1

2
Introduction
to C Programming

2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

What's in a name? That which we call a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet.
William Shakespeare
Romeo and Juliet

When faced with a decision, I always ask,

What would be the most fun?
Peggy Walker

2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Take some more tea, the March Hare said to

Alice, very earnestly. Ive had nothing yet,
Alice replied in an offended tone: so I cant take
more. You mean you cant take less, said the
Hatter: its very easy to take more than nothing.
Lewis Carroll

High thoughts must have high language.

Aristophanes

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OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn:
To write simple computer programs in C.
To use simple input and output statements.
The fundamental data types.
Computer memory concepts.
To use arithmetic operators.
The precedence of arithmetic operators.
To write simple decision-making statements.

2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2.1

Introduction

2.2

A Simple C Program: Printing a Line of Text

2.3

Another Simple C Program: Adding Two Integers

2.4

Memory Concepts

2.5

Arithmetic in C

2.6

Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators

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2.1 Introduction
C programming language
Structured and disciplined approach to program design

Structured programming
Introduced in chapters 3 and 4
Used throughout the remainder of the book

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1
2

/* Fig. 2.1: fig02_01.c

A first program in C */

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#include <stdio.h>

/* and */ indicate comments ignored by compiler

/* function main begins program execution */

int main( void )

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#include directive tells C to load a particular file

Left brace declares beginning of main function

printf( "Welcome to C!\n" );

12 } /* end function main */

fig02_01.c

Statement tells C to perform an action

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */

11

Outline

return statement ends the function

Right brace declares end of main function

Welcome to C!

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Inc. All rights reserved.

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
Comments
Text surrounded by /* and */ is ignored by computer
Used to describe program

#include <stdio.h>
Preprocessor directive
- Tells computer to load contents of a certain file
<stdio.h> allows standard input/output operations

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// stdafx.cpp : source file that includes just the

standard includes
// ct71.pch will be the pre-compiled header

// stdafx.obj will contain the pre-compiled type

information

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10

Common Programming Error 2.1

Forgetting to terminate a comment with */.

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11

Common Programming Error 2.2

Starting a comment with the characters */
or ending a comment with the characters /*.

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12

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
int main()
C++ programs contain one or more functions, exactly one
of which must be main
Parenthesis used to indicate a function
int means that main "returns" an integer value

Braces ({ and }) indicate a block

- The bodies of all functions must be contained in braces

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13

Good Programming Practice 2.1

Every function should be preceded by a
comment describing the purpose of the
function.

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14

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
printf( "Welcome to C!\n" );
Instructs computer to perform an action
- Specifically, prints the string of characters within quotes ("
")

Entire line called a statement

- All statements must end with a semicolon (;)

Escape character (\)

- Indicates that printf should do something out of the ordinary
- \n is the newline character

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15

Escape sequence Description

\n

Newline. Position the cursor at the beginning of the next line.

\t

Horizontal tab. Move the cursor to the next tab stop.

\a

Alert. Sound the system bell.

\\

Backslash. Insert a backslash character in a string.

\"

Double quote. Insert a double-quote character in a string.

Fig. 2.2 | Some common escape sequences.

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16

Common Programming Error 2.3

Typing the name of the output function
printf as print in a program.

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17

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
return 0;
A way to exit a function
return 0, in this case, means that the program terminated
normally

Right brace }
Indicates end of main has been reached

Linker
When a function is called, linker locates it in the library
Inserts it into object program
If function name is misspelled, the linker will produce an error
because it will not be able to find function in the library

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18

Good Programming Practice 2.2

Add a comment to the line containing the
right brace, }, that closes every function,
including main.

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19

Good Programming Practice 2.3

The last character printed by a function that
displays output should be a newline (\n).
This ensures that the function will leave the
screen cursor positioned at the beginning of a
new line. Conventions of this nature
encourage software reusabilitya key goal in
software development environments.

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20

Good Programming Practice 2.4

Indent the entire body of each function one
level of indentation (we recommend three
spaces) within the braces that define the
body of the function. This indentation
emphasizes the functional structure of
programs and helps make programs easier
to read.

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21

Good Programming Practice 2.5

Set a convention for the size of indent you
prefer and then uniformly apply that
convention. The tab key may be used to create
indents, but tab stops may vary. We
recommend using three spaces per level of
indent.

