGER

Ename =

MARTIN

Ename =

BLAKE

Job =

MANAGER

Sal = 2850

Ename =

CLARK

Job =

MANAGER

Sal = 2450

Ename =

SCOTT

Job =

ANALYST

Ename =

KING

Ename =

TURNER

Ename =

ADAMS

Ename =

JAMES

Ename =

FORD

Ename =

MILLER

Job =

Job =

Job =
Job =

CLERK

Sal = 1250

Sal = 3000
Sal = 5000

SALESMAN

Sal = 1500

Sal = 1100

CLERK

Sal = 950

ANALYST

Job =

Sal = 2975

SALESMAN

PRESIDENT

Job =

Job =

Sal = 800

CLERK

Sal = 3000

Sal = 1300

exec ref_cursor('STUDENT')
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha

CURSOR EXPRESSIONS

You can use cursor expressions in explicit cursors.

223

You can use cursor expressions in dynamic SQL.

You can use cursor expressions in REF cursor declarations and variables.

You can not use cursor expressions in implicit cursors.

Oracle opens the nested cursor defined by a cursor expression implicitly as soon as it
fetches the data containing the cursor expression from the parent or outer cursor.

Nested cursor closes if you close explicitly.

Nested cursor closes whenever the outer or parent cursor is executed again or closed or
canceled.

Nested cursor closes whenever an exception is raised while fetching data from a parent
cursor.

Cursor expressions can not be used when declaring a view.

Cursor expressions can be used as an argument to table function.

You can not perform bind and execute operations on cursor expressions when using the
cursor expressions in dynamic SQL.

USING NESTED CURSORS OR CURSOR EXPRESSIONS

Ex:
DECLARE

cursor c is select ename,cursor(select dname from dept d where e.empno = d.deptno)

from emp e;
type t is ref cursor;
c1 t;
c2 t;
v1 emp.ename%type;
v2 dept.dname%type;
BEGIN

open c;
loop
fetch c1 into v1;
exit when c1%notfound;
fetch c2 into v2;
exit when c2%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' || v1 || ' Dname = ' || v2);
end loop;

224
end loop;
close c;
END;

CURSOR CLAUSES

Return

For update

Where current of

Bulk collect

RETURN

Cursor c return dept%rowtype is select *from dept;

Or
Cursor c1 is select *from dept;
Cursor c return c1%rowtype is select *from dept;
Or
Type t is record(deptno dept.deptno%type, dname dept.dname%type);
Cursor c return t is select deptno, dname from dept;

FOR UPDATE AND WHERE CURRENT OF

Normally, a select operation will not take any locks on the rows being accessed. This will allow
other sessions connected to the database to change the data being selected. The result set is
still consistent. At open time, when the active set is determined, oracle takes a snapshot of the
table. Any changes that have been committed prior to this point are reflected in the active set.
Any changes made after this point, even if they are committed, are not reflected unless the
cursor is reopened, which will evaluate the active set again.
However, if the

FOR UPDATE

caluse is pesent, exclusive row locks are taken on the rows in the

active set before the open returns. These locks prevent other sessions from changing the rows
in the active set until the transaction is committed or rolled back. If another session already

225
has locks on the rows in the active set, then

SELECT FOR UPDATE

operation will wait for these

locks to be released by the other session. There is no time-out for this waiting period. The
SELECTFOR UPDATE

the

NOWAIT

will hang until the other session releases the lock. To handle this situation,

clause is available.

Syntax:
Select from for update of column_name [wait n];
If the cursor is declared with the

FOR UPDATE

clause, the

WHERE CURRENT OF

clause can be

used in an update or delete statement.

Syntax:
Where current of cursor;
Ex:
DECLARE

cursor c is select * from dept for update of dname;

BEGIN

for v in c loop
update dept set dname = 'aa' where current of c;
commit;
end loop;
END;

BULK COLLECT

This is used for array fetches

With this you can retrieve multiple rows of data with a single roundtrip.

This reduces the number of context switches between the pl/sql and sql engines.

Reduces the overhead of retrieving data.

You can use bulk collect in both dynamic and static sql.

You can use bulk collect in select, fetch into and returning into clauses.

SQL engine automatically initializes and extends the collections you reference in the bulk
collect clause.

Bulk collect operation empties the collection referenced in the into clause before
executing the query.

226

You can use the limit clause of bulk collect to restrict the no of rows retrieved.

You can fetch into multible collections with one column each.

Using the returning clause we can return data to the another collection.

BULK COLLECT IN FETCH

Ex:
DECLARE

Type t is table of dept%rowtype;

nt t;
Cursor c is select *from dept;
BEGIN

Open c;
Fetch c bulk collect into nt;
Close c;
For i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' || nt(i).dname || ' Loc = ' || nt(i).loc);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Dname =

RESEARCH

Dname =

SALES

Dname =

OPERATIONS

Loc =

Loc =

Loc =

NEW YORK

DALLAS

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

BULK COLLECT IN SELECT

Ex:
DECLARE

Type t is table of dept%rowtype;

Nt t;
BEGIN

Select * bulk collect into nt from dept;

for i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' || nt(i).dname || ' Loc = ' || nt(i).loc);
end loop;
END;

227

Output:
Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Dname =

RESEARCH

Dname =

SALES

Dname =

OPERATIONS

Loc =

Loc =

Loc =

NEW YORK

DALLAS

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

LIMIT IN BULK COLLECT

You can use this to limit the number of rows to be fetched.

Ex:
DECLARE

Type t is table of dept%rowtype;

nt t;
Cursor c is select *from dept;
BEGIN

Open c;
Fetch c bulk collect into nt limit 2;
Close c;
For i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' || nt(i).dname || ' Loc = ' || nt(i).loc);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Dname =

RESEARCH

Loc =

Loc =

NEW YORK

DALLAS

MULTIPLE FETCHES IN INTO CLAUSE

Ex1:
DECLARE

Type t is table of dept.dname%type;

nt t;
Type t1 is table of dept.loc%type;
nt1 t;

228
Cursor c is select dname,loc from dept;
BEGIN

Open c;
Fetch c bulk collect into nt,nt1;
Close c;
For i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
For i in nt1.first..nt1.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Loc = ' || nt1(i));
end loop;
END;

Output:
Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Dname =

RESEARCH

Dname =

SALES

Dname =

OPERATIONS

Loc =

NEW YORK

Loc =

DALLAS

Loc =

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

Ex2:
DECLARE

type t is table of dept.dname%type;

type t1 is table of dept.loc%type;
nt t;
nt1 t1;
BEGIN

Select dname,loc bulk collect into nt,nt1 from dept;

for i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
for i in nt1.first..nt1.last loop

229
dbms_output.put_line('Loc = ' || nt1(i));
end loop;
END;

Output:
Dname =

ACCOUNTING

Dname =

RESEARCH

Dname =

SALES

Dname =

OPERATIONS

Loc =

NEW YORK

Loc =

DALLAS

Loc =

CHICAGO

Loc =

BOSTON

RETURNING CLAUSE IN BULK COLLECT

You can use this to return the processed data to the ouput variables or typed variables.
Ex:
DECLARE

type t is table of number(2);

nt t := t(1,2,3,4);
type t1 is table of varchar(2);
nt1 t1;
type t2 is table of student%rowtype;
nt2 t2;
BEGIN

select name bulk collect into nt1 from student;

forall v in nt1.first..nt1.last
update student set no = nt(v) where name = nt1(v) returning
no,name,marks bulk collect into nt2;
for v in nt2.first..nt2.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Marks = ' || nt2(v));
end loop;
END;

Output:

230
Marks = 100
Marks = 200
Marks = 300
Marks = 400
POINTS TO REMEMBER

Cursor name can be up to 30 characters in length.

