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The Slave Trade and the Jews
DavidBrionDavis
DECEMBER 22, 1994 ISSUE
TheghastlyslavetradefromAfricatotheAtlanticsugarislandssuchasMadeira
andSoTomandthentotheWesternHemispherebeganinthemid1400sand
flourishedforfourcenturies.Thoughhistorianscontinuetodebatethenumbers,it
nowseemsprobablethatfromtwelvetofifteenmillionAfricanswereforcibly
shippedoutfromtheircontinentbysea.MillionsmoreperishedinAfricanwarsor
raidsforenslavementandinthedeadlytransportofcaptivesfromtheinteriorto
slavemarketsonthecoast.
TheparticipantsintheAtlanticslavesystemincludedArabs,Berbers,scoresof
Africanethnicgroups,Italians,Portuguese,Spaniards,Dutch,Jews,Germans,
Swedes,French,English,Danes,whiteAmericans,NativeAmericans,andeven
thousandsofNewWorldblackswhohadbeenemancipatedorweredescended
fromfreedslavesbutwhothenbecameslaveholdingfarmersorplanters
themselves.Responsibility,inshort,radiatedoutwardtopeoplesofeverysortwho
hadaccesstotheimmenseprofitsgeneratedfromtheworldsfirstsystemof
multinationalproductionforamassmarketproductionofsugar,tobacco,coffee,
chocolate,rum,dyestuffs,rice,spices,hemp,andcotton.
TodayitisbothremarkableanddeeplydisturbingtodiscoverthatthisAtlantic
slavesystemevokedlittleifanymeaningfulprotestuntilthelateeighteenth
century.Whenitdidfinallyappear,theAngloAmericanantislaverymovement
wasoverwhelminglyreligiousincharacter,anddrewondevelopmentsin
sectarianandevangelicalProtestantism.1Yettheworldsreligionshadlonggiven
slaveryitsultimatesanction.Catholicpopesenthusiasticallyblessedand
authorizedthefirstPortugueseslavetradersinWestAfrica.ForcenturiesMuslim
jihadsjustifiedtheenslavementofuntoldnumbersofsubSaharaninfidels.In
eighteenthcenturyBarbadostheChurchofEnglandacquiredpossessionof
hundredsofslaveswhosechestswerebrandedwiththelettersSOCIETYto
signifyownershipbytheSocietyforthePropagationoftheGospel.Aslateasthe
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1750smanydevoutBritishandAmericanQuakerswereactivelyinvolvedinthe
slavetrade.ThesmallnumberofJewswholivedintheAtlanticcommunitytook
blackslaveryasmuchforgrantedasdidtheCatholics,Muslims,Lutherans,
Huguenots,Calvinists,andAnglicans.AndwhileatleastoneJewishmerchant
joinedNewYorksfirstantislaverysocietyinthe1790s,Judaismwasasresistant
asothertraditionorientedreligionstosuchintellectualandmoralinnovations.
ForfourcenturiestheAfricanslavetradewasanintegralandindispensablepart
ofEuropeanexpansionandsettlementoftheNewWorld.Untilthe1830stheflow
ofcoercedAfricanlaborexceededallthesmallerstreamsofindenturedwhite
servantsandvoluntarywhiteimmigrantswillingtoenduretherisksoflifeinthe
WesternHemisphere.Thedemandforlaborwasespeciallyacuteinthetropical
andsemitropicalzonesthatproducedthestaplesandthusthewealthmostdesired
byEuropeans.Inthemid1700sthevalueofexportstoBritainfromtheBritish
WestIndieswasmorethantentimesthatofexportsfromcoloniesnorthofthe
Chesapeake.Andtheeconomyofthenortherncoloniesdependedinlargemeasure
ontradewithCaribbeanmarkets,whichdependedinturnonthecontinuing
importationofAfricanlabortoreplenishapopulationthatnevercamecloseto
sustainingitselfbynaturalincrease.