2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

/* Fig. 2.3: fig02_03.c

2
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Printing on one line with two printf statements */

#include <stdio.h>

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/* function main begins program execution */

int main( void )

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{
printf( "Welcome " );
printf( "to C!\n" );

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printf statement starts printing from where

the last statement ended, so the text is
printed on one line.

Outline

fig02_03.c

return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */

13 } /* end function main */

Welcome to C!

2007 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.

1
2

/* Fig. 2.4: fig02_04.c

Printing multiple lines with a single printf */

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#include <stdio.h>

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/* function main begins program execution */

int main( void )
Newline characters

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10

move the cursor to the next line

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Outline

fig02_04.c

printf( "Welcome\nto\nC!\n" );
return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */

11
12 } /* end function main */
Welcome
to
C!

2007 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.

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/* Fig. 2.5: fig02_05.c

Addition program */
#include <stdio.h>
/* function main
int main( void )
{
int integer1;
int integer2;
int sum;

24

Outline

begins program execution */

fig02_05.c
/* first number to be input by user */
/* second number to be input by user */
/* variable in which sum will be stored */

printf( "Enter first integer\n" ); /* prompt */

scanf( "%d", &integer1 );
/* read an integer */
printf( "Enter second integer\n" ); /* prompt */
scanf( "%d", &integer2 );
/* read an integer */

Definitions of variables
scanf obtains a value from the
user and assigns it to integer1

scanf obtains a value from the

user and assigns it to integer2

sum = integer1 + integer2; /* assign total to sum */

printf( "Sum is %d\n", sum ); /* print sum */
return 0;

Assigns a value to sum

/* indicate that program ended successfully */

} /* end function main */

Enter first integer

45
Enter second integer
72
Sum is 117

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Inc. All rights reserved.

25

2.3 Another Simple C Program:

Adding Two Integers
As before
Comments, #include <stdio.h> and main

int integer1, integer2, sum;

Definition of variables
- Variables: locations in memory where a value can be stored
int means the variables can hold integers (-1, 3, 0, 47)

Variable names (identifiers)

- integer1, integer2, sum

- Identifiers: consist of letters, digits (cannot begin with a digit) and

underscores( _ )
Case sensitive

Definitions appear before executable statements

- If an executable statement references and undeclared variable it will
produce a syntax (compiler) error

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26

Common Programming Error 2.4

Using a capital letter where a lowercase letter
should be used (for example, typing Main
instead of main).

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27

Portability Tip 2.1

Use identifiers of 31 or fewer characters.
This helps ensure portability and can avoid
some subtle programming errors.

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28

Good Programming Practice 2.6

Choosing meaningful variable names
helps make a program self-documenting,
i.e., fewer comments are needed.

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29

Good Programming Practice 2.7

The first letter of an identifier used as a
simple variable name should be a lowercase
letter. Later in the text we will assign special
significance to identifiers that begin with a
capital letter and to identifiers that use all
capital letters.

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30

Good Programming Practice 2.8

Multiple-word variable names can help make a
program more readable. Avoid running the separate
words together as in totalcommissions. Rather,
separate the words with underscores as in
total_commissions, or, if you do wish to run the
words together, begin each word after the first with a
capital letter as in totalCommissions. The latter
style is preferred.

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31

Common Programming Error 2.5

Placing variable definitions among
executable statements causes syntax errors.

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32

Good Programming Practice 2.9

Separate the definitions and executable
statements in a function with one blank line
to emphasize where the definitions end and
the executable statements begin.

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33

2.3 Another Simple C Program:

Adding Two Integers
scanf( "%d", &integer1 );
Obtains a value from the user
- scanf uses standard input (usually keyboard)

This scanf statement has two arguments

- %d - indicates data should be a decimal integer
- &integer1 - location in memory to store variable
- & is confusing in beginning for now, just remember to
include it with the variable name in scanf statements

When executing the program the user responds to the

scanf statement by typing in a number, then pressing the
enter (return) key

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34

Good Programming Practice 2.10

Place a space after each comma (,) to
make programs more readable.

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35

2.3 Another Simple C Program:

Adding Two Integers
= (assignment operator)
Assigns a value to a variable
Is a binary operator (has two operands)
sum = variable1 + variable2;
sum gets variable1 + variable2;

Variable receiving value on left

printf( "Sum is %d\n", sum );

Similar to scanf
- %d means decimal integer will be printed
- sum specifies what integer will be printed

Calculations can be performed inside printf statements

printf( "Sum is %d\n", integer1 + integer2 );

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36

Good Programming Practice 2.11

Place spaces on either side of a binary
operator. This makes the operator stand
out and makes the program more readable.