Cursors declared in anonymous blocks or subprograms closes automatically when that

block terminates execution.

%bulk_rowcount and %bulk_exceptions can be used only with forall construct.

Cursor declarations may have expressions with column aliases.

These expressions are called virtual columns or calculated columns.

SQL IN PL/SQL
The only statements allowed directly in pl/sql are

DML

and

TCL.

BINDING
Binding a variable is the process of identifying the storage location associated with an
identifier in the program.
Types of binding

231

Early binding

Late binding

Binding during the compiled phase is early binding.

Binding during the runtime phase is late binding.

In early binding compile phase will take longer because of binding work but the execution
is faster.

In late binding it will shorten the compile phase but lengthens the execution time.

PL/SQL

Binding also involves checking the database for permissions to access the object

by default uses early binding.

Referenced.
DYNAMIC SQL

If you use

DDL

in pl/sql it validates the permissions and existence if requires during

compile time which makes invalid.

We can avoid this by using Dynamic

SQL.

Dynamic SQL allows you to create a SQL statement dynamically at runtime.

Two techniques are available for Dynamic

Native Dynamic SQL

DBMS_SQL package

SQL.

USING NATIVE DYNAMIC SQL

USING EXECUTE IMMEDIATE

Ex:
BEGIN

Execute immediate create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10));

or
Execute immediate (create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10)));
END;

232

USING EXECUTE IMMEDIATE WITH PL/SQL VARIABLES

Ex:
DECLARE

v varchar(100);
BEGIN

v := 'create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10))';

execute immediate v;
END;

USING EXECUTE IMMEDIATE WITH BIND VARIABLES AND USING CLAUSE

Ex:
DECLARE

v varchar(100);
BEGIN

v := 'insert into student values(:v1,:v2,:v3)';

execute immediate v using 6,'f',600;
END;

EXECUTING QUERIES WITH OPEN FOR AND USING CLAUSE

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P(smarks

in number)

IS

s varchar(100) := 'select *from student where marks > :m';

type t is ref cursor;
c t;
v student%rowtype;
BEGIN

open c for s using smarks;

loop
fetch c into v;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Student Marks = ' || v.marks);
end loop;
close c;
END;

233

Output:
SQL>

exec p(100)
Student Marks = 200
Student Marks = 300
Student Marks = 400

QUERIES WITH EXECUTE IMMEDIATE

Ex:
DECLARE

d_name dept.dname%type;
lc dept.loc%type;
v varchar(100);
BEGIN

v := 'select dname from dept where deptno = 10';

execute immediate v into d_name;
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = '|| d_name);
v := 'select loc from dept where dname = :dn';
execute immediate v into lc using d_name;
dbms_output.put_line('Loc = ' || lc);
END;

Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING
Loc = NEW YORK
VARIABLE NAMES

Ex:
DECLARE

Marks number(3) := 100;

BEGIN

Delete student where marks = marks;

-- this will delete all the rows in the student

table

END;

234
This can be avoided by using the labeled blocks.
<<my_block>>
DECLARE

Marks number(3) := 100;

BEGIN

Delete student where marks = my_block.marks;

-- delete rows which has a

marks of 100

END;

GETTING DATA INTO PL/SQL VARIABLES

Ex:
DECLARE

V1 number;
V2 varchar(2);
BEGIN

Select no,name into v1,v2 from student where marks = 100;

END;

DML AND RECORDS

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P(srow
BEGIN

insert into student values srow;

END P;

DECLARE

s student%rowtype;
BEGIN

s.no := 11;
s.name := 'aa';
s.marks := 100;
p(s);
END;

RECORD BASED INSERTS

in student%rowtype)

IS

235

Ex:
DECLARE

srow student%rowtype;
BEGIN

srow.no := 7;
srow.name := 'cc';
srow.marks := 500;
insert into student values srow;
END;

RECORD BASED UPDATES

Ex:
DECLARE

srow student%rowtype;
BEGIN

srow.no := 6;
srow.name := 'cc';
srow.marks := 500;
update student set row=srow where no = srow.no;
END;

USING RECORDS WITH RETURNING CLAUSE

Ex:
DECLARE

srow student%rowtype;
sreturn student%rowtype;
BEGIN

srow.no := 8;
srow.name := 'dd';
srow.marks := 500;
insert into student values srow returning no,name,marks into sreturn;
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' || sreturn.no);
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' || sreturn.name);
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' || sreturn.marks);
END;

236

Output:
No = 8
No = dd
No = 500
FORALL STATEMENT
This

can be used to get the data from the database at once by reducting the number of

context switches which is a transfer of control between

PL/SQL

and

SQL

engine.

Syntax:
Forall index_var in
[ Lower_bound..upper_bound |
Indices of indexing_collection |
Values of indexing_collection ]
SQL statement;
FORALL WITH NON-SEQUENTIAL ARRAYS

Ex:
DECLARE

type t is table of student.no%type index by binary_integer;

ibt t;
BEGIN

ibt(1) := 1;
ibt(10) := 2;
forall i in ibt.first..ibt.last
update student set marks = 900 where no = ibt(i);
END;

The above program will give error like element at index [2] does not exists.
You can rectify it in one of the two following ways.
USGAGE OF INDICES OF TO AVOID THE ABOVE BEHAVIOUR

Ex:

237
DECLARE

type t is table of student.no%type index by binary_integer;

ibt t;
type t1 is table of boolean index by binary_integer;
ibt1 t1;
BEGIN

ibt(1) := 1;
ibt(10) := 2;
ibt(100) := 3;
ibt1(1) := true;
ibt1(10) := true;
ibt1(100) := true;
forall i in indices of ibt1
update student set marks = 900 where no = ibt(i);
END;
USGAGE OF INDICES OF TO AVOID THE ABOVE BEHAVIOUR

Ex:
DECLARE

type t is table of student.no%type index by binary_integer;

ibt t;
type t1 is table of pls_integer index by binary_integer;
ibt1 t1;
BEGIN

ibt(1) := 1;
ibt(10) := 2;
ibt(100) := 3;
ibt1(11) := 1;
ibt1(15) := 10;
ibt1(18) := 100;
forall i in values of ibt1
update student set marks = 567 where no = ibt(i);
END;

POINTS ABOUT BULK BINDS

238

Passing the entire

Bulk binds are done using the forall statement.

