CHAPTER 4

4.1

RUBBER TYRED YARD GANTRY CRANES

Introduction

4.1.1 Yard Gantry Cranes or Transfer Cranes were a development of industrial overhead
cranes. There are two distinct types. Rubber-tyred gantry cranes (frequently referred
to by the Paceco brand name, Transtainer, or just as RTGs) run on heavy-duty
tyred wheels (of straddle carrier type, in the main) while rail-mounted gantry cranes
run on steel wheels over fixed rails, 100 to 125 mm wide. Although these two types
of transfer cranes serve the same function, there are distinct differences between them,
apart from their wheels, and they will be considered in separate chapters in this
account.
4.1.2 Superficially resembling stretched straddle carriers, rubber-tyred gantry cranes span
several rows of containers and can stack them up to five high (one-over-four). Yard
gantry cranes are essentially container yard stacking devices and are used in
combination with other container-handling equipment, usually tractor-trailer sets, for
the Quay Transfer Operation. Tractor-trailer sets are also needed for other duties,
including movement to and from the CFS. At the CFS, the box is either left on the
trailer for packing/unpacking or is lifted off the trailer by yet more equipment, usually
a lift-truck.
4.1.3 Rubber-tyred gantry cranes were first built by Paceco around 1960, and Drott-built
machines began to be installed in 1969. By the beginning of 1970, some 25 machines
had been commissioned and in that year another 22 were installed, by several
manufacturers. Deliveries then increased steadily and by 1981 over 300 were in use,
two-thirds of them built by Paceco and its world-wide licencees. By 1985 nearly 500
machines had been installed, over half of them Paceco types. Hitachi, which supplied
its first yard gantry crane in 1974, is now the second biggest supplier.
4.1.4 Port operators tend to suggest that rubber-tyred gantry cranes are becoming relatively
more popular, at the expense of straddle carriers, but published figures indicate steady
growth, paralleling that of straddle carriers which are maintaining their popularity
well. The most recent orders favour rubber-tyred gantries rather more, and almost all
World Bank financed container terminal projects have lately included the purchase of
these machines.
4.1.5 The early rubber-tyred yard gantry cranes had a variety of spans, from 8 metres
(covering just two container rows and a roadway) to over 25 metres, but the range of

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20 - 23.5 metres soon established itself as the most popular; such cranes span 5 or 6
rows of containers and a roadway. Indeed, although cranes spanning 7 rows and the
roadway (27 metre span) are now available (and probably represent an upper limit to
rubber-tyred gantry size), the 5 or 6 rows plus roadway design remains the most
popular. Smaller machines are, however, still available for special purposes, e.g. a 12
metres (three rows plus roadway) by Valmet.
4.1.6 Stacking height has increased markedly. The first Paceco transtainers stacked oneover-one (86 boxes) and it was not until 1972 that a gantry stacking one-over-three
was built, while the first one-over-four appeared in 1982. Currently, one-over-three
and one-over-four designs are equally popular, though Paceco and Valmet still make
one-over-two machines, too. Four-high stackers are made by Paceco, Mitsubishi and
Marathon, while five-high cranes are built by Paceco, Mitsubishi, Nelcon, Morris,
Valmet, MGM-IHI and Hyundai. Current models stack 96 boxes to their rated
height.
4.1.7 As with other container-handling systems, a general trend has been the increase of
lifting capacity, from 22 tonnes in early units to over 40 tonnes in current models.
Box length is not a problem with rubber-tyred gantries, as boxes are not handled
through the framework.
4.1.8 Early RTGs had just four wheels, but an important development has been the
introduction of 8-wheeled and 16-wheeled cranes, designed to spread the weight of
the crane over a larger terminal surface area; 16-wheeled cranes are available from
Morris, MGM, Nelcon and Peiner. The motive power for rubber-tyred gantries is
diesel or (more commonly now) diesel-electric. Their power has increased steadily,
giving higher hoist and trolley speeds in current machines.
4.1.9 A major development has been the introduction and elaboration of automatic location
systems, sending the crane to the correct block position and row, and even locating the
individual box in the row. Steering along the block is still normally a manual
operation, though fully automatic steering is foreseen.
4.2

Specifications

4.2.1 Rubber-tyred gantry cranes have a massive framework of box-section steel, with an
Overall Height of about 17 - 19 metres and Spans generally between 19.8 and 26.5
metres. Overall Lengths of the framework vary between 9.3 metres (on 4-wheeled
machines) and 11.6 metres (for 8-wheeled gantries) or more.