Fortunatelyfortheplanters,merchants,consumers,andotherbeneficiariesofthis
lethalsystem,WestAfricaofferedacheapandseeminglyunlimitedsupplyof
slavelabor,andtheeffortsofAfricankingstostoptheruinoussaleofsubjects
werefewandineffective.LongbeforethePortugueseAfricanvoyagesofthe
fifteenthcentury,ArabandBerbermerchantshadperfectedthetransSaharan
slavetradeandhaddeliveredhundredsofthousandsofblackslavestoregions
extendingfromthePersianGulf(viaaseabornetradefromEastAfrica)toEgypt,
Sicily,Morocco,andSpain.Sharplydividedbytribalrivalries,blackAfricans
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neverlookedupononeanotherasahomogeneousAfricanrace.Mosttribesand
kingdomswereaccustomedtoavarietyofformsofservitude,anddeveloped
highlysophisticatedmethodsforrecruitingcaptivesandbarteringslavesfor
covetedcommodities,eventuallyincludingfirearms,whichArabsorthe
Portuguesecouldbringfromdistantlands.Thepoliticalpowerandcommercial
networksoftheSokotocaliphate,theAsante,andtheYorubastates,tonameonly
threeexamples,werewhollyatoddswiththepopularpictureofprimitive
peoplesoverawedanddominatedbyEuropeanmilitarymight.
ThoughfirstmonopolizedbythePortuguese,theAtlanticslavetradeattracted
shipsfromtheNetherlands,France,Britain,Denmark,Spain,Sweden,andthe
Englishmainlandcolonies.EventhenorthernGermanportssoughttocashinon
thelucrativetraffic.HowdidJewsfitintothispicture?Tokeepmattersin
perspective,weshouldkeepinmindthatin1290Englandexpelleditsentire
Jewishpopulationonlyascatteringofmigrantsbegantoreturninthelatterhalf
oftheseventeenthcentury.InFranceaseriesofexpulsionsandmassacresinthe
fourteenthcenturyvirtuallydemolishedthemedievalJewishcommunities.In
Spain,beginninginthemidfourteenthcentury,amuchlargerJewishpopulation
wassubjectedtoperiodicmassacres,forcedconversion,mobattacks,andfinal
expulsionin1492.MostoftherefugeesfledtoTurkeyandotherMuslimlands.
Theestimated100,000JewswhoescapedintoPortugalweresooncompelledto
acceptChristianity.LargenumbersoftheseNewChristiansintermixedwiththe
OldChristianpopulationandlostanyJewishidentity,althoughtheInquisition
continuedtosearchforthesignsofsecretJewishritualsthatcouldbringarrest,
torture,anddeath:
Bythe1570s,duringthebeginningofBrazilssugarboom,whichdependedon
Africanslavelabor,Judaismasareligionhadbeenvirtuallywipedoutin
England,France,theGermanies,Spain,Portugal,theLowCountries,andmostof
ItalythegreatmassofJewishsurvivorshademigratedtoPoland,Lithuania,and
OttomanlandsintheBalkansandTurkey.NoprofessingJewswereallowedto
contaminatetheSpanishorPortuguesecoloniesoftheNewWorldinthe1680s
theywerealsobannedfromtheFrenchWestIndiesandrestrictedinBritish
Barbados.ThesesustainedantiSemiticmeasuresclearlyreducedtheopportunity
JewsmighthavehadforparticipatingintheAtlanticslavesystemandcertainly
precludedanyJewishinitiation,domination,orcontroloftheslavetrade.