If there is an error processing one of the rows in bulk DML operation, only that row is

PL/SQL

table to the

SQL

engine in one step is known as bulk bind.

rolled back.
POINTS ABOUT RETURING CLAUSE

This will be used only with

This will be useful in situations like , when performing insert or update or delete if you

DML

statements to return data into

PL/SQL

want to know the data of the table which has been effected by the

With out going for another

avoid a call to

RDBMS

SELECT

using

RETURNING

variables.

DML.

clause we will get the data which will

kernel.

COLLECTIONS
Collections are also composite types, in that they allow you to treat several variables as a unit.
A collection combines variables of the same type.
TYPES

Varrays

Nested tables

Index - by tables (Associate arrays)

239
VARRAYS
A varray is datatype very similar to an array. A varray has a fixed limit on its size, specified as
part of the declaration. Elements are inserted into varray starting at index 1, up to maximum
lenth declared in the varray type. The maximum size of the varray is 2 giga bytes.
Syntax:
Type <type_name> is varray | varying array (<limit>) of <element_type>;
Ex1:
DECLARE

type t is varray(10) of varchar(2);

va t := t('a','b','c','d');
flag boolean;
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' || va.limit);

dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' || va.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' || va.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' || va.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous Index = ' || va.prior(3));
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY

ELEMENTS');

for i in va.first..va.last loop

dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '] = ' || va(i));
end loop;
flag := va.exists(3);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists with an element ' || va(3));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 does not exists');
end if;
va.extend;
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one index, Count = ' || va.count);
flag := va.exists(5);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 exists with an element ' || va(5));
else

240
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 does not exists');
end if;
flag := va.exists(6);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 exists with an element ' || va(6));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 does not exists');
end if;
va.extend(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of two indexes, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY

ELEMENTS');

for i in va.first..va.last loop

dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '] = ' || va(i));
end loop;
va(5) := 'e';
va(6) := 'f';
va(7) := 'g';
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER ASSINGNING VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS,
VARRAY ELEMENTS');

for i in va.first..va.last loop

dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '] = ' || va(i));
end loop;
va.extend(3,2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of three indexes, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '] = ' || va(i));
end loop;
va.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one index, Count = ' || va.count);
va.trim(3);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of three indexs, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER TRIM, VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '] = ' || va(i));

241
end loop;
va.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire varray, Count = ' || va.count);
END;

Output:
Limit = 10
Count = 4
First Index = 1
Last Index = 4
Next Index = 3
Previous Index = 2
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
Index 3 exists with an element c
After extend of one index, Count = 5
Index 5 exists with an element
Index 6 does not exists
After extend of two indexes, Count = 7
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] =
va[6] =
va[7] =
AFTER ASSINGNING VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS, VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] = e

242
va[6] = f
va[7] = g
After extend of three indexes, Count = 10
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] = e
va[6] = f
va[7] = g
va[8] = b
va[9] = b
va[10] = b
After trim of one index, Count = 9
After trim of three indexs, Count = 6
AFTER TRIM, VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] = e
va[6] = f
After delete of entire varray, Count = 0
Ex2:
DECLARE

type t is varray(4) of student%rowtype;

va t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN

for i in 1..va.count loop

select * into va(i) from student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sno = ' || va(i).sno || ' Sname = ' || va(i).sname);
end loop;
END;

Output:

243
Sno = 1 Sname = saketh
Sno = 2 Sname = srinu
Sno = 3 Sname = divya
Sno = 4 Sname = manogni
Ex3:
DECLARE

type t is varray(4) of student.smarks%type;

va t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN

for i in 1..va.count loop

select smarks into va(i) from student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Smarks = ' || va(i));
end loop;
END;

Output:
Smarks = 100
Smarks = 200
Smarks = 300
Smarks = 400
Ex4:
DECLARE

type r is record(c1 student.sname%type,c2 student.smarks%type);

type t is varray(4) of r;
va t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN

for i in 1..va.count loop

select sname,smarks into va(i) from student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sname = ' || va(i).c1 || ' Smarks = ' || va(i).c2);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Sname = saketh Smarks = 100
Sname = srinu Smarks = 200

244
Sname = divya Smarks = 300
Sname = manogni Smarks = 400
Ex5:
DECLARE

type t is varray(1) of addr;

va t := t(null);
cursor c is select * from employ;
i number := 1;
BEGIN

for v in c loop
select address into va(i) from employ where ename = v.ename;
dbms_output.put_line('Hno = ' || va(i).hno || ' City = ' || va(i).city);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Hno = 11 City = hyd
Hno = 22 City = bang
Hno = 33 City = kochi
Ex6:
DECLARE

type t is varray(5) of varchar(2);

va1 t;
va2 t := t();
BEGIN

if va1 is null then

dbms_output.put_line('va1 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('va1 is not null');
end if;
if va2 is null then
dbms_output.put_line('va2 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('va2 is not null');

245
end if;
END;

Output:
va1 is null
va2 is not null

NESTED TABLES
A nested table is thought of a database table which has no limit on its size. Elements are
inserted into nested table starting at index 1. The maximum size of the varray is 2 giga bytes.
Syntax:
Type <type_name> is table of <table_type>;
Ex1:
DECLARE

type t is table of varchar(2);

nt t := t('a','b','c','d');
flag boolean;
BEGIN

if nt.limit is null then

dbms_output.put_line('No limit to Nested Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' || nt.limit);
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' || nt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' || nt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' || nt.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous Index = ' || nt.prior(3));
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;

246
flag := nt.exists(3);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists with an element ' || nt(3));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 does not exists');
end if;
nt.extend;
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one index, Count = ' || nt.count);
flag := nt.exists(5);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 exists with an element ' || nt(5));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 does not exists');
end if;
flag := nt.exists(6);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 exists with an element ' || nt(6));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 does not exists');
end if;
nt.extend(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of two indexes, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt(5) := 'e';
nt(6) := 'f';
nt(7) := 'g';
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER ASSINGNING VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS, NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');

for i in 1..nt.count loop

dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.extend(5,2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of five indexes, Count = ' || nt.count);

247
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one index, Count = ' || nt.count);
nt.trim(3);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of three indexs, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER TRIM, NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.delete(1);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of first index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 2..nt.count+1 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.delete(4);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of fourth index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 2..3 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
for i in 5..nt.count+2 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire nested table, Count = ' || nt.count);
END;

