Engineering Hydrology

for the Masters Programme

Water Science and Engineering

1 Introduction, Catchments and

Water Balance
Prof. Dr. Stefan Uhlenbrook
Professor of Hydrology
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
Westvest 7
2611 AX Delft
The Netherlands
E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction of the Lecturer

Hydrologist, originally from Freiburg, Germany
MSc, PhD and habilitation in Freiburg
In Delft, the Netherlands, since January 2005 as Professor of Hydrology at
UNESCO-IHE
Since 2009, Professor of Experimental Hydrology at Delft University of
Technology (part-time)
Since 2010, Director of Academic Affairs at UNESCO-IHE
from January 2013 onwards Vice-Rector Academic and Student Affairs
Working experiences mainly in mountainous in catchments in Germany,
Austria, USA, East Africa (ET, KE, TZ, SU, UG, RW), Southern Africa (SA,
ZIM), Palestine, and South East Asia (TH, MA, VN)
experimentalist and modeler
Acknowledgements: Dr. P de Laat (UNESCO-IHE), Prof. HHG Savenije (TU Delft.
UNESCO-IHE) and Prof. Ch. Leibundgut (Univ. of Freiburg, Germany)

Books, course notes and further

information

Books (classical text books):

Brutsaert, 2005: Hydrology An Introduction. Wiley & Sons.

Dingman, 2002: Physical Hydrology, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall.

Hornberger et al. 1998: Physical Hydrology,

Bedient and Huber, 2002: Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis, 3rd edition, Prentice and
Hall.

(Davie, 2002: Fundamentals of Hydrology. Routledge Fundamentals of Physical

Geography often too basic!)

Shaw, E.M., 1994: Hydrology in practice. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 569 p.

Shaw, E.M., 1989: Engineering hydrology techniques in practice. Ellis Horwood, 350 p.

Anderson M., McDonnell J.J. 2005: Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences. 5 volumes.

Wiley. Available on-line at UNESCO-IHE library!

Uhlenbrook S. (Ed.), 2011: Hydrology. Volume 2 of Treatise in Water Sciences,

Elsevier. Available on-line at UNESCO-IHE library!

Lecture notes:
De Laat, P.J.M. and H.H.G. Savenije, 2008. Hydrology, Lecture note LN0262/08/1,
UNESCO-IHE, Delft
De Laat, P.J.M., 2008. Workshop on Hydrology, Lecture note LN0192/08/1, UNESCO-IHE,
Delft

Web pages:
1.
http://www.usgs.gov
(free software etc.)
2.
Links at water/hydrology pages of UNESCO
3.
Etc.!

Objectives of this Lecture

Introduction
Hydrological cycle

Water balance estimation

Understanding a catchment as the
hydrological unit
Influence of man on hydrological cycle
Review of hydrological data handling

IAHS Definition of the Science Hydrology:

occurrence, circulation and
distribution, the chemical and physical
properties, and the reactions with the
environment, including the relation to
living beings

science that deals with the processes

governing the depletion and replenishment
of the water resources

INTRO: How do we get a better (sustainable)

IWRM?
Investigation of
the hydrological
system

Data analysis and modeling

Integrated Water
Resources
?
Management (IWRM):
Estimation of risks
and economic
impact

?
?

System understanding
and modeling !!

IWRM needs information about

Water balance: P = R + E + dS/dt
Hydrological extremes:
x-year
flood

droughts

floods

Scenarios for:
Land use change
Climate chance
Different water management strategies

. providing knowledge for good

decisions in water management
Decision makers,
other water experts etc.

dry hydrologist

Modeler

wet hydrologist

Experimentalist

What can HYDROLOGY contribute to solve

water issues?
Extensive flooding, water scarcity, water quality deterioration,

ecosystem decline and effects of global changes

initiated or facilitated through hydrological processes
Mitigation strategy needs to address whole catchments in a
holistic way
Interdisciplinary science!
Attraction of hydrology as field of study:

Practical water
Pure scientific Hydro- management and
interests
logy engineering

to support life, civilization and sustainable development

Objectives of this Lecture

Introduction
Hydrological cycle

Water balance estimation

Understanding a catchment as the
hydrological unit
Influence of man on hydrological cycle
Review of hydrological data handling

Water cycle
No begin and no end!