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4.2.2 Lift Height Under the Spreader is very similar, of course, to that of equipment
straddle carriers: from 11.0 to 12.2 metres (on the four-high stackers) to 13.6 to 15.1
metres (on the five-high stackers); the larger figures in each case are for the latest
machines, built to handle containers up to 96 high. Lift Capacity can be 30.5
tonnes, 35.5 tonnes or 40 tonnes under the spreader, according to choice.
4.2.3 The framework is, understandably, extremely heavy; the Weight of the machine and
load is between 100 and 140 tonnes when carrying a loaded 40 container. The
distributed load is about 50 tonnes per wheel for four-wheeled machines but only
about 13 - 16 tonnes per wheel for the newer 16-wheeled designs. These values are
extremely significant in terms of terminal surface construction; it is common for
RTGs to require special weight-bearing, narrow roadways or runways along which the
wheels can run, with reinforced concrete beams or similar load-bearing systems, while
the rest of the yard is surfaced with relatively light-duty pavement. However, steel
turning plates may need to be embedded within the surface at the ends of blocks, so
that the machines can turn their wheels through 90 to move to another block.
Because of their lower wheel loadings, the 16-wheeled gantries may not require
reinforced runways and, as their wheels are carried in pairs on bogies, and rotate as
the bogies turn, steel turning plates are not required, either. So 16-wheeled RTGs
would appear to offer the terminal designer considerably more flexibility, when
modifying the layout to meet changed traffic and other circumstances, than machines
with 4 or 8 wheels.
4.3

Operations

4.3.1 Rubber-tyred yard gantries operate exclusively in the container yard. Transfer
between the ship-side and the container yard is carried out (usually) by tractor-trailer
sets. These drive along the roadway or truck lane, generally within the span of the
gantry, to pick up or deliver their containers, while the gantry crane moves the
containers between the trailers and the stacks and shifts the boxes within the stack.
For receipt/delivery, road vehicles are allowed onto the terminal and along the
roadway to the appropriate row; there is not normally an interchange point in this
system as there is with straddle carrier systems.
4.3.2 The containers within the storage area are normally arranged in long rows parallel to
the quayside, with about 30 TEU slots per row (which is thus about 200 metres long).
There are usually five or six rows per block, plus the truck lane, giving a total block
width of 22.5 to 26.5 metres. At the ends of the blocks are roadways about 20 metres

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wide, and an extra roadway space is provided between adjacent blocks. The wheels of
the rubber-tyred gantries can turn through a right angle, so that the equipment can be
moved from one storage block to another as required, to meet operational needs;
while RTGs are not as operationally flexible as straddle carriers, they do offer a
degree of flexibility in this way.
4.3.3 The main attraction of yard gantry systems is their economical use of land area
because the machines stack high and densely; wheelspaces are not needed between
container rows. Average operational stacking heights with RTGs are 2.5 for imports
and 3.5 for exports; the 1985 Containerisation International survey gives a mean
stacking height for all yard gantry systems as three boxes. Assuming a 50:50
import/export split, about 700 TEUs can be stacked per hectare. Not surprisingly,
then, it is the larger terminals, with high throughputs, that favour yard gantries: onethird of terminals with 10,000 TEU container yard capacities use these systems. RTG
systems are also attractive where land area for stacking is limited. However, the high
and dense stacking means that terminal planning and container control need to be
particularly efficient if delays, congestion and other operational problems are to be
avoided.
4.3.4 Operating Costs are moderately high for rubber-tyred yard gantry cranes. The
purchase price of an RTG is about $750,000 - 900,000, and annual operating costs
amount to about $250,000 per machine, i.e. about 30 % of purchase price. Of total
operating costs, about 60 % is accounted for by labour costs (in Europe, at least),
15 % by fuel and lubricants (machines consume 18 - 20 litres of fuel per operating
hour) and 25 % by preventive maintenance and repair.
4.4

Performance

4.4.1 Rubber-tyred Gentry Cranes are only moderately rapid machines in operation, with
travel speeds of 90 - 150 m/minute (5.5 - 9 kph) - about half the speed of straddle
carriers - and transverse trolley speeds of 50 - 70 m/minute. Hoist speeds vary
between 9 and 23 m/minute when lifting a container, 18 and 49 m/minute when
empty; the higher values are available with newer, high-speed machines.
4.4.2 As with other handling systems, operating performance varies with demand and
distance travelled between moves, and will obviously be heavily dependent on the
ability of the quay transfer equipment to service the gantry cranes. The port of
Felixstowe reports a performance of 30 - 35 moves/hour at peak and an average of 20
moves/hour. The Containerisation International (1985) survey found rates of 18/hour

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(Australasia) to 27/hour (North America), with an average of 21 moves/hour.

