AS Chemistry
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Joel Biffin
Joel Biffin
Atomic Structure [1.1]
Amount of Substance [1.2]
Bonding [1.3]
Periodicity [1.4]
Organic Chemistry [1.5]
Alkanes [1.6]
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Atomic Structure [1.1]
Unit 1 | Atomic Structure [1.1]
Fundamental Particles
Particle Name
Relative Charge
Relative Mass
Proton
Neutron
+1
0
1
1
Electron
-1
5.45x104
Mass Spectrometry
- Used to determine relative abundance of a species, relative isotopic mass & relative molecular mass
(Mr).
- The following takes place in a mass spectrometer:
>
Ionisation
Electron gun fires electrons at gaseous atoms, removing an electron thus creating gaseous ion
M(g) -> M+(g) + e>
Acceleration
Ions are accelerated using an electric field and are focused by a small slit (exit point)
>
Deflection
A strong electromagnet creates a magnetic field, deflecting ions. Deflection depends on the m/z
ratio (Mass/Charge) the greater the m/z the more deflection. Only ions with a specific m/z will
pass through the spectrometer.
>
Detection
Ions hit a metal plate, pick up an electron thus inducing a current. The larger the current, the
greater the abundance of species.
Electron Arrangement
- s sub-shell contains a max. of 2 electrons (i.e. 1s2)
- p sub-shell contains a max. of 6 electrons (i.e. 2p6)
- d sub-shell contains a max. of 10 electrons (i.e. 3d10)
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Atomic Structure [1.1]
- Electrons in same sub-shell prefer to occupy different orbitals if possible (e.g. in 2p3 1 e- in each
orbital.
- When forming ions, electrons are lost from 4s before 3d i.e. Fe2+ [Ar] 3d6
N.B. Chromium (Cr) and Copper (Cu) are exceptions to the expected patterns
Chromium
Copper
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
Definitions
Mass Number The number of neutrons and protons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom
Isotopes
Atoms with the same atomic (proton) number but a different number of
neutrons
1st Ionisation Energy
The enthalpy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of
gaseous atoms to produce 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions
2nd Ionisation Energy
The enthalpy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of
gaseous atoms to produce 1 mole of gaseous 2+ ions
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Amount of Substance [1.2]
Unit 1 | Amount of Substance [1.2]
Mole Calculations
- Working with known species or solids:
e.g. Work out the number of moles in 54.4g of Sodium Chloride powder.
Moles = 54.4 / 58.5 = 0.930mol;
- Working with aqueous solutions:
e.g. Work out the concentration of aqueous Sodium Chloride when 0.930mol of NaCl powder is added
to 200cm3 of water.
Concentration = 0.930 / (200x10-3) = 4.65mol.dm-3;
- Working with gaseous substances:
e.g. How many moles of Potassium Chlorate (V) must be heated to give 1.00dm3 of O2 at 293K and 10Pa
n = (P.V) / (R.T) = (10 x 1.00) / (8.31 x 293) = 4.11x10-3mol;
Yield & Atom Economy
- Percentage Yield is a measure of the efficiency of an experiment.
- Percentage Atom Economy is a measure wasted atoms used to create the product.
Formulations
- Working out the Empirical Formula when given masses of atoms in a compound.
X
Mass
Moles (Mass/Mr)
Ratio (Moles/SmallestMoles)
Atoms in Formula
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Amount of Substance [1.2]
- Working out Molecular Formula when given Empirical Formula and Mr.
Definitions
Relative Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom of an element compared to 1/12th the mass of an atom of
Carbon-12
Relative Molecular
The mass of a molecule compared to 1/12th the mass of an atom of Carbon-12
Mass
Avogadro Constant The number of Carbon atoms in 12g of Carbon-12
Empirical Formula Formula showing the simplest ratio of atoms of each element in a molecule
Molecular Formula Formula showing the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Bonding [1.3]
Unit 1 | Bonding [1.3]
Bonding & Structure
- Ionic
> Bonding
Giant Ionic Lattice of +ve and -ve ions with
strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions.
> Melting & Boiling Point
High melting point due to strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between oppositely
charged ions which require large amounts of
heat energy to overcome.
> Electrical Conductivity
Good conductor of electricity when molten or in solution as ions are free to move and do so in
the same direction when a voltage is applied.
Poor conductor of electricity when solid as ions are held in a fixed lattice and furthermore are
not free to move.
- Simple Covalent
> Bonding
A pair of shared electrons between two atoms.
> Melting & Boiling Point
Melting and boiling points generally low, but they depend on the
strength of the intermolecular forces of attraction (van der
Waals < permanent dipole-dipole attraction < hydrogen
bonding).
> Electrical Conductivity
Simple covalent molecules are poor conductors of electricity as
electrons are not free to move.
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Bonding [1.3]
- Dative Covalent (Co-ordinate)
> Bonding
One atom donates both electrons to create a shared pair of electrons between two atoms.
Other properties are just like simple covalent.
- Macromolecular Covalent (e.g Diamond, Graphite, Silicon Dioxide)
>
Bonding
Very many, very strong covalent bonds (shared pairs of electrons).