Maurits Cornelis Frans Escher

(Oki and Kanae, 2006, Science, in press)

3

Global Water Cycle (WWAP 2003)

The blue planet?!

Water balance of the earth surface

Area in 1012 m

Area in %

Water surfaces

361

71

Continents

149

29

Total

510

100

Area in 1012
m

Area in % of
total

Area in % of
continents

Deserts

52

10

35

Forests

44

30

Grasslands

26

17

Arable lands

14

Polar regions

13

Oceans

361

71

MRT :=
Volume /
mean flux

World Water Resources (Oki et al. 2005)

Table 1: World water reserves.

Form of water

World oceans

Covering Area

Total Volume

(km2)

(km3)

361 300 000

Mean
Depth

1 338 000 000

Share of
Volume

(m)

(%)

3 700

96.539

Mean
Residence
Time
2 500
years

Glaciers and permanent

16 227 500

24 064 100

1 463

1.736

56 years

Ground watera

134 800 000

23 400 000

174

1.688

8 years

Gound ice in zones of

21 000 000

300 000

14

0.0216

Water in lakes

2 058 700

176 400

85.7

0.0127

Soil moisture

82 000 000

16 500

0.2

0.0012

Atmospheric water

510 000 000

12 900

0.025

0.0009

2 682 600

11 470

4.28

0.0008

148 800 000

2120

0.014

0.0002

snow cover

permafrost strata

Marsh water
Water in rivers

9 days

18 day
s

Biological water

510 000 000

1 120

0.002

Total water reserves

510 000 000

1 385 984 61

2 718

0
a

excluding Antarctic groundwater (approximately 2 000 000 km3).

0.0001
100.00

Mean Residence of the Water

(not estimated by tracers!)
Mean residence time :=
Volume of water [m3] in a sub-system divided by flux [m3 s-1]
For example, atmosphere (values from Dyck & Peschke 1995):
13000 km3 / 577000 km3/a = 8.2 days

renewal coefficient :=
reciprocal of mean residence time
For example, atmosphere (values from Dyck & Peschke 1995): 44.4 a-1

Interpretation of Mean Residence Time (MRT):

Short MRT = small system or high fluxes
(e.g. atmosphere or small lakes etc.)
Long MRT = large system or low fluxes
(e.g. oceans, deep groundwater, some glaciers, some lakes etc.)
Impact for contamination (memory effect)

Water Budget

Water Balance Equation

Balance Equation
Storage Equation

Continuity Equation

S
I(t) - O(t) =
t

Law of Conservation of Mass

I(t) = inflow

O(t) = outflow
S/ t = change in storage

Application requires that

the control volume and
the account period (t)
are well defined

Units:
Volume/Time (L3/T)

Mass/Time (M/T)
Depth over fixed area per time (L/T)

Global Mean AnnualPrecipitation

(WWAP 2003)

P = R + E + dS/dt

Long-term Mean Annual Runoff per Grid

(WWAP 2003) P = R + E + dS/dt

Renewable Water Resources per Country

(WWAP 2003)

P = R + E + dS/dt

Water Resources per Drainage Basin

(WWAP 2003)

P = R + E + dS/dt

Water balance of the earth surface

Area

Precipitation

Evaporation

Region

1012
m

m/a

1012
m3/a

m/a

1012
m3/a

Oceans

361

1.12

403

1.25

449

-0.13

-46

Continents

149

0.72

107

0.41

61

0.31

46

Ocean

Surface
area

Land
runoff

P-E

1012
m

mm/
a

mm/a

Runoff
m/a

Ocean
exchange

P-E

Land
runoff

mm/a

1012
m3/a

1012
m3/a

1012
m3/a

1012
m3/a

Ocean
exchange
m3/s

Arctic

8.5

44

307

351

0.4

2.6

94,544

Atlantic

98

-372

197

-175

-36.5

19.3

-17

-543,466

Indian

77.7

-251

72

-179

-19.5

5.6

-14

-440,739

Pacific

176.9

90

69

159

15.9

12.2

28

891,318

Renewable Water Resources

/cap

/cap

Water Scarcity Indicators

EU
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom

1995

2025

11,224
1,234
2,489
22,126
3,408
2,096
5,610
14,100
2,919
12,285
5,813
7,091
2,809
20,482
1,222