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37

Common Programming Error 2.6

A calculation in an assignment statement
must be on the right side of the = operator.
It is a syntax error to place a calculation on
the left side of an assignment operator.

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38

Common Programming Error 2.7

Forgetting one or both of the double quotes
surrounding the format control string in a
printf or scanf.

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39

Common Programming Error 2.8

Forgetting the % in a conversion specification in
the format control string of a printf or scanf.

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40

Common Programming Error 2.9

Placing an escape sequence such as \n outside
the format control string of a printf or
scanf.

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41

Common Programming Error 2.10

Forgetting to include the expressions
whose values are to be printed in a
printf containing conversion specifiers.

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42

Common Programming Error 2.11

Not providing a conversion specifier when
one is needed in a printf format control
string to print the value of an expression.

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43

Common Programming Error 2.12

Placing inside the format control string the
comma that is supposed to separate the
format control string from the expressions
to be printed.

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44

Common Programming Error 2.13

Forgetting to precede a variable in a scanf
statement with an ampersand when that
variable should, in fact, be preceded by an
ampersand.

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45

Common Programming Error 2.14

Preceding a variable included in a printf
statement with an ampersand when, in fact,
that variable should not be preceded by an
ampersand.

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46

2.4 Memory Concepts

Variables
Variable names correspond to locations in the computer's
memory
Every variable has a name, a type, a size and a value

Whenever a new value is placed into a variable (through

scanf, for example), it replaces (and destroys) the previous
value
Reading variables from memory does not change them

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47

Fig. 2.6 | Memory location showing the name and value of a variable.

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48

Fig. 2.7 | Memory locations after both variables are input.

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49

Fig. 2.8 | Memory locations after a calculation.

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50

2.5 Arithmetic
Arithmetic calculations
Use * for multiplication and / for division
Integer division truncates remainder
- 7 / 5 evaluates to 1

Modulus operator(%) returns the remainder

- 7 % 5 evaluates to 2

Operator precedence
Some arithmetic operators act before others (i.e., multiplication
before addition)
- Use parenthesis when needed

Example: Find the average of three variables a, b and c

- Do not use: a + b + c / 3
- Use: (a + b + c ) / 3

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51

C opetration

Arithmetic Algebraic
C expression
operator
expression

Addition

f+7

f + 7

Subtraction

pc

p - c

Multiplication

bm

b * m

Division

Remainder

x y or

x
or x y x / y
y

r % s

r mod s

Fig. 2.9 | Arithmetic operators.

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52

Common Programming Error 2.15

An attempt to divide by zero is normally
undefined on computer systems and generally
results in a fatal error, i.e., an error that
causes the program to terminate immediately
without having successfully performed its job.
Nonfatal errors allow programs to run to
completion, often producing incorrect results.

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53

Operator(s) Operation(s) Order of evaluation (precedence)

( )

Parentheses

Evaluated first. If the parentheses are

nested, the expression in the innermost pair is
evaluated first. If there are several pairs of
parentheses on the same level (i.e., not nested),
they are evaluated left to right.

*
/
%

Multiplication
Division
Remainder

Evaluated second. If there are several, they are

evaluated left to right.

+
-

Addition
Subtraction

Evaluated last. If there are several, they are

evaluated left to right.

Fig. 2.10 | Precedence of arithmetic operators.

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54

Fig. 2.11 | Order in which a second-degree polynomial is evaluated.

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55

Good Programming Practice 2.12

Using redundant parentheses in complex
arithmetic expressions can make the
expressions clearer.

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56

2.6 Decision Making: Equality and

Relational Operators
Executable statements
Perform actions (calculations, input/output of data)
Perform decisions
- May want to print "pass" or "fail" given the value of a test grade

if control statement
Simple version in this section, more detail later
If a condition is true, then the body of the if statement executed
- 0 is false, non-zero is true

Control always resumes after the if structure

Keywords
Special words reserved for C
Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names

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57

Standard algebraic
equality operator or
relational operator

C equality or
relational
operator

Example of
C condition

Meaning of C condition

==

x == y

x is equal to y

!=

x != y

x is not equal to y

>

x > y

x is greater than y

<

x < y

x is less than y

>=

x >= y

x is greater than or equal to y

<=

x <= y

x is less than or equal to y

Equality operators

Relational operators

Fig. 2.12 | Equality and relational operators.

