POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1; pp.

45-51
10.2478/v10012-008-0043-3

Optimization of steam cycles with respect to

supercritical parameters
Marian Piwowarski.

Abstract

This paper contains an analysis of supercritical power stations have been presently built worldwide. The analysis concerns
cycles with single and double interstage superheating and, additionally, with regenerative feed water preheating system
equipped with six, seven, eight, nine and ten regenerative heat exchangers, respectively. Relevant calculations were performed
for various values of fresh steam temperature and pressure, various pressure values of secondary superheating, as well as with
value of condenser internal pressure maintained constant. The calculations show that to increase efficiency of steam cycle with
double interstage superheating and extended regeneration even to a value greater than 51%, is possible. In the age of greater
and greater demand for electric power and stronger and stronger limitations imposed on emission of noxious compounds
to the atmosphere, the developing of power production technologies based on supercritical parameters seems inevitable.
Keywords: analysis of supercritical power stations, optimization of steam cycles, supercritical parameters, concerns cycles.

Description of supercritical power stations

Investigations on the increasing of efficiency of
steam turbine cycle have been carried out by many
research centres of universities and turbine production
concerns already for a few dozen of years. In the case
of thermodynamic cycles with applied steam turbines
the investigations have dealt with steam pressure and
temperature values greater than: the 22.12MPa critical
pressure and 647.28K critical temperature, respectively.
Over the critical point the difference between liquid
phase and gas phase disapears [20], [25], [43]. Already
in the 1950s the first attempts to developing the turbine
power units based on supercritical parameters have
been made. In 1957 the first in the world turbine power
unit of supercritical parameters was put in motion
in the electric power station, Philo, USA. The unit of
314bar/621C steam parameters developed 125MW
output power. Two years later 325MW power unit of even
higher steam parameters (345bar/649C/566C/566C)
was built in the Eddystone I electric power station. For
the high values of steam parameters special materials
suitable to work in high temperatures were required.
High investment cost, inadequate quality of materials,
faults in assembling and operational problems forced
the producers to resign from building the units for
so high steam parameters. As late as in 1969 the unit
designed for the supercritical parameters with double
secondary superheating of 241bar/538C/552C/566C,
was set working. The application of such solution to
the steam cycle has improved operation of the unit.
Therefore in the 1970s, apart from the units with single
superheating of 241bar/538/538C steam parameters,
were built the units with double superheating, which
developed output power reaching from 350 do 1100 MW.
Progress in material technology, started in the 1980s,
has made it possible to apply higher steam parameters
(310bar/593C/593C/593C) to steam cycle. The
application of better and better materials suitable for
very high operational temperatures makes it possible
to build the units for the supercritical parameters as
well as ultrasupercritical ones (400bar/760C). Modern
3-D calculation programs used in designing fluid flow

systems as well as highly efficient devices included into

equipment of such units have guaranteed to achieve their
high reliability and efficiency. In the 19601990s in USA
159 units of the power range of 3001400MW, pressure
range of 230260bar and temperature of 540590C,
including 14 units of double secondary superheating, were
set working. In the years 19901998 in Japan and China
total output power installed in coal electric power stations
has increased threefold. The growth was achieved
mainly by applying the units of output power in the range
of 400700MW, working with the supercritical steam
parameters of 255bar/570590C and the secondary
superheating of 570595C temperature range. In the
years 20002003 three 700MW units based on the
246bar/593C/593C steam parameters, two 900MW
units based on the 241bar/593C/593C steam parameters,
two 900MW units based on the 241bar/600C/610C
steam parameters, three 1000MW units based on the
245bar/600C/600C steam parameters and two 1050MW
units based on the 250bar/600C/610C steam parameters,
were put in operation. In Europe significant achievements
in building the power units with supercritical parameters
can be noted in Denmark and Germany. In 1984 in
Denmark the first unit with supercritical parameters was
set working in the Studstrupvaerket electric power station.
At the beginning of the 21st century two 411MW units
with the 290bar/582C/580C/580C steam parameters,
including one coal-fired and the other gas-fired, as well
as 530MW unit with the 300bar/580C/600C steam
parameters, working on combusted biomass, were put
in operation in Avedore electric power station. Germans,
basing on the achievements and operational experience
of Danes in the area of building coal electric power
plants with high steam parameters, have built mainly
800900MW power units fitted with brown coal-fired
boilers. In 2002, 1012MW power unit based on the
274bar/580C/600C steam parameters was built in the
Niederaussem electric power station. A list of selected
power units (presently installed or planned ones)
intended for the operating with supercritical parameters
is presented in Tab. 1. Ptnw II electric power station is
the first Polish electric power plant based on supercritical
POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1

45

Fig.2 Cross-section of 28K460 turbine installed in agisza electric power station

parameters. Its high energy conversion efficiency is

associated with lower fuel consumption and limited
emission of contaminations to the environment. And, the
power unit built in agisza is fitted with the biggest in the
world monotube boiler of circulation fluid-bed, operating
with supercritical parameters. The modern ecological
power unit would reach very high efficiency equal to
about 45%. Its turbine-set parameters are as follows:
electric output power of 460MW, fresh steam pressure
of 275bar, fresh steam temperature of 560C, secondary
steam temperature of 580C, secondary steam pressure
of 54.6bar. The steam cycle schematic diagram as well
as the turbine-set cross-section are presented in Fig. 1
and 2, respectively.