10,873
1,217
2,442
21,345
3,279
2,114
5,822
13,430
3,227
10,730
5,576
7,374
2,968
18,925
1,193
3

figures in italics: water stress (<1,700 m /cap/yr)

3
figures in bold: water scarcity (<1,000 m /cap/yr)

SADC

1995

2025

17,012
10,138
2,565
1,933
1,970
12,051
29,622
1,206
5,251
2,964
14,355
1,787

7,202
5,707
1,290
917
1,485
5,868
15,172
698
2,687
1,425
7,177
1,034

Mekong

1995

2025

Cambodia
China
Laos
Thailand
Vietnam

102,900
4,600
138,800
7,900
11,700

25,300
1,800
27,900
2,400
3,200

Angola
Botswana
Lesotho
Malawi
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe

Simulation of Monthly Runoff on the Global Scale

(from Taikan Oki, Univ. Tokyo, Japan; 2002)

Simulation of Global Soil Water Distribution

(from Taikan Oki, Univ. Tokyo, Japan; 2002)

Objectives of this Lecture

Introduction
Hydrological cycle

Water balance estimation

Understanding a catchment as the
hydrological unit
Influence of man on hydrological cycle
Review of hydrological data handling

Water Balance
P = R + E + dS/dt
P
R
E
dS/dt

:
:
:
:

precipitation [mm a-1]

runoff [mm a-1]
evaporation [mm a-1]
storage changes per time step [mm a-1]

dS/dt
For long-term averages under stationary
conditions dS/dt become zero!
but, what is long-term?
but, do we have stationary conditions?

Hydrological System

Elements of the Hydrological Cycle

(from lecture notes, De Laat & Savenije, 2008)

Fig. 1.1 Descriptive representation of the hydrological cycle

Schematization
of the terrestrial
part of the
hydrological
cycle

Storage
Flux
(De Laat & Savenije, 2006)

Example ONE: Water

balance of a reservoir
P + Q E R = S/t
Questions:
1. Indicate the control volume.
2. Could you think of more
inflow and outflow
components?
3. What is most appropriate
unit?
4. How to compute S?

5. What would be a typical t?

Hydrological Year or Water Year

Is this really a useful break of the year??

Example TWO
Average annual water balance for a housing area in
the new town Lelystad, The Netherlands
Rainfall

Sewer
discharge

Subsurface
drain discharge

Total Evaporation

In mm

687

159

212

316

In %

100

23

31

46

Definition of Runoff Coefficient, RC:

Percentage of rainfall coming to runoff

RC = (R / P) x 100 [%]
For the above example: RC = (371 / 687) x 100 = 54 %

Example THREE
Water balances of some major river basins
Catchment
size
River
Nile
Mississippi
Parana
Orinoco
Mekong
Amur
Lena
Yenisei
Ob
Rhine

Rainfall

Evapotranspiration

103 km2

mm/a

109m3

mm/a

109m3

2803
3924
975
850
646
1730
2430
2440
2950
200

220
800
1000
1330
1500
450
350
450
450
850

620
3100
980
1150
970
780
850
1100
1350
170

190
654
625
420
1000
265
140
220
325
500

534
2540
610
355
645
455
335
540
965
100

Runoff
Runoff
Coefficient
9
3
mm/a 10 m
%
30
142
382
935
382
188
212
230
131
350

86
558
372
795
325
325
514
561
385
70

14
18
38
70
34
42
60
51
29
41

Remark:
Nowadays there are very few river basins in the world for which the rainfall
runoff relation is not affected by human activities.

Consumptive use by terrestrial ecosystems (global perspective)

(from Falkenmark, 2001)

Consumptive water use by terrestrial ecosystems as seen in a global perspective. (Falkenmark in SIWI Seminar 2001).