Krupp RTGs at Hamburg move about 18 boxes/hour. A realistic attainable average
performance over a shift, including moves between blocks, would seem to be about
20 boxes/hour. Assuming an average usage of about 65 hours a week, this would
represent an annual performance of about 65,000 box moves per machine.
4.4.3 For a two-quayside-crane operation, each crane handling about 25 boxes per hour,
about three RTGs will be needed in the container yard handling the containers to and
from the quay-transfer equipment (six to eight tractor-trailer sets per 2-crane unit),
with another one or two on receipt/delivery and handling to vehicles for CFS work,
and one in reserve-say six machines per 2-crane unit. Felixstowe has 31 RTGs
altogether, serving a total of 13 quayside gantry cranes, on the basis of one RTG for
every 20,000 containers handled through the terminal. At the high stacking densities
of RTG container yards, it is estimated that each box has to be handled between 3 and
3.5 times during its transit through the terminal, so the performance rate is between
60,000 and 70,000 lifts per machine per year.
4.4.4 Manning is normally two men per RTG - one driving and one acting as checker in the
ground-level cab, so that total manning for a 2-quayside crane unit, including
drivers for the quay-transfer tractors, supervisors, etc., would be about 30 - 32 men.
While the RTG drivers need to be very highly skilled, the tractor drivers need only
moderate levels of skill. RTG drivers should be given about three months training,
including sessions on operational and safety aspects of the job and on-the-job training
with an expert. Strict performance tests must be given during and after training.
4.4.5 Availability figures for RTGs are usually quoted in the range 90 - 95 %, though one
operator (Glebe Island Terminals) reports only 65 - 75 %, saying that its RTGs incur
the greatest downtime of all their equipment, because of continuous rough usage.
Figures for Utilization are generally low, e.g. about 40 % (of total hours, i.e. about
250 hours per month). The Containerisation International (1985) survey confirms an
average usage (for all types of yard gantry crane) of about 250 hours per month,
varying between 170 hours/month in North America and over 300 hours/month in
Australasia. Clearly, ports are overstocked with yard gantry cranes to cover peak
demand, and Availability is unlikely to be a problem.
4.4.6 Downtime is said to average about 25 hours/month (about 4 - 5 % of working hours),
but varies widely, from about 7 hours per month in North America to 48 hours/month
in Latin America. The 25 hour figure could well represent unplanned Downtime
only, since the Port of Singapore records show that 13 days each year are set aside for

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planned maintenance per machine - say 26 hours per month. Total Downtime is more
likely, therefore, to average about 50 hours a month - say 8 %.
4.4.7 The Working Life of a RTG is currently at least 15 years, at an operating rate of 3,000
3,500 hours per year, giving at least 45,000 working hours over its life. The latest
generation of machines should, in fact, comfortably exceed this lifespan, performing
perhaps a million moves in a 20-year life (provided the machine is well looked after).
At a purchase price of $850,000 and an operational life of 15 years, the Annual
Capital Recovery (at a discount rate of 12 %) is $125,000. With operating costs at
$250,000 a year, Total Annual Costs are thus about $375,000. At 3,000 working
hours a year, the cost works out at about $125 an hour and the handling cost, at 20
moves/hour, is about $6.25/move.
4.5

Maintenance

4.5.1 The Port of Singapore plans 13 days of preventive maintenance per year for its RTGs,
and its Availability figures indicate some 30 - 60 hours a month of maintenance and
repair time, with perhaps 15 - 30 hours of unplanned Downtime.
The
Containerisation International (1985) survey shows that 60 % of repair jobs are to do
with electrical faults and a further 8 % with combinations of electrical and hydraulic
or mechanical defects. Minor electrical faults, particularly involving electrical drives
and control systems, account for most maintenance and repair jobs, but other causes
of breakdowns are anti-sway system faults, hydraulic leaks and seals, and problems
with hoist ropes. Accidental damage accounts for less than 1 % of defects, and
spreader damage probably accounts for most of this.
4.5.2 The Maintenance Cost is about 8 % of purchase price per year - some $60,000 70,000 per year. Maintenance costs for RTG terminals worldwide were given in the
Containerisation International (1985) survey as varying from $10,000 to over
$40,000 per machine per year, with an average of about $35,000, but it seems likely
that these figures did not include labour costs, which make up about 65 % of total
maintenance costs. Spares (including tyres and batteries) account for about 30 % of
the costs and consumables the remaining 5 %. Tyres currently have lives of 4 - 5
years on four-wheel RTGs and up to ten years on multi-wheel-axle types; they cost
about $1,600 each. Batteries last 4 - 6 years in temperate climates.
4.5.3 Maintenance is carried out according to strict schedules, out of operating hours, and
two-weekly inspections of the spreader and anti-sway gear are particularly critical.
Electric motors are checked every 1,000 hours, with major inspections and greasing at