Yetthecontinuingpersecutionandexclusion,especiallyoftheNewChristians
orMarranos,didleadtoadesperatesearchfornewcommercialopportunitiesin
theNewWorld,wheretherewaslesssurveillancebytheInquisition,andinthe
rebelliousSpanishprovinceoftheNetherlands,whichstruggledfrom1568to
2
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1648towinindependence.2
AtthispointonemustemphasizethatJews,partlybecauseoftheirremarkable
successinavarietyofhostileenvironments,havelongbeenfearedasthepower
behindotherwiseinexplicableevils.Formanycenturiestheyweretheonlynon
ChristianminorityinnationsdedicatedtotheChristianizationandthusthe
salvationoftheworld.SignifyinganantitheticalOther,individualJewswere
homogenizedandreifiedasaracearaceresponsibleforcrucifyingtheSavior,
forresistingthedisseminationofGodsword,formanipulatingkingsandworld
markets,fordrinkingthebloodofChristianchildren,and,inmoderntimes,for
spreadingtheevilsofbothcapitalismandcommunisticrevolution.Responsibility
fortheAfricanslavetrade(andevenforcreatingandspreadingAIDS)has
recentlybeenaddedtothislonglistofcrimes.3
Suchfantasieswerelongnourishedbytheachievementsofaverysmallnumber
ofJewswho,barredfromlandholding,thearmy,andtraditionalcraftsand
professions,tookadvantageoftheircosmopolitanknowledgeandpersonal
connectionsthatfavoredaccesstomarkets,credit,andsuchhighlydesired
commoditiesasdiamonds,spices,wool,andsugar.Muchofthehistorical
evidenceregardingallegedJewishorNewChristianinvolvementintheslave
systemwasbiasedbydeliberateSpanisheffortstoblameJewishrefugeesfor
fosteringDutchcommercialexpansionattheexpenseofSpain.Giventhislong
historyofconspiratorialfantasyandcollectivescapegoating,aselectivesearchfor
JewishslavetradersbecomesinherentlyantiSemiticunlessonekeepsinviewthe
largercontextandtheverymarginalplaceofJewsinthehistoryoftheoverall
system.ItiseasyenoughtopointtoafewJewishslavetradersinAmsterdam,
Bordeaux,orNewport,RhodeIsland.ButfarfromsuggestingthatJews
constitutedamajorforcebehindtheexploitationofAfrica,closerinvestigation
showsthatthesewerehighlyexceptionalmerchants,faroutnumberedby
thousandsofCatholicsandProtestantswhoflockedtoshareinthegreatbonanza.
IshouldaddthatintryingtodeterminewhowasorwasnotacovertJew,the
historiancomesperilouslyclosetoactingliketheInquisition.Intheearly
eighteenthcenturyalargenumberofBrazilianplanters,saidtobeMarranos,were
arrestedbytheInquisition,extradited,andtakentoLisbonfortrial.Byany
moderndefinition,excludingtheracialdefinitionoftheNazis,theseplanterswere
notJews.YetvarioushistorianshavecountedsuchMarranosasJewsandhave
assumedthatanearlierBrazilianplanter,JorgeHomenPinto,whoownedsix
sugarmills,370slaves,andathousandoxen,wasaJew.Morecareful
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investigation,however,revealsthatPintopassedthemoststringentracialtestsas
anOldChristian.
JewsandJewishnamesarevirtuallyabsentfromthetextsandindexesofallthe
scholarlyworksontheAtlanticslavetradeandfromrecentmonographsonthe
British,French,Dutch,andPortuguesebranchesofthecommerceinslaves.To
exposethesupposedlysecretrelationshipbetweenJewsandslavery,anti
SemiteshavethereforeturnedtohistoriesoftheJewsinsuchregionsas
Amsterdam,Brazil,andCuraao.Theseworksprovidematerialthatcaneasilybe
misquoted,distorted,andputintotallymisleadingcontexts.
Togiveonlytwoexamples,TheSecretRelationshipassertsthatDr.Wiznitzer
claimsthatJewsdominatedtheslavetrade,thenthemostprofitableenterprisein
thatpartoftheworld.ThefootnotereferstoabookreviewbyHerbertI.Bloom
whichinnowaysupportsthisstatement.TheNationofIslamauthorsnever
acknowledgethatArnoldWiznitzer,whoseJewsinColonialBrazilisfrequently
cited,writesthat[I]tcannotbesaidthatJewsplayedadominantroleinDutch
Brazilassenhoresdeengenho,orsugarplantersheestimatesthatJewsmade
upaboutsixpercentoftheplantersorthatheaddsthathistorianshavetendedto
exaggeratethenumberofJewsincolonialDutchBrazilfrom1630to1654.