Output:
No limit to Nested Tables
Count = 4
First Index = 1
Last Index = 4

248
Next Index = 3
Previous Index = 2
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
Index 3 exists with an element c
After extend of one index, Count = 5
Index 5 exists with an element
Index 6 does not exists
After extend of two indexes, Count = 7
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] =
nt[6] =
nt[7] =
AFTER ASSINGNING VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS, NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
After extend of five indexes, Count = 12
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e

249
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
nt[9] = b
nt[10] = b
nt[11] = b
nt[12] = b
After trim of one index, Count = 11
After trim of three indexs, Count = 8
AFTER TRIM, NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
After delete of first index, Count = 7
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
After delete of fourth index, Count = 6
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b

250
After delete of entire nested table, Count = 0
Ex2:
DECLARE

type t is table of student%rowtype;

nt t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN

for i in 1..nt.count loop

select * into nt(i) from student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sno = ' || nt(i).sno || ' Sname = ' || nt(i).sname);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Sno = 1 Sname = saketh
Sno = 2 Sname = srinu
Sno = 3 Sname = divya
Sno = 4 Sname = manogni
Ex3:
DECLARE

type t is table of student.smarks%type;

nt t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN

for i in 1..nt.count loop

select smarks into nt(i) from student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Smarks = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
END;

Output:
Smarks = 100
Smarks = 200
Smarks = 300
Smarks = 400
Ex4:

251
DECLARE

type r is record(c1 student.sname%type,c2 student.smarks%type);

type t is table of r;
nt t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN

for i in 1..nt.count loop

select sname,smarks into nt(i) from student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sname = ' || nt(i).c1 || ' Smarks = ' || nt(i).c2);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Sname = saketh Smarks = 100
Sname = srinu Smarks = 200
Sname = divya Smarks = 300
Sname = manogni Smarks = 400
Ex5:
DECLARE

type t is table of addr;

nt t := t(null);
cursor c is select * from employ;
i number := 1;
BEGIN

for v in c loop
select address into nt(i) from employ where ename = v.ename;
dbms_output.put_line('Hno = ' || nt(i).hno || ' City = ' || nt(i).city);
end loop;
END;

Output:
Hno = 11 City = hyd
Hno = 22 City = bang
Hno = 33 City = kochi
Ex6:
DECLARE

252
type t is varray(5) of varchar(2);
nt1 t;
nt2 t := t();
BEGIN

if nt1 is null then

dbms_output.put_line('nt1 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('nt1 is not null');
end if;
if nt2 is null then
dbms_output.put_line('nt2 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('nt2 is not null');
end if;
END;

Output:
nt1 is null
nt2 is not null
INDEX-BY TABLES
An index-by table has no limit on its size. Elements are inserted into index-by table whose
index may start non-sequentially including negative integers.
Syntax:
Type <type_name> is table of <table_type> index by binary_integer;
Ex:
DECLARE

type t is table of varchar(2) index by binary_integer;

ibt t;
flag boolean;
BEGIN

ibt(1) := 'a';
ibt(-20) := 'b';

253
ibt(30) := 'c';
ibt(100) := 'd';
if ibt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to Index by Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' || ibt.limit);
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' || ibt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' || ibt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' || ibt.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous Index = ' || ibt.prior(3));
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX BY TABLE ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[-20] = ' || ibt(-20));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[1] = ' || ibt(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[30] = ' || ibt(30));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[100] = ' || ibt(100));
flag := ibt.exists(30);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 30 exists with an element ' || ibt(30));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 30 does not exists');
end if;
flag := ibt.exists(50);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 50 exists with an element ' || ibt(30));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 50 does not exists');
end if;
ibt.delete(1);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of first index, Count = ' || ibt.count);
ibt.delete(30);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of index thirty, Count = ' || ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX BY TABLE ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[-20] = ' || ibt(-20));

254
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[100] = ' || ibt(100));
ibt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire index-by table, Count = ' || ibt.count);
END;

Output:
No limit to Index by Tables
Count = 4
First Index = -20
Last Index = 100
Next Index = 30
Previous Index = 1
INDEX BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt[-20] = b
ibt[1] = a
ibt[30] = c
ibt[100] = d
Index 30 exists with an element c
Index 50 does not exists
After delete of first index, Count = 3
After delete of index thirty, Count = 2
INDEX BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt[-20] = b
ibt[100] = d
After delete of entire index-by table, Count = 0
DIFFERENCES AMONG COLLECTIONS

Varrays has limit, nested tables and index-by tables has no limit.

Varrays and nested tables must be initialized before assignment of elements, in index-by
tables we can directly assign elements.

Varrays and nested tables stored in database, but index-by tables can not.

Nested tables and index-by tables are

Keys must be positive in case of nested tables and varrays, in case of index-by tables
keys can be positive or negative.

PL/SQL

tables, but varrays can not.

255

Referencing nonexistent elements raises

SUBSCRIPT_BEYOND_COUNT

and varrays, but in case of index-by tables

NO_DATA_FOUND

in both nested tables

raises.

Keys are sequential in both nested tables and varrays, non-sequential in index-by tables.

Individual indexes can be deleted in both nested tables and index-by tables, but in
varrays can not.

Individual indexes can be trimmed in both nested tables and varrays, but in index-by
tables can not.

Individual indexes can be extended in both nested tables and varrays, but in index-by
tables can not.

MULTILEVEL COLLECTIONS
Collections of more than one dimension which is a collection of collections, known as multilevel
collections.
Syntax:
Type <type_name1> is table of <table_type> index by binary_integer;
Type <type_name2> is varray(<limit>) | table | of <type_name1> | index by
binary_integer;
Ex1:
DECLARE

type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by binary_integer;

type t2 is varray(5) of t1;
va t2 := t2();
c number := 97;
flag boolean;
BEGIN

va.extend(4);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' || va.limit);
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
va(i)(j) := chr(c);
c := c + 1;
end loop;

256
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '][' || j || '] = ' || va(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('First index = ' || va.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last index = ' || va.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next index = ' || va.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous index = ' || va.prior(3));
flag := va.exists(2);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2 exists');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2 exists');
end if;
va.extend;
va(1)(5) := 'q';
va(2)(5) := 'r';
va(3)(5) := 's';
va(4)(5) := 't';
va(5)(1) := 'u';
va(5)(2) := 'v';
va(5)(3) := 'w';
va(5)(4) := 'x';
va(5)(5) := 'y';
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one index, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '][' || j || '] = ' || va(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
va.trim;

257
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one index, Count = ' || va.count);
va.trim(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of two indexes, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || '][' || j || '] = ' || va(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
va.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire varray, Count = ' || va.count);
END;