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six-monthly intervals. Greasing of wheel and sheave bearings are most important.
The diesel engines are overhauled at intervals of 16,000 - 18,000 hours.
4.5.4 Since it is not practicable to service RTGs under cover, mobile workshops are needed,
and platforms to enable easy high-level maintenance, so that maintenance and repair
can be undertaken on site. However, workshop facilities are needed to test, maintain
and repair the machines subassemblies, e.g. the spreader, engines and motors. As
well as normal mechanical and electrical tools, special tools and jigs are needed for
some components.
4.5.5 Maintenance personnel require the usual mechanical and electrical skills, with specific
knowledge of diesel engines, electric motors and of welding. As electronic and
communications systems increase in importance, electronic repair skills are
increasingly demanded. It is usual for maintenance staff to have, in addition to
standard initial training (e.g. through apprenticeship), specialized training provided
by the port, by manufacturers or by specialists.
4.6

Features to Look out for

4.6.1 Components and parts of the framework at low levels need to be protected by buffers,
fenders, etc. against accidental damage.
4.6.2 Electronic and other delicate components should be enclosed, sealed or encapsulated.
This is particularly important in regions of high humidity.
4.6.3 Drivers need to be carefully selected for fitness and aptitude (good eyesight, distancejudgement, coordination, capable of climbing to and working at heights, to work alone
and concentrate for long periods, while maintaining contact with other staff through
radio and data links) and fully trained for the job. Technical/engineering knowledge
and aptitude would be useful but are not essential.
4.6.4 The cab should be well designed for the drivers comfort: comfortable and fully
adjustable seating, the seat rotatable through 180 for safe and convenient driving in
both directions; well positioned and laid-out controls and instruments; clear vision in
all directions; appropriate heating/demisting/cooling/air conditioning, to suit the
climate; good sound insulation; adequate access via protected stairs, not ladders, and
an emergency escape route.
4.6.5 A checker/talleyman cab should be provided at ground level, with full communication
with the drivers cab.

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4.6.6 Warning devices, such as flashing lights, bells and/or sirens, should be fitted to
indicate when the crane is moving.
4.6.7 Clear lane marking on the terminal is essential, as tractor-trailer sets and road vehicles
share space with the container-handling equipment; operating rules must be strictly
observed.
4.6.8 The framework needs to be particularly rigid and stiff to create a stable platform for
container handling, and soft tyres should be avoided, for the same reason. The
frame needs to be strong enough to cope with differences in level of the yard surface
without excessive distortion.
4.6.9 Access to all service points and checkpoints must be rapid, easy and full.
4.6.10 Effective communication systems need to be installed, using radio and data links with
central information and control systems.
4.7

Future Developments and Trends

4.7.1 Radio communication links are likely to be increasingly supplemented by data links.
4.7.2 Automation is certain to become more common. Already, systems are available for
automatic positioning along a block and to a slot in the row, but steering and container
pickup and positioning are still normally under manual control; more complete
automation, including container identification, is likely to develop and spread.
4.7.3 Dimensions are unlikely to change appreciably; it is generally thought that machines
straddling seven lanes plus a roadway and stacking one over four represent the
practical limit of RTG development. However, changes in container dimensions may
well cause relatively small increases in height and span to continue to accommodate
the same number of rows and stack height. Lift capacity is also likely to increase to
match container weights.
4.7.4 Remote sensing and reporting of critical component condition is likely to be widely
adopted, with accompanying automatic fault diagnostic devices.
4.7.5 Mechanical and electrical components will be improved, to reduce Downtime and
extend lifespans and maintenance intervals. The use of thyristor controls will
increase.
4.7.6 Increasing standardization and interchangeability of components will make
maintenance easier and stocking of spares less critical and expensive.

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