FromColumbustoJeanLafitte,theslavedealingNewOrleanspirate,theauthors
pounceonthemostfarfetchedclaimsofcryptoJewishidentity.Floridas
SenatorDavidYuleerenouncedhisJewishorigins,convertedtoChristianity,and
evenclaimedhewasdescendedfromaMoroccanprince.ButsinceYuleetooka
stronglyproslaverypositionintheSenate,theNationofIslamauthorscounthim
asaJew.Suchtechniqueshardlyconformtothestandardsoffairness,justice,and
greatsensitivitysetforthatthebeginningofthebookinaremarkably
hypocriticalEditorsNote.Butmoreinsidiousthanthemisquotationsand
slipshoddocumentationisthetotallackofhistoricalcontext.Evenifevery
purportedfactpresentedinTheSecretRelationshipweretrue,theuninformed
readerwouldneversuspectthatforeveryJewinvolvedintheAtlanticslave
systemtherewerescoresorevenhundredsofCatholicsandProtestants.
Inactuality,JewshadnoimportantroleintheBritishRoyalAfricanCompanyor
intheBritishslavetradeoftheeighteenthcentury,whichtransportedbyfarthe
largestshareofAfricanstotheNewWorld.AccordingtotheDutchhistorians
PieterC.EmmerandJohanesMennePostma,Jewshadaverylimitedand
subordinateroleevenattheheightoftheDutchslavetradeintheseventeenth
century:TheydidnotserveontheHerenX,thedirectorateoftheDutchWest
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IndiaCompany.Theirinvestmentshareamountedtoonly0.5(oronetwo
hundredth)ofthecompanyscapital.4Ishouldaddthatbetween1658and1674
theJewishinvestmentintheslavetradingWestIndiaCompanyseemstohave
risento6oreven10percent.KeepinginmindthattheDutchshareofthetrade
accountedforonly16percentofthetotal,oneseeshowsmalltheinvolvement
was,anditisascloseasJewsevercametodominatingthenefariousAtlantic
traffic.
Ifweexpandtheissuebeyondtheslavetradeitself,smallnumbersofSephardi
JewsandMarranoswerecrucialtotheprocessofrefiningandmarketingsugar
andtheninshiftingtransatlanticcommerce,includingtheslavetrade,from
PortugaltoNorthernEurope.ThroughouttheMediterranean,Jewshadacquired
expertiseinrefiningandmarketingsugar,whichuntiltheeighteenthcenturywas
amuchdesiredluxuryonlythewelltodocouldafford.MarranosandItalians
wereprominentintheinternationalsugartradeofthefifteenthandsixteenth
centuries.SomeofthemhelpedtoestablishsugarplantationsinMadeiraandSo
Tom,intheGulfofGuinea.Indeed,in1493,whenPortugalwasfloodedwith
JewishrefugeesfromSpain,thegovernmentforciblybaptizedtheirchildren,large
numbersofwhomwereseparatedfromtheirparents,andshippedofftoSoTom
ascolonists.MostoftheseMarranochildrendied,butsomesurvivedtobecome
sugarplanters,anoccupationthatwashardlyamatterofchoice.
TheMarranoswhomovedtoBraziltookwiththemthetechnicalskillsofartisans,
foremen,andmerchants,andtookaleadingpartindevelopingthesugarexport
industry.OtherMarranos,whosailedwithPortugueseexpeditionstotheKongo
KingdomandAngola,becameexpertatcontractingforcargoesofslavelabor.