Output:
Count = 4
Limit = 5
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1][1] = a
va[1][2] = b
va[1][3] = c
va[1][4] = d
va[2][1] = e
va[2][2] = f
va[2][3] = g
va[2][4] = h
va[3][1] = i
va[3][2] = j
va[3][3] = k
va[3][4] = l
va[4][1] = m
va[4][2] = n
va[4][3] = o
va[4][4] = p
First index = 1
Last index = 4
Next index = 3

258
Previous index = 2
Index 2 exists
After extend of one index, Count = 5
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1][1] = a
va[1][2] = b
va[1][3] = c
va[1][4] = d
va[1][5] = q
va[2][1] = e
va[2][2] = f
va[2][3] = g
va[2][4] = h
va[2][5] = r
va[3][1] = i
va[3][2] = j
va[3][3] = k
va[3][4] = l
va[3][5] = s
va[4][1] = m
va[4][2] = n
va[4][3] = o
va[4][4] = p
va[4][5] = t
va[5][1] = u
va[5][2] = v
va[5][3] = w
va[5][4] = x
va[5][5] = y
After trim of one index, Count = 4
After trim of two indexes, Count = 2
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1][1] = a
va[1][2] = b
va[2][1] = e

259
va[2][2] = f
After delete of entire varray, Count = 0
Ex2:
DECLARE

type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by binary_integer;

type t2 is table of t1;
nt t2 := t2();
c number := 65;
v number := 1;
flag boolean;
BEGIN

nt.extend(4);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || nt.count);
if nt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to Nested Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' || nt.limit);
end if;
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
nt(i)(j) := chr(c);
c := c + 1;
if c = 91 then
c := 97;
end if;
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '][' || j || '] = ' || nt(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('First index = ' || nt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last index = ' || nt.last);

260
dbms_output.put_line('Next index = ' || nt.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous index = ' || nt.prior(3));
flag := nt.exists(2);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2 exists');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2 exists');
end if;
nt.extend(2);
nt(1)(5) := 'Q';
nt(1)(6) := 'R';
nt(2)(5) := 'S';
nt(2)(6) := 'T';
nt(3)(5) := 'U';
nt(3)(6) := 'V';
nt(4)(5) := 'W';
nt(4)(6) := 'X';
nt(5)(1) := 'Y';
nt(5)(2) := 'Z';
nt(5)(3) := 'a';
nt(5)(4) := 'b';
nt(5)(5) := 'c';
nt(5)(6) := 'd';
nt(6)(1) := 'e';
nt(6)(2) := 'f';
nt(6)(3) := 'g';
nt(6)(4) := 'h';
nt(6)(5) := 'i';
nt(6)(6) := 'j';
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '][' || j || '] = ' || nt(i)(j));
end loop;

261
end loop;
nt.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one indexe, Count = ' || nt.count);
nt.trim(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of two indexes, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '][' || j || '] = ' || nt(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
nt.delete(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of second index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
loop
exit when v = 4;
for j in 1..nt.count+1 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || v || '][' || j || '] = ' || nt(v)(j));
end loop;
v := v + 1;
if v= 2 then
v := 3;
end if;
end loop;
nt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire nested table, Count = ' || nt.count);
END;

Output:
Count = 4
No limit to Nested Tables
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[1][4] = D

262
nt[2][1] = E
nt[2][2] = F
nt[2][3] = G
nt[2][4] = H
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
nt[3][4] = L
nt[4][1] = M
nt[4][2] = N
nt[4][3] = O
nt[4][4] = P
First index = 1
Last index = 4
Next index = 3
Previous index = 2
Index 2 exists
After extend of one index, Count = 6
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[1][4] = D
nt[1][5] = Q
nt[1][6] = R
nt[2][1] = E
nt[2][2] = F
nt[2][3] = G
nt[2][4] = H
nt[2][5] = S
nt[2][6] = T
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
nt[3][4] = L

263
nt[3][5] = U
nt[3][6] = V
nt[4][1] = M
nt[4][2] = N
nt[4][3] = O
nt[4][4] = P
nt[4][5] = W
nt[4][6] = X
nt[5][1] = Y
nt[5][2] = Z
nt[5][3] = a
nt[5][4] = b
nt[5][5] = c
nt[5][6] = d
nt[6][1] = e
nt[6][2] = f
nt[6][3] = g
nt[6][4] = h
nt[6][5] = i
nt[6][6] = j
After trim of one indexe, Count = 5
After trim of two indexes, Count = 3
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[2][1] = E
nt[2][2] = F
nt[2][3] = G
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
After delete of second index, Count = 2
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A

264
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
After delete of entire nested table, Count = 0
Ex3:
DECLARE

type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by binary_integer;

type t2 is table of t1 index by binary_integer;
ibt t2;
flag boolean;
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || ibt.count);

if ibt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to Index-by Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' || ibt.limit);
end if;
ibt(1)(1) := 'a';
ibt(4)(5) := 'b';
ibt(5)(1) := 'c';
ibt(6)(2) := 'd';
ibt(8)(3) := 'e';
ibt(3)(4) := 'f';
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([1][1] = ' || ibt(1)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([4][5] = ' || ibt(4)(5));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([5][1] = ' || ibt(5)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([6][2] = ' || ibt(6)(2));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([8][3] = ' || ibt(8)(3));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([3][4] = ' || ibt(3)(4));
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' || ibt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' || ibt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' || ibt.next(3));

265
dbms_output.put_line('Prior Index = ' || ibt.prior(8));
ibt(1)(2) := 'g';
ibt(1)(3) := 'h';
ibt(1)(4) := 'i';
ibt(1)(5) := 'k';
ibt(1)(6) := 'l';
ibt(1)(7) := 'm';
ibt(1)(8) := 'n';
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..8 loop
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[1][' || i || '] = ' || ibt(1)(i));
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([4][5] = ' || ibt(4)(5));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([5][1] = ' || ibt(5)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([6][2] = ' || ibt(6)(2));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([8][3] = ' || ibt(8)(3));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([3][4] = ' || ibt(3)(4));
flag := ibt.exists(3);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists');
end if;
ibt.delete(1);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of first index, Count = ' || ibt.count);
ibt.delete(4);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of fourth index, Count = ' || ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([5][1] = ' || ibt(5)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([6][2] = ' || ibt(6)(2));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([8][3] = ' || ibt(8)(3));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([3][4] = ' || ibt(3)(4));
ibt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire index-by table, Count = ' || ibt.count);
END;