The Rainbow of Water at the Global Scale

(from Savenije 2007, lecture notes TU Delft)

Atmosphere

P
White

I
Surface

Qs

Green

Soil

Qg Deep Blue

F
T

Water
Bodies

Blue

Renewable
Groundwater

Oceans
and
Seas

System Scheme
T

Land Surface

dSs/dt

Qs

Qg

Saturated zone dSg/dt

Surface Water

Eo

dSo/dt
Q

Unsaturated zone dSu/dt

R

Qu
C
Qg

Processes
distinguish between:
runoff production/runoff generation; i.e. the
component of the rainfall that generates runoff
(Pe := effective rainfall)
runoff routing; i.e. the temporal distribution
and concentration of the effective rainfall in
the river system

Objectives of this Lecture

Introduction
Hydrological cycle

Water balance estimation

Understanding a catchment as the
hydrological unit
Influence of man on hydrological cycle
Review of hydrological data handling

Catchment Approach

Input

Precipitation
Energy

Hydrological
System

Output

Runoff, R
E

What is the
role of the
catchment in
catchment
hydrology?
N

rain gauges

P = R + E + dS/dt
P
R
E
dS/dt

:
:
:
:

precipitation [mm a-1]

runoff [mm a-1]
evaporation [mm a-1]
storage changes per time step [mm a-1]

Topographic Control of the Watershed

(Maimai Catchment, New Zealand;

picture from prof. Jeff McDonnell, Corvallis, USA)

Example:
Upper Marxtengraben,
Kitzbueheler Alpen,
Austria

Topographic vs. Phreatic Divide

Example: Disappearance of the Danube

horizontal distance
about 11.7 km

River Rhine and Danube (Southern Germany)

Delineating a devide
Urwald_um_Manaus_Brasilien

Often difficult as no clear divide or temporal

variable boundaries
Also in the parts of the Netherlands
(groundwater abstractions, im/export, channels
etc.) or in wetlands/swamps etc.

Objectives of this Lecture

Introduction
Hydrological cycle

Water balance estimation

Understanding a catchment as the
hydrological unit
Influence of man on hydrological cycle
Review of hydrological data handling

How do Hydrological Predictions Work?

Water Balance:

P = R + E + dS/dt
P
Q
E
dS/dt

:
:
:
:

precipitation [mm a-1]

discharge [mm a-1]
evaporation [mm a-1]
storage changes per time step [mm a-1]

Actual ET

dS/dt

R
Discharge

It is Getting
Warmer!

N.H. Temperature
(C)

Lower Risk for

Instabilities
1

0.5
0

-0.5

(NEAA, 2009)

1000 1200 1400 16001800 2000

IPCC Projections
2100 AD

Global Temperature (C)

High Risk
for Instabilities

Global Changes

Climate (temperature, precipitation, radiation )

Land use, land cover
De-forestation / re-forestation
Urbanisation
Etc.

Population (amount, density, structure, )

Water use in space and time
Economic development
Change of diet (more meat => more water)
N- and P-fluxes to water bodies
Pollution (new substances etc.)
Change in composition of species
etc. etc. etc.
. and many interdependencies/feedbacks!

Land use Points of Impact

Interception of
Transpiration from
incoming rainfall
leaf surface

Soil evaporation,
infiltration and
runoff generation
Water uptake, lateral
flows, GW recharge

(slide by prof. G. Jewitt, UKZN, South Africa)

Water Balance Equation:

dSg
dSs
dSu
dSI

Q
dt
I
s
s
T
u
f
g
dt
dt
dt

Where:

dSI

E
I
dt

dSs
E s Qs
dt

Interception processes

dSu
E T E u Qf
dt
dSg

Qg

dt

Surface water processes

Root zone moisture processes

Groundwater processes

Let us define the variables on a sketch on the black board!

Impact of land use change on

P
hydrological processes

ES/U ET EI

SS

SS

QR

QR
QR

ES/U ET EI

QS

QR

QS

Short-term dynamics (e.g. interception, flood generation) vs.

long-term dynamics (e.g. groundwater recharge, base flow)
Picture from Fairless, 2007, Nature

Water Balance Equation:

dSg
dSs
dSu
dSI

Q
dt
I
s
s
T
u
f
g
dt
dt
dt

Where:

dSI

E
I
dt

dSs
E s Qs
dt

Interception processes

dSu
E T E u Qf
dt
dSg

Qg

dt

Surface water processes

Root zone moisture processes

Groundwater processes

Possible changes in all variables due

to climate and/or land changes!!