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58

Common Programming Error 2.16

A syntax error will occur if the two symbols
in any of the operators ==, !=, >= and <=
are separated by spaces.

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59

Common Programming Error 2.17

A syntax error will occur if the two symbols
in any of the operators !=, >= and <= are
reversed as in =!, => and =<, respectively.

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60

Common Programming Error 2.18

Confusing the equality operator == with
the assignment operator =.

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61

Common Programming Error 2.19

Placing a semicolon immediately to the right
of the right parenthesis after the condition in
an if statement.

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62

Good Programming Practice 2.13

Indent the statement(s) in the body of an
if statement.

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63

Good Programming Practice 2.14

Place a blank line before and after every
if statement in a program for readability.

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64

Good Programming Practice 2.15

Although it is allowed, there should be no
more than one statement per line in a program.

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65

Common Programming Error 2.20

Placing commas (when none are needed)
between conversion specifiers in the format
control string of a scanf statement.

2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1
2
3

/* Fig. 2.13: fig02_13.c

Using if statements, relational
operators, and equality operators */

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#include <stdio.h>

/* function main begins program execution */

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int main( void )

{

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Outline

fig02_13.c

int num1; /* first number to be read from user

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int num2; /* second number to be read from user */

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printf( "Enter two integers, and I will tell you\n" );

printf( "the relationships they satisfy: " );

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scanf( "%d%d", &num1, &num2 ); /* read two integers */

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if ( num1 == num2 ) {

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} /* end if */

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} /* end if */

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(1 of 3 )

Checks if num1 is equal to num2

printf( "%d is equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );

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*/

Checks if num1 is not equal to num2

if ( num1 != num2 ) {
printf( "%d is not equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );

if ( num1 < num2 ) {

Checks if num1 is less than num2

printf( "%d is less than %d\n", num1, num2 );

} /* end if */

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Inc. All rights reserved.

29
30

if ( num1 > num2 ) {

printf( "%d is greater than %d\n", num1, num2 );

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} /* end if */

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if ( num1 <= num2 ) {

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Checks if num1 is greater than num2

Checks if num1 is less than or equal to num2

printf( "%d is less than or equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );

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} /* end if */

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printf( "%d is greater than or equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );

} /* end if */

if ( num1 >= num2 ) {

Outline

Checks if num1 is greater than equal to num2

fig02_13.c

(2 of 3 )

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return 0;

/* indicate that program ended successfully */

42
43 } /* end function main */
43 } /* end function main */
Enter two integers, and I will tell you
the relationships they satisfy: 3 7
3 is not equal to 7
3 is less than 7
3 is less than or equal to 7
(continued on next slide )

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Inc. All rights reserved.

(continued from previous slide)

Enter two integers, and I will tell you
the relationships they satisfy:
22 is not equal to 12
22 is greater than 12
22 is greater than or equal to 12

68

Outline

fig02_13.c
Enter two integers, and I will tell you
the relationships they satisfy:
7 is equal to 7
7 is less than or equal to 7
7 is greater than or equal to 7

(3 of 3 )

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Inc. All rights reserved.

69

Good Programming Practice 2.16

A lengthy statement may be spread over
several lines. If a statement must be split across
lines, choose breaking points that make sense
(such as after a comma in a comma-separated
list). If a statement is split across two or more
lines, indent all subsequent lines.

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70

Good Programming Practice 2.17

Refer to the operator precedence chart when writing
expressions containing many operators. Confirm that
the operators in the expression are applied in the
proper order. If you are uncertain about the order of
evaluation in a complex expression, use parentheses to
group expressions or break the statement into several
simpler statements. Be sure to observe that some of Cs
operators such as the assignment operator (=) associate
from right to left rather than from left to right.

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71

Operators

Associativity

()

left to right

<

<=

==

!=

left to right
left to right

>

>=

left to right
left to right
right to left

Fig. 2.14 | Precedence and associativity of the operators discussed so far.

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72

Keywords
auto

double

int

struct

break

else

long

switch

case

enum

register

typedef

char

extern

return

union

const

float

short

unsigned

continue

for

signed

void

default

goto

sizeof

volatile

do

if

static

while

Fig. 2.15 | Cs keywords.

2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.