266

Output:
Count = 0
No limit to Index-by Tables
INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt([1][1] = a
ibt([4][5] = b
ibt([5][1] = c
ibt([6][2] = d
ibt([8][3] = e
ibt([3][4] = f
First Index = 1
Last Index = 8
Next Index = 4
Prior Index = 6
Count = 6
INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt[1][1] = a
ibt[1][2] = g
ibt[1][3] = h
ibt[1][4] = i
ibt[1][5] = k
ibt[1][6] = l
ibt[1][7] = m
ibt[1][8] = n
ibt([4][5] = b
ibt([5][1] = c
ibt([6][2] = d
ibt([8][3] = e
ibt([3][4] = f
Index 3 exists
After delete of first index, Count = 5
After delete of fourth index, Count = 4
INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt([5][1] = c

267
ibt([6][2] = d
ibt([8][3] = e
ibt([3][4] = f
After delete of entire index-by table, Count = 0
Ex4:
DECLARE

type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by binary_integer;

type t2 is table of t1 index by binary_integer;
type t3 is table of t2;
nt t3 := t3();
c number := 65;
BEGIN

nt.extend(2);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' || nt.count);
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
for k in 1..nt.count loop
nt(i)(j)(k) := chr(c);
c := c + 1;
end loop;
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
for k in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || '][' || j || '][' || k || '] = ' ||
nt(i)(j)(k));
end loop;
end loop;
end loop;
END;

Output:
Count = 2

268
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1][1] = A
nt[1][1][2] = B
nt[1][2][1] = C
nt[1][2][2] = D
nt[2][1][1] = E
nt[2][1][2] = F
nt[2][2][1] = G
nt[2][2][2] = H
OBJECTS USED IN THE EXAMPLES

SQL>

select * from student;

SNO

SNAME

SMARKS

---------- -------------- ---------1

saketh

100

srinu

200

divya

300

manogni

400

SQL>

create or replace type addr as object(hno number(2),city varchar(10));/

SQL>

select * from employ;

ENAME

JOB

ADDRESS(HNO, CITY)

---------- ---------- ----------------------------Ranjit

clerk

ADDR(11, 'hyd')

Satish

manager

ADDR(22, 'bang')

Srinu

engineer

ADDR(33, 'kochi')

269

ERROR HANDLING
PL/SQL implements error handling with exceptions and exception handlers. Exceptions can be
associated with oracle errors or with your own user-defined errors. By using exceptions and
exception handlers, you can make your PL/SQL programs robust and able to deal with both
unexpected and expected errors during execution.
ERROR TYPES

270

Compile-time errors

Runtime errors

Errors that occur during the compilation phase are detected by the PL/SQL engine and reported
back to the user, we have to correct them.
Runtime errors are detected by the PL/SQL runtime engine which can programmatically raise
and caught by exception handlers.
Exceptions are designed for run-time error handling, rather than compile-time error handling.
HANDLING EXCEPTIONS
When exception is raised, control passes to the exception section of the block. The exception
section consists of handlers for some or all of the exceptions. An exception handler contains
the code that is executed when the error associated with the exception occurs, and the
exception is raised.
Syntax:
EXCEPTION

When exception_name then

Sequence_of_statements;
When exception_name then
Sequence_of_statements;
When others then
Sequence_of_statements;
END;

EXCEPTION TYPES

Predefined exceptions

User-defined exceptions

PREDEFINED EXCEPTIONS

271
Oracle has predefined several exceptions that corresponds to the most common oracle errors.
Like the predefined types, the identifiers of these exceptions are defined in the

STANDARD

package. Because of this, they are already available to the program, it is not necessary to
declare them in the declarative secion.
Ex1:
DECLARE

a number;
b varchar(2);
v_marks number;
cursor c is select * from student;
type t is varray(3) of varchar(2);
va t := t('a','b');
va1 t;
BEGIN
-- NO_DATA_FOUND
BEGIN

select smarks into v_marks from student where sno = 50;

EXCEPTION

when no_data_found then

dbms_output.put_line('Invalid student number');
END;
-- CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
BEGIN

open c;
open c;
EXCEPTION

when cursor_already_open then

dbms_output.put_line('Cursor is already opened');
END;
-- INVALID_CURSOR
BEGIN

close c;
open c;
close c;
close c;
EXCEPTION

272
when invalid_cursor then
dbms_output.put_line('Cursor is already closed');
END;
-- TOO_MANY_ROWS
BEGIN

select smarks into v_marks from student where sno > 1;

EXCEPTION

when too_many_rows then

dbms_output.put_line('Too many values are coming to marks variable');
END;
-- ZERO_DIVIDE
BEGIN

a := 5/0;
EXCEPTION

when zero_divide then

dbms_output.put_line('Divided by zero - invalid operation');
END;
-- VALUE_ERROR
BEGIN

b := 'saketh';
EXCEPTION

when value_error then

dbms_output.put_line('Invalid string length');
END;
-- INVALID_NUMBER
BEGIN

insert into student values('a','srinu',100);

EXCEPTION

when invalid_number then

dbms_output.put_line('Invalid number');
END;
-- SUBSCRIPT_OUTSIDE_LIMIT
BEGIN

va(4) := 'c';
EXCEPTION

when subscript_outside_limit then

dbms_output.put_line('Index is greater than the limit');
END;
-- SUBSCRIPT_BEYOND_COUNT
BEGIN

273
va(3) := 'c';
EXCEPTION

when subscript_beyond_count then

dbms_output.put_line('Index is greater than the count');
END;
-- COLLECTION_IS_NULL
BEGIN

va1(1) := 'a';
EXCEPTION

when collection_is_null then

dbms_output.put_line('Collection is empty');
END;

-END;

Output:
Invalid student number
Cursor is already opened
Cursor is already closed
Too many values are coming to marks variable
Divided by zero - invalid operation
Invalid string length
Invalid number
Index is greater than the limit
Index is greater than the count
Collection is empty
Ex2:
DECLARE

c number;
BEGIN

c := 5/0;
EXCEPTION

when zero_divide then

dbms_output.put_line('Invalid Operation');
when others then
dbms_output.put_line('From OTHERS handler: Invalid Operation');

274
END;

Output:
Invalid Operation
USER-DEFINED EXCEPTIONS
A user-defined exception is an error that is defined by the programmer. User-defined
exceptions are declared in the declarative secion of a PL/SQL block. Just like variables,
exeptions have a type

EXCEPTION

and scope.

RAISING EXCEPTIONS

User-defined exceptions are raised explicitly via the RAISE statement.

Ex:
DECLARE

e exception;
BEGIN

raise e;
EXCEPTION

when e then
dbms_output.put_line('e is raised');
END;

Output:
e is raised

BULIT-IN ERROR FUNCTIONS

SQLCODE AND SQLERRM

SQLCODE

returns the current error code, and

For user-defined exception

SQLCODE

SQLERRM

returns 1 and

returns the current error message text;

SQLERRM

returns user-deifned exception.