Comparison of forested and deforested

areas
Average annual water balances in forested and deforested areas in %
(Baumgartner, 1972).
P = Precipitation
Etotal = ES + EI + ET
R = Runoff
ES = Soil evaporation
EI = Interception evaporation
ET = Transpiration

Expressed in % of Etotal

Etotal

ES

EI

ET

Forests

100

52

48

29

26

45

Open
land

100

42

58

62

15

23

(from lecture notes, De Laat & Savenije 2008)

Human activities affect hydrological regime of river basin:

A directly, e.g. building reservoirs, urbanisation, deforestation, etc.
B more indirectly through anthropogenic induced climate change
A: Example Rur: Max and Min flow in 19th and 20th century (reservoir built in 1950)
RO ERMO ND

IV

ER

Runoff Time Series

Annual maximum daily discharge
R

50.0

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

1998

1999

2000

2001

1995

1994

1993

1992

1900

ll

Years

1995

1994

1993

1992

1900

1899

1898

1897

1896

1895

1894

1893

Oleftals perre

1892

O le f

r
ve

Urfttals perre

R iv e r U
rf t

U
ER R

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

1891

Ka

Discharge (m^3/s)

Rurtals perre Schw am menauel

er

Staubeck en Heim bac h

RI V

1997

R iv

Runoff Time Series

10-day moving average minimum discharge

Kalltalsperre

Perlenbachtalsperre

Years

Staubeck en Obermaubach

Ri

BELGIUM

1899

Wehebachtalsperre

1996

c
e r W e he b a h

R ive r In
de
Dreilgerbac htals perre

1898

AACHE N

1897

ac

DURE N

1896

1891

leb

eu

El

0.0

1895

r
ve

rG

100.0

1894

GERMANY

150.0

1893

Ri

Riv e

200.0

1892

HAMBACH

Discharge (m^3/s)

Riv e

rW

ur

R IV

ER

ME

US

NETHERLANDS

250.0

Human activities can

affect hydrological
regime of a river basin

B: Example Meuse:

MARP (mm/month) 1

Rainfall in the month of March increased

since 1978, so did the discharge
300
Meuse
118

200

82
67

100
0
1910

1920

1930

1940

1950 1960
Calendar year

1970

1980

1990
1978

2000
1990

MARD (m3/s)

1200
900

Meuse

470
368

600
300
0
1910

1920

1930

1940

1950 1960
Calendar year

1970

1980

1990
1978

2000

Objectives of this Lecture

Introduction
Hydrological cycle

Water balance estimation

Understanding a catchment as the
hydrological unit
Influence of man on hydrological cycle
Review of hydrological data handling

Sources of hydrological data

National and regional archives or libraries (hydrological
records but also aerial photographs etc.);
Private organizations such as power authorities or
companies having an interest in hydrological measurements,
e.g. agricultural product marketing companies and oil drilling
companies;
Research papers and project reports;
Survey reports of research and development agencies;
Archives of established newspapers;
Field observations;
Interviews of people living in the area;
Maps on related topics; and
ETC!
See exercises in Workshop of Hydrology (De Laat, 2008)!

Take Home Messages

Hydrological cycle consists of many components (storages

and fluxes); know them und use right terminology

A catchment is THE hydrological base unit

Solve water balance equation for a catchment
Linkage global vs. local hydrological cycle
Knowledge of the fundamental hydrological processes within
a catchment
Understand the water balance equation
The rainbow of water and water balance equation
Hydrological regimes are affected by climate change and
other global changes (often through human activities)
Data handling (see also de Laat 2008, Workshop on
Hydrology) essential for hydrological research

Water Balance of Oceans (mm a-1)

Oceans

Precipitation

Runoff from
adjoining land
areas

Evaporation

Water exchange
with other oceans

Atlantic

780

200

1040

-60

Arctic

240

230

120

350

Indian

1010

70

1380

-300

Pacific

1210

60

1140

130

(after: ZUBENOK, in BUDYKO 1956)

Some Global Ocean Circulation Patterns

cold, salt-rich, deep current