TherecanbenodoubtthattheseNewChristianscontributedmuchtotransform
PortugalintoEuropesfirstmajorsupplierofslavegrownsugar.Yetgiventhe
extentofintermarriageandlossofJewishidentity,mostMarranoswereJewish
onlyintheirvulnerabilitytosuspicion,persecution,andantiSemiticfantasiesof
conspiracy.Ironically,theInquisitionsantiSemiticcrusade,whichfabricated
Jewslikethemintcoinedmoney,asonecynicalInquisitorobserved,convinced
otherEuropeansthatPortugalwasanationofcryptoJews,asexemplifiedbythe
coarseCastilianproverb:APortuguesewasbornofaJewsfart.5
FearsofJewishpowerweregreatlystimulatedbytheleadershipMarranosand
professingJewstookinmarketingPortugueseEastIndianspicesandthensugar
throughoutnorthernEurope,especiallyaftertheybecamealliedwiththe
rebelliousDutchandhereticalProtestants.AlthoughtheDutchbarredprofessing
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Jewsfrommanytradesandoccupationsitwasapparentlynotuntil1655that
twoJewishmerchantsreceivedpermissionfromtheAmsterdamgovernmentto
establishasugarrefinerytheNetherlandspresentedaclimateofrelative
religioustolerationthatencouragedthefoundingofsynagoguesandtherevivalof
asmallJewishreligiouscommunity.TheTwelveYearsTrucewiththethen
unitedSpainandPortugal,from1608to1621,helpedtheDutchSephardi
merchantsexpandvariousbranchesoftradewiththeIberianPeninsula,Brazil,
andAfrica.TheirknowledgeofSpanishandPortuguese,aswellastheintricacies
ofinternationalfinance,gavethemaparticularadvantageinprocuringand
marketingsugar.
EventhoughJewishmerchantssufferedfromtheresumptionofthewarwith
SpainandfromEuropesThirtyYearsWar,theyretainedtemporarycontrolof
sugaranditsdistribution,whichshouldnotbeconfusedwithcontroloftheDutch
slavetrade.ThisinvolvementwithsugarwaslargelytheresultoftheDutch
conquestofnortheasternBrazilintheearly1630s.By1645some1,450Jews
madeupaboutonehalfofthewhitecivilianpopulationofDutchBraziland
ownedabout6percentofitssugarmills.Jewishmerchantsboughtalargeshareof
theslavestransportedbytheDutchWestIndiaCompanyandthenretailedthemto
Portugueseplantersoncredit,arousingcomplaintsofhighpricesandinterest
rates.AfewAmsterdamJews,suchasDiegoDiasQuerido,originallyanativeof
Portugal,challengedtheWICmonopolyandcharteredtheirownshipstotransport
slavesfromAfricatoBrazilortheSpanishCaribbean.ButtheJewishpresencein
Brazilwasshortlived.Intheearly1650s,withthecollapseoftheDutch
occupationandtheimpendingreturnofthePortuguese,Jewsfacedthechoiceof
emigrationordeath.
SomeofthemigrsfromBrazilmovednorthwestwardtotheCaribbean,where
theyweresoonjoinedbyJewishandMarranoentrepreneursfromHolland.There
wereanumberofreasonsfortheupsurgeofinterestintheCaribbean.Bythe
1650stheBritishislandofBarbadoshadmadeadecisiveconversionfromtobacco
tosugar,asAfricanslavesandanewclassoflargeplantersreplacedapopulation
ofwhiteindenturedservants.In1662Spainawardedanasiento(monopoly
contract)totheDutchWestIndianCompany,seekinganonPortuguesesourceof
AfricanslavesfortheSpanishCaribbeancolonies.Themainasientista,or
monopolycontractor,wastheProtestantbankerBalthazarCoymans,andJewshad
littletodowiththeWICshipmentsofslavesfromAfrica.Still,in1664theking
ofSpainappointeddonManueldeBelmonte,aJewofSpanishorigin,hisAgent
GeneralinAmsterdamfortheprocurementofslaves.AnditwasinCuraao,
whichMarranoshadhelpedtoestablishin1651,thatJewsfoundtheirmainoutlet
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forsellingslavesandDutchmanufacturedgoodsalongtheSpanishMain.