275
SQLERRM wiil take only negative value except 100. If any positive value other than 100 returns
non-oracle exception.
Ex1:
DECLARE

e exception;
v_dname varchar(10);
BEGIN
-- USER-DEFINED EXCEPTION
BEGIN

raise e;
EXCEPTION

when e then
dbms_output.put_line(SQLCODE || ' ' ||

SQLERRM);

END;
-- PREDEFINED EXCEPTION
BEGIN

select dname into v_dname from dept where deptno = 50;

EXCEPTION

when no_data_found then

dbms_output.put_line(SQLCODE || ' ' ||
END;
END;

Output:
1 User-Defined Exception
100 ORA-01403: no data found
Ex2:
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(100));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(0));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(1));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(-100));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(-500));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(200));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(-900));

SQLERRM);

276
END;

Output:
ORA-01403: no data found
ORA-0000: normal, successful completion
User-Defined Exception
ORA-00100: no data found
ORA-00500: Message 500 not found; product=RDBMS; facility=ORA
-200: non-ORACLE exception
ORA-00900: invalid SQL statement
DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_ERROR_STACK

The built-in function, like

It differs from

SQLERRM

SQLERRM,

returns the message associated with the current error.

in two ways:

Its length is not restricted; it will return the full error message string.
You can not pass an error code number to this function; it cannot be used to return the
message for a random error code.
Ex:
DECLARE

v number := 'ab';
BEGIN

null;
EXCEPTION

when others then

dbms_output.put_line(dbms_utility.format_error_stack);
END;

Output:
declare
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06502: PL/SQL: numeric or value error: character to number conversion error
ORA-06512: at line 2

277

DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_CALL_STACK

This function returns a formatted string showing the execution call stack inside your

PL/SQL

application. Its usefulness is not restricted to error management; you will also find its handy
for tracing the exectution of your code. You may not use this function in exception block.
Ex:
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(dbms_utility.format_call_stack);
END;

Output:
----- PL/SQL Call Stack ----Object_handle

line_number object_name

69760478

anonymous block

DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_ERROR_BACKTRACE

It displays the execution stack at the point where an exception was raised. Thus , you can call
this function with an exception section at the top level of your stack and still find out where the
error was raised deep within the call stack.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P1 IS
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('from procedure 1');

raise value_error;
END P1;

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P2 IS

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('from procedure 2');

p1;
END P2;

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P3 IS

278
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('from procedure 3');

p2;
EXCEPTION

when others then

dbms_output.put_line(dbms_utility.format_error_backtrace);
END P3;

Output:
SQL>

exec p3

from procedure 3
from procedure 2
from procedure 1
ORA-06512: at "SAKETH.P1", line 4
ORA-06512: at "SAKETH.P2", line 4
ORA-06512: at "SAKETH.P3", line 4
EXCEPTION_INIT PRAGMA
Using this you can associate a named exception with a particular oracle error. This gives you
the ability to trap this error specifically, rather than via an

OTHERS

handler.

Syntax:
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exception_name,

oracle_error_number);

Ex:
DECLARE

e exception;
pragma exception_init(e,-1476);
c number;
BEGIN

c := 5/0;
EXCEPTION

when e then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid Operation');
END;

279
Output:
Invalid Operation
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
You can use this built-in function to create your own error messages, which can be more
descriptive than named exceptions.
Syntax:
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(error_number,

error_message,, [keep_errors_flag]);

The Boolean parameter keep_errors_flag is optional. If it is

list of errors already raised. If it is

FALSE,

TRUE,

the new error is added to the

which is default, the new error will replace the current

list of errors.
Ex:
DECLARE

c number;
BEGIN

c := 5/0;
EXCEPTION

when zero_divide then

raise_application_error(-20222,'Invalid Operation');
END;

Output:
DECLARE

*
ERROR

at line 1:

ORA-20222: Invalid Operation

ORA-06512: at line 7
EXCEPTION PROPAGATION
Exceptions can occur in the declarative, the executable, or the exception section of a PL/SQL
block.

280
EXCEPTION RAISED IN THE EXECUATABLE SECTION

Exceptions raised in execuatable section can be handled in current block or outer block.
Ex1:
DECLARE

e exception;
BEGIN
BEGIN

raise e;
END;
EXCEPTION

when e then
dbms_output.put_line('e is raised');
END;

Output:
e is raised
Ex2:
DECLARE

e exception;
BEGIN
BEGIN

raise e;
END;
END;

Output:
ERROR

at line 1:

ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined exception

ORA-06512: at line 5
EXCEPTION RAISED IN THE DECLARATIVE SECTION

Exceptions raised in the declarative secion must be handled in the outer block.
Ex1:

281
DECLARE

c number(3) := 'abcd';
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Hello');
EXCEPTION

when others then

dbms_output.put_line('Invalid string length');
END;

Output:
ERROR

at line 1:

ORA-06502: PL/SQL: numeric or value error: character to number conversion error

ORA-06512: at line 2
Ex2:
BEGIN
DECLARE

c number(3) := 'abcd';
BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Hello');
EXCEPTION

when others then

dbms_output.put_line('Invalid string length');
END;
EXCEPTION

when others then

dbms_output.put_line('From outer block: Invalid string length');
END;

Output:
From outer block: Invalid string length
EXCEPTION RAISED IN THE EXCEPTION SECTION

Exceptions raised in the declarative secion must be handled in the outer block.
Ex1:
DECLARE

e1 exception;

282
e2 exception;
BEGIN

raise e1;
EXCEPTION

when e1 then
dbms_output.put_line('e1 is raised');
raise e2;
when e2 then
dbms_output.put_line('e2 is raised');
END;

Output:
e1 is raised
DECLARE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined exception
ORA-06512: at line 9
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined exception
Ex2:
DECLARE

e1 exception;
e2 exception;
BEGIN
BEGIN

raise e1;
EXCEPTION

when e1 then
dbms_output.put_line('e1 is raised');
raise e2;
when e2 then
dbms_output.put_line('e2 is raised');
END;
EXCEPTION

when e2 then
dbms_output.put_line('From outer block: e2 is raised');

283
END;

Output:
e1 is raised
From outer block: e2 is raised
Ex3:
DECLARE

e exception;
BEGIN

raise e;
EXCEPTION

when e then
dbms_output.put_line('e is raised');
raise e;
END;

Output:
e is raised
DECLARE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined exception
ORA-06512: at line 8
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined exception
RESTRICTIONS
You can not pass exception as an argument to a subprogram.

DATABASE TRIGGERS
Triggers are similar to procedures or functions in that they are named PL/SQL blocks with
declarative, executable, and exception handling sections. A trigger is executed implicitly
whenever the triggering event happens. The act of executing a trigger is known as firing the
trigger.

284

RESTRICTIONS ON TRIGGERES

Like packages, triggers must be stored as stand-alone objects in the database and
cannot be local to a block or package.