>
Melting & Boiling Point
Very high melting & boiling points due to very many, very strong covalent bonds which require
large amounts of heat energy to break.
>
Electrical Conductivity
Giant molecules are poor conductors of electricity as electrons are not free to move.
Graphite is the exception to this rule as there is one delocalised electron for each carbon atom
which is free to move between layers and electrons do so in the same direction when a voltage is
applied.
- Metallic
> Bonding
+ve metal ions are held in a fixed lattice surrounded
by a sea of delocalised electrons.
> Melting & Boiling Point
Melting and boiling points are usually high as
there are strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between +ve metal ions and the sea of
delocalised electrons.
> Electrical Conductivity
Metals are good conductors of electricity as the sea of delocalised electrons are free to move
and do so in the same direction when a voltage is applied.
Polar Bonds
- Electronegativity is the power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Bonding [1.3]
- Polar bonds are created by a more electronegative species forming a covalent bond with a less
electronegative species (two species with a large difference in electronegativity).
> e.g. HCl
H+ - Cl-
- Trends in electronegativity are as follows:
> Decrease as you move down the periodic table because the bonding pair of electrons are further
away from the nucleus and there is more shielding by full energy levels.
> Increase as you move across the periodic table because there is an increase in nuclear charge
meaning that the bonding electrons are more strongly attracted to the nucleus of the atom.
N.B. Noble gases are not electronegative as they do not form covalent bonds.
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
- Van der Waals Forces
> Temporary dipoles are created in all molecules (polar or non-polar) due to an uneven electron
distribution caused by the movement of electrons.
> The larger the molecule, the more electrons it contains which furthermore increases the
strength of the van der Waals forces between molecules.
> For similar sized molecules, shape can affect the strength of van der Waals - the more linear a
molecule the greater its surface area and furthermore van der Waals forces are stronger.
- Permanent Dipole-Dipole Attraction
> Polar molecules (i.e. HCl but NOT CCl4) have an overall dipole due to the sum of the polar bonds.
> Between polar molecules there is attraction between the + of one molecule and the - of
another molecule.
- Hydrogen Bonding
> Hydrogen bonding is a form of permanent dipole-dipole attraction between an H atom and an
electronegative (N, O or F) atom.
> The lone pair from the N, O or F atom is attracted to the H nucleus of another molecule.
> Contrary to its name, hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular force not a bond.
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Bonding [1.3]
Definitions
Ionic Bonding Strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
Covalent Bond Shared pair of electrons between two atoms
Dative Covalent Bond
Metallic Bond
Covalent bond in which shared pair of electrons comes from just one atom (or
-ve) ion
Electrostatic attraction between a lattice of +ve ions and delocalised
electrons
Electronegativity Power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond
Polar Bond
Covalent bond in which electron distribution I not symmetrical giving + and
- ends
Molecule in which the electron distribution is not symmetrical giving + and ends (CCl4 is NOT a polar molecule)
Strongest intermolecular force of attraction wich arises between a hydrogen
Hydrogen Bonding atom bonded to one of the most electronegative atoms (F, O or N) and the lone
pair of another (F, O or N)
Polar Molecule
10
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Periodicity [1.4]
Unit 1 | Periodicity [1.4]
Atomic Radius of Period 3
- Decrease as you move across the period due to:
0.18
0.16
> Electrons are in the same principle energy level.
Therefore, electrons are more strongly attracted to
nucleus.
Atomic Radius / nm
> Proton Number/Nuclear Charge increases across
the period.
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
st
1 Ionisation Energy
- Generally there is an increase in 1st Ionisation Energy
due to:
Therefore, more energy is required to remove an
electron as you move across the period.
- There are two exceptions to this general trend:
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
1600
1st Ionisation Energy / kJmol-1
> Proton Number/Nuclear Charge increases across
the period, and furthermore atomic radius
decreases.
Na
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
> 1st IE of Al < Mg due to:
~ Als outer electron is in a different sub-shell (3p).
~ 3p electron is further from the nucleus than the 3s electrons is.
~ 3p sub-shell has greater shielding by full shells of electrons.
Therefore, less attraction between nucleus and 3p electron thus less energy is required to
remove electron.
> 1st IE of S < P due to:
~ Ps 3p sub shell has 4 electrons (3p4) meaning there is 1 orbital with a pair of electrons.
Therefore, electron-electron repulsion means that less energy is required to remove electron.
11
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Periodicity [1.4]
Melting & Boiling Points
- Metals (Na, Mg, Al): Increase as you move across the
period due to:
> More delocalised electrons as you move across more attraction between ions and electrons.
4000
Melting & Boiling Points / K
> Electrostatic attraction between +ve metal ions
and delocalised electrons.
4500
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Therefore, stronger attraction between +ve ions and
electrons requires more energy to overcome.
0
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
- Macromolecular (Si): High due to:
> Very many, very strong covalent bonds.
Therefore, more energy is required to break bonds.