ForatimeCuraaobecamethegreatentreptoftheCaribbean,tradinglegally
andillegallywithBarbadosandotherrisingBritishandFrenchcoloniesaswellas
withtheSpanishmainland.IntheeighteenthcenturyJewsmadeupabouthalfthe
populationofCuraaoasopposedtoonepercentofthepopulationofNewYork
Cityandseemtohavebeeninvolvedmainlyinthetransshipmentof
commoditiesotherthanslavestotheSpanishcolonies.ThemainlandSpanish
coloniesneverdevelopedtrueplantationsystemstheirdemandforslaves
declinedabruptlyintheeighteenthcentury,sincetheycouldnotbegintocompete
withcolonieslikeJamaica,St.Domingue,andBrazil,whichconstitutedtheheart
oftheAtlanticslavesystemandwhichimportedtheirlabordirectlyfromAfrica.
TheonecolonywhereasignificantnumberofJewstookupplantation
agriculturewasSuriname,orwhatlaterbecameDutchGuiana.Thereligious
freedomoftheDutchcoloniesallowedJewstoestablishtheirownselfgoverning
town,JodenSavanne(JewishSavannah),intheinteriorjungle.Thereinthelate
seventeenthandearlyeighteenthcenturiestheSephardimlivedthelifeofsugar
planters,extractinglaborfromAfricanslavesinoneofthemostdeadlyand
oppressiveenvironmentsintheNewWorld.Suriname,however,neverbecamea
majorsugarproducingregion.
ThesignificantpointisnotthatafewJewishslavedealerschangedthecourseof
history,whichwouldhavebeenthesamewithoutJewishslavetradersand
planters.ThesignificantpointisthatJewsfoundthethresholdofliberationfrom
secondclassstatusorworse,inaregiondependentonblackslavery.Before
turningtothesoberinganddepressingpartofthismessage,Ishouldstressthat
evenwithregardtotheDutchSephardisugartrade,weredealingwithafew
hundredfamilies.Bythe1670stheDutchsugarboomhadendedandBritain
wouldsoonemergeastheworldsgreatestsugarimporterandslavetrading
nation.InBarbados,tobesure,therewerefiftyfourJewishhouseholdsin1680.
Butthesewerenotgreatslavetradersorplanterstheyweremostlythemanagers
ofretailshopsandmoneylendingfirmswhoownedfewerslavesperhousehold
(three)thanthenonJewishresidentsofBridgetown.
Tokeepmattersinperspective,weshouldnotethatintheAmericanSouth,in
1830,therewereonly120Jewsamongthe45,000slaveholdersowningtwentyor
moreslavesandonlytwentyJewsamongthe12,000slaveholdersowningfiftyor
moreslaves.EvenifeachmemberofthisJewishslaveholdingelitehadowned
714slavesaridiculouslyhighfigureintheAmericanSouththetotalnumber
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wouldonlyequalthe100,000slavesownedbyblackandcoloredplantersinSt.
Dominguein1789,ontheeveoftheHaitianRevolution.
Inactuality,sofarasownershipofslavesisconcerned,thefreepeopleofcolorin
theCaribbeangreatlysurpassedthemuchsmallernumberofJews.Evenin
Charleston,SouthCarolina,thepercentageoffreeAfricanAmericanswhoowned
slavesincreasedfromonehalftothreequartersasonemovedupthesocio
economicscaleasindicatedbytheownershipofrealestate.Thethousandsof
Southernblackslaveownersincludedfreedpeoplewhohadsimplypurchased
familymembersorrelatives.Buttherewerealsocoloredplanters,especiallyin
Louisiana,whoownedmorethanfiftyorevenonehundredslaves.Theallureof
profitsandpowertranscendedalldistinctionsofrace,ethnicity,andreligion.
NooneshoulddefendthesmallnumberofJewswhoboughtandsoldslaves,or
whoforcedslavestocutcaneontheestatesofJodenSavanne.Nooneshould
defendtheinfinitelylargernumberofCatholicsandProtestantswhobuiltthe
Atlanticslavesystem,ordefendtheMuslimswhoinitiatedtheprocessofshipping
blackAfricanslavestodistantmarkets,ordefendtheAfricanswhocapturedand
enslavedperhapstwentymillionotherAfricansinordertosellthemtoEuropean
tradersforvaluableandempoweringgoods.Butwhileposterityhastherightand
evendutytojudgethepast,wemustemphaticallyrenouncethedangerousthough
oftenseductivebeliefinacollectiveguiltthatdescendsthroughtimetoevery
presentandfuturegeneration.