A trigger does not accept arguments.

USE OF TRIGGERS

Maintaining complex integrity constraints not possible through declarative constraints

enable at table creation.

Auditing information in a table by recording the changes made and who made them.

Automatically signaling other programs that action needs to take place when chages are
made to a table.

Perform validation on changes being made to tables.

Automate maintenance of the database.

TYPES OF TRIGGERS

DML Triggers

Instead of Triggers

DDL Triggers

System Triggers

Suspend Triggers

CATEGORIES
Timing

--

Before or After

Level

--

Row or Statement

Row level trigger fires once for each row affected by the triggering statement. Row level
trigger is identified by the

FOR EACH ROW

clause.

Statement level trigger fires once either before or after the statement.
DML TRIGGER SYNTAX

285

Create or replace trigger <trigger_name>

Before | after on insert or update or delete
[For each row]
Begin
-- trigger body
End <trigger_name>;
DML TRIGGERS
A

DML

trigger is fired on an

INSERT, UPDATE,

or

DELETE

operation on a database table. It can be

fired either before or after the statement executes, and can be fired once per affected row, or
once per statement.
The combination of these factors determines the types of the triggers. These are a total of 12
possible types (3 statements * 2 timing * 2 levels).
ORDER OF DML TRIGGER FIRING

Before statement level

Before row level

After row level

After statement level

Ex:
Suppose we have a follwing table.

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

----- ------- ---------1

100

200

300

286
4

400

Also we have triggering_firing_order table with firing_order as the field.

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER1

before insert on student

BEGIN

insert into trigger_firing_order values('Before Statement Level');

END TRIGGER1;
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER2

before insert on student

for each row
BEGIN

insert into trigger_firing_order values('Before Row Level');

END TRIGGER2;

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER3

after insert on student

BEGIN

insert into trigger_firing_order values('After Statement Level');

END TRIGGER3;

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER4

after insert on student

for each row
BEGIN

insert into trigger_firing_order values('After Row Level');

END TRIGGER4;

Output:
SQL>

select * from trigger_firing_order;

no rows selected

SQL>

insert into student values(5,'e',500);

1 row created.

287

SQL>

select * from trigger_firing_order;

FIRING_ORDER
-------------------------------------------------Before Statement Level
Before Row Level
After Row Level
After Statement Level

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

---- -------- ---------1

100

200

300

400

500

CORRELATION IDENTIFIERS IN ROW-LEVEL TRIGGERS

Inside the trigger, you can access the data in the row that is currently being processed. This is
accomplished through two correlation identifiers - :old and :new.
A correlation identifier is a special kind of

PL/SQL

bind variable. The colon in front of each

indicates that they are bind variables, in the sense of host variables used in embedded
and indicates that they are not regular

PL/SQL

variables. The

PL/SQL

PL/SQL,

compiler will treat them as

records of type
Triggering_table%ROWTYPE.
Although syntactically they are treated as records, in reality they are not. :old and :new are
also known as pseudorecords, for this reason.
TRIGGERING STATEMENT
--------------------------------------

:OLD
----------------------------

:NEW
-----------------------------------------------

288
all fields are

INSERT

NULL.

values that will be inserted

When the statement is completed.

UPDATE

original values for

new values that will be updated

the row before the

when the statement is completed.

update.
original values before

DELETE

all fields are

NULL.

the row is deleted.

Ex:
Suppose we have a table called marks with fields no, old_marks, new_marks.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER OLD_NEW

before insert or update or delete on student

for each row
BEGIN

insert into marks values(:old.no,:old.marks,:new.marks);

END OLD_NEW;

Output:
SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME MARKS

----- ------- ----------

SQL>

100

200

300

400

500

select * from marks;

no rows selected

SQL>

insert into student values(6,'f',600);

289
1 row created.

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

---- -------- ----------

SQL>

100

200

300

400

500

600

select * from marks;

NO OLD_MARKS NEW_MARKS
---- --------------- --------------600

SQL>

update student set marks=555 where no=5;

1 row updated.

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME MARKS

----- ------- ----------

SQL>

100

200

300

400

555

600

select * from marks;

290

NO

OLD_MARKS

NEW_MARKS

------ ---------------- --------------600

5
SQL>

500

555

delete student where no = 2;

1 row deleted.

SQL>

select * from student;

NO NAME

MARKS

---- -------- ----------

SQL>

100

300

400

555

600

select * from marks;

NO OLD_MARKS NEW_MARKS

----- -------------- ---------------600

5

500

200

555

REFERENCING CLAUSE

If desired, you can use the

REFERENCING

clause to specify a different name for :old ane :new.

This clause is found after the triggering event, before the

Syntax:
REFERENCING

Ex:

[old as old_name] [new as new_name]

WHEN

clause.

291
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER REFERENCE_TRIGGER

before insert or update or delete on student

referencing old as old_student new as new_student
for each row
BEGIN

insert into marks

values(:old_student.no,:old_student.marks,:new_student.marks);
END REFERENCE_TRIGGER;
WHEN CLAUSE

WHEN

clause is valid for row-level triggers only. If present, the trigger body will be executed

only for those rows that meet the condition specified by the

WHEN

clause.

Syntax:
WHEN

trigger_condition;

Where trigger_condition is a Boolean expression. It will be evaluated for each row. The :new
and :old records can be referenced inside trigger_condition as well, but like

REFERENCING,

colon is not used there. The colon is only valid in the trigger body.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER WHEN_TRIGGER

before insert or update or delete on student

referencing old as old_student new as new_student
for each row
when (new_student.marks > 500)
BEGIN

insert into marks

values(:old_student.no,:old_student.marks,:new_student.marks);
END WHEN_TRIGGER;

TRIGGER PREDICATES

There are three Boolean functions that you can use to determine what the operation is.
The predicates are

the

292

INSERTING

UPDATING

DELETING

Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER PREDICATE_TRIGGER

before insert or update or delete on student

BEGIN

if inserting then
insert into predicates values('I');
elsif updating then
insert into predicates values('U');
elsif deleting then
insert into predicates values('D');
end if;
END PREDICATE_TRIGGER;

Output:
SQL>

delete student where no=1;

1 row deleted.

SQL>

select * from predicates;

MSG
--------------D

SQL>

insert into student values(7,'g',700);

1 row created.

SQL>

select * from predicates;

MSG

293
--------------D
I

SQL>

update student set marks = 777 where no=7;

1 row updated.

SQL>

select * from predicates;

MSG
--------------D
I
U
INSTEAD-OF TRIGGERS
Instead-of triggers fire instead of a

DML

operation. Also, instead-of triggers can be defined only

on views. Instead-of triggers are used in two cases:

To allow a view that would otherwise not be modifiable to be modified.

To modify the columns of a nested table column in a view.