- Simple Covalent (P4, S8, Cl2) & Monotomic (Ar): generally decrease due to:
> Strength of van der Waals forces between molecules are effected by the number of electrons in
a molecule and the size of the molecules.
> S8 does not follow the general trend because there are more electrons in S8 than in P4.
Therefore, energy required to overcome van der Waals forces between molecules depends on size
and number of electrons of a molecule.
Electrical Conductivity
- Increase in electrical conductivity across metals of
period 3 (only metals conduct) due to:
0.4
> Delocalised electrons are free to move and do so
in the same direction when a voltage is applied.
> As you move across the period there is one more
delocalised electron per atom of the metal.
> Ions that are more +vely charge are smaller and
furthermore provide less resistance when there
is a current.
12
Electrical Conductivity
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Alkanes [1.6]
Unit 1 | Organic Chemistry [1.5]
Organic Nomenclature
Homologous Series
Functional Group
Prefix/Suffix
Alkanes
-ane
Alkenes
-ene
Haloalkanes
ChloroBromoIodo-
- Molecules can sometimes have attached molecular groups - these are called Alkyl groups.
> Methyl> Ethyl> Propyl-
CH3
CH3CH2
CH3CH2CH2
Structural Isomerism
- Chain Isomerism
> Molecules where the carbon chain is different
i.e. with an alkyl group
- Position Isomerism
> Molecules where functional groups are found in different positions
i.e. -1-, -2-, -3- etc.
- Functional Group Isomerism
> Compounds that have the same molecular formula but contain different functional groups
i.e. Aldehydes
&
Ketones
Carboxylic Acids
&
Esters
Alkenes
&
Cycloalkanes
13
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Alkanes [1.6]
Definitions
Series of compounds which have:
1- same general formula
Homologous Series
2- same functional group
3- a difference of CH2 between members
4- gradual change in physical properties
Functional Group
Structural Isomerism
Atom or group of atoms which, when present in different molecules, causes
them to have similar chemical properties
Existence of two or more different molecules with the same molecular
formula but different structural formulae
Hydrocarbon Molecule made up of carbon & hydrogen atoms ONLY
Saturated Molecule has only single bonds
Structural Formula
Shows the unique arrangement of atoms in a molecule in a simplified form
without showing all the bonds
Displayed Formula Shows ALL the bonds present in a molecule
14
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Alkanes [1.6]
Unit 1 | Alkanes [1.6]
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
- Fractional Distillation is used to separate the hydrocarbons of different chain lengths.
- Due to van der Waals forces between hydrocarbons:
> Longest chain lengths are tapped off at bottom.
> Highest chain lengths are tapped off at top.
> N.B. branched chain alkanes have lower boiling points than their corresponding straight alkane.
Cracking
- Shorter chained hydrocarbons are more in demand so cracking is used to break down less useful
hydrocarbons into more useful, shorter chained hydrocarbons.
- Generally: Long Chained Alkanes -> Shorter Chained Alkanes + Alkenes + H2
- Shorter alkanes have use as fuels and petrochemicals.
- Alkenes are used in the manufacture of polymers.
- Thermal Cracking
> High temperatures (900oC) and pressures (70atm).
> The higher the temperature, the lower Mr alkenes.
> The reaction has a free radical mechanism.
- Catalytic Cracking
> Cracking can occur in the presence of a catalyst at 450oC.
> The catalysts are zeolites.
> Catalytic cracking produces alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics.
> The mechanism involves the formation of carbocations.
15
Joel Biffin
Unit 1: Foundation Chemistry
Alkanes [1.6]
Combustion of Alkanes
- Complete combustion occurs in the presence of oxygen, the combustion of alkanes is highly exothermic
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
- Incomplete combustion occurs when there is a lack of oxygen present.
CH4(g) + 3/2 O2(g) -> CO(g) + 2H2O(l)
CH4(g) + O2(g) -> C(s) + 2H2O(l)
- Sulfur impurities can be found in petroleum fraction which, when burnt, produce SO2 & SO3.
- The internal combustion engine produces pollutants:
> CO2, H2O, CO, NOx & Unburnt Hydrocarbons.
- Catalytic converters remove these pollutants by converting CO, NOx & Hydrocarbons to CO2, N2 & H2O.
- Converters have a honeycomb coated layer of Pt/Pd/RH - giving a large surface area.
Definitions
Fractional Distillation
Cracking
A method of separating molecules by making use of their different boiling
points
The breaking of C-C bonds in long chain alkanes to give shorter chain, more
useful, more valuable hydrocarbons
Energy required for bond breaking in hydrocarbon is provided by heat alone.
Thermal Cracking Up to 900oC at 70atm
Forms mostly alkanes
Energy required for bond breaking in hydrocarbon is provided by heat in the
presence of a catalyst (zeolite or aluminosilicate)
Catalytic Cracking
450oC
Forms branched alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons
Fuel Substance which on combustion produces energy
Fossil Fuel
Greenhouse Gas
16
Fuel which has been formed over millions of years and which is a finite
resource
Any gas which contributes to global warming by absorption of infra-red
radiation by their bonds (polar)
Joel Biffin