Whileinsistingthatnogroupisresponsibleforthesinsofitsancestors,Ifindit
deeplydisturbingthatmanyJews,includingthosewhoestablishedthefirst
synagogueinCuraao,foundapathtotheirownliberationandaffluenceby
participatinginasystemofcommercethatsubjectedanotherpeopletocontempt,
dishonor,coercedlabor,anddegradation.Ithasevenbeensaidthatthemore
enlightenedrulersofeighteenthcenturyEuropeweremuchswayedbytheearly
achievementsofenfranchisedJewsinDutchBrazil,theCaribbean,andNorth
America.6ThisisonesideoraspectofthedismaltruththatourNewWorld
conceivedasalandoflimitlessopportunity,breakingthecrustofoldrestraints,
traditions,andprejudiceswasmadepossibleonlybythenearextinctionof
indigenouspopulationsandbythedehumanizingsubjugationofthesocalled
Africanrace.
Letters
Slavery&theJewsMarch2,1995
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1 Ihaveanalyzedtheoriginsofantislaverythoughtintwobooks:TheProblemofSlaveryinWesternCulture(OxfordUniversity
Press,1988)andTheProblemofSlaveryintheAgeofRevolution(CornellUniversityPress,1975).
2 ForsomeofthisinformationIammuchindebtedtoSeymourDrescher,TheRoleofJewsintheTransatlanticSlaveTrade,
ImmigrantsandMinorities,Vol.12(July1993),pp.113125.
3 FortheextremeexampleofantiSemiticaccusationsmasqueradingasadocumentedhistoryofJewishinvolvementintheslave
tradeandAmericanslavery,seeTheSecretRelationshipBetweenBlacksandJews,VolumeOne(TheNationofIslam,1991).
ThisbookbeginsbysuggestingthattheexpulsionofJewsfromfortysixspecifiedEuropeancitiesandstateswastheresult
oftheJewseconomicexploitation,monopolizing,orsharppractice,whichincitedthemoralindignationofEuropes
Gentilepopulation(p.10).AstheJewsescapedwithconsiderablesumsofmoney,theywouldreunitelaterinan
unholycoalitionofkidnappersandslavemakers(pp.1213).TheAtlanticslavesystemwasessentiallythecreationof
theserovingrefugeesandsecretJews(Marranos),whoprocuredBlackAfricansbythetensofthousandsandfunnelled
themtotheplantationsofSouthAmericaandthroughouttheCaribbean(p.19).Displaying1,275footnotes,mostofthem
citingrespectableworksbyJewishhistorians,TheSecretRelationshipmovesontotheAmericanSouthandCivilWar,toa
sectiononJewsandtheRapeofBlackWomen,andtoafinallengthyroguesgalleryofJews,orChosenPeople,who
participatedintheBlackHolocaust.Anyreaderwhoacceptsthisworkaslegitimateandaccuratehistoryandthe
volumehasbeenwidelydistributedinblackcommunitieswouldhavetoconcludethatJewsweremainlyresponsiblefor
NewWorldslaveryanditstragiclegacy,andhavelongbeentheworstenemyoftheAfricanrace.Thedeceptiveand
maliciousnatureoftheNationofIslamsvolumehasbeenexposedbythebookletsJewHatredasHistory:AnAnalysisof
theNationofIslamsTheSecretRelationshipBetweenBlacksandJews(AntiDefamationLeague,1993),andHarold
Brackman,FarrakhansReignofHistoricalError:TheTruthBehindTheSecretRelationshipBetweenBlacksandJews
(TheSimonWiesenthalCenter,1992).
4 Drescher,TheRoleofJewsintheTransatlanticSlaveTrade.
5 C.R.Boxer,ThePortugueseSeaborneEmpire,14151825(Knopf,1969),p.271.
6 SeemySlaveryandHumanProgress(OxfordUniversityPress,1984),p.101.
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