supercritical boilers deliver the steam of 25MPa pressure

and 600C temperature and abt. 610C superheating
temperature, to steam turbine cycle. It is expected that
further development of the technology would be focused
on the mastering of ultrasupercritical parameters as well
as the increasing of efficiency of power units. This mainly
depends on progress to be done in the area of material
engineering [1], [2], [3], [5], [7], [9], [13], [15], [16], [17],
[22], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [34], [39], [40], [48], [49],
[50]. Investigations are also carried out in the frame of
large international projects such as e.g. THERMIE 700
Advanced Power Plant project financially supported by
EU, whose simplified scheme is given in Fig. 3, aimed
at the obtaining of fresh steam temperature of the order
of 700C and 37.5 MPa pressure. The setting in motion
of the power unit is scheduled on 2015 [16].

Fig.1Simplified steam cycle diagram of agisza electric power plant

And, in the electric power station of Bechatw S.A.,

the largest conventional one in Poland and Europe,
working on brown coal and being the biggest electric
power producer in Poland, the building of a 833MW
power unit based on supercritical parameters has been
started. The unit with the 266bar/554/582C steam
parameters is intended for the fundamental mode of
operation of 7500 h/year usage time of its rated power
and the total working time of 8100 h yearly. By applying
supercritical steam parameters it is already possible to
obtain thermal efficiency of over 45% as compared with
that of 4142% achievable today by conventional thermal
electric power plants. Contemporary pulverized-fuel
46

POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1

Fig.3Simplified schematic diagram of THERMIE 700 steam cycle

In the subject-matter literature can be found power

plants fitted with turbines operating with supercritical
parameters, in which fresh steam (of 26MPa and 570C)
is produced by cooling nuclear reactors. Efficiency of
such systems exceeds 45%, as compared with that of the
order of 33% in the case of the power plants co-working
with lightwatercooled reactors [4], [38].
High steam temperatures in steam turbine cycles
require the first and second stage of turbine placed behind
the secondary superheating, to be cooled. The simplified

Tab.1.List of selected power units with supercritical parameters, installed in electric power stations worldwide
[1], [2], [7], [9], [13], [21], [25], [29], [36], [37], [44], [45] * -planned units or those under construction
Electric power station

Country

Power [MW]

Steam parameters
[bar/C/C]

Efficiency [%]

Year of building

Schwarze Pumpe

Germany

2x800

250/544/562

41

1992

Staudinger Unit

Germany

500

250/540/560

43

1993

Rostock

Germany

550

285/545/582

1994

Schwarze Pumpe A/B

Germany

800, 900

250/580/600

33.8

1997

Hssler

Germany

720

272/578/600

47.6

1997

Schkopau

Germany

2x480

285/545/582

1997

Lbeck

Germany

400

275/580/600

43.6

1998

Lippendofr

Germany

2x800

268/554/554

42.4

2000

Boxberg

Germany

1000

266/545/581

43

2000

10

Bexbach II

Germany

750

259/575/595

44.2

2002

11

Niederaussem

Germany

1000

275/580/600

45.2

2002

12

Hemweg-8

Holland

700

250/535/563

44

1994

13

Studstrupvaerket

Denmark

400

270/540/540

42

1985

14

Fynsvaeket-7

Denmark

420

250/540/540

43.5

1991

15

Esbjerg 3

Denmark

415

250/560/560

45.3

1992

16

Skaerbaek-3

Denmark

410

290/582/580/580

49

1997

17

Nordjyllaend-3

Denmark

410

290/582/580/580

47

1998

18

Avedore-2

Denmark

450

300/580/600

45

2001

19

USC 2005

Denmark

330/610/630/630

51

2005

20

Meri Pori

Finland

550

244/540/560

45

21

Kawagoe-1&2

Japan

700

319/571/569/569

1989-90

22

Hekinan-3

Japan

700

255/543/593

1993

23

Nanao-ohta

Japan

500

246/566/593

1994

24

Noshiro-3

Japan

600

246/566/593

1994

25

Haranomaschi

Japan

1000

246/566/593

1997

26

Matsuura-2

Japan

1000

255/598/593

41

1997

27

Haramashi

Japan

1050

259/604/602

1998

28

Nanaoota-2

Japan

700

255/597/595

1998

29

Tachibana-Wan

Japan

1050

285/605/613

2001

30

Tachibana-Wan-2

Japan

3x700

250/600/610

42/44

2000

31

Tsuruga-2

Japan

700

255/597/595

2000

32

Misumi-1

Japan

600

250/605/600

46

2001

33

Isogo-1

Japan

1x600

251/600/610

46

2002

34

Tomoto Atsuma-4

Japan

700

250/600/600

2002

35

Hitachinaka

Japan

1000

245/600/600

43.1

2003

36

Waigaoqiao-1&2

China

2x900

250/538/566

42.7

2004

37

Yuhuan

China

4x1000

262.5/600/600

2008

38

Changshu

China

600

259/569/569

42

39

Wangqu

China

600

247/571/569

43

40

Waigaoqiao-1&2

China

1x1000

270/600/600

2009

41

Yonghungdo

Korea Pd.

2x800

246/566/566

43,5

2004

42

Torrevaldaliga

Italy

6x600

250/600/600

45

2006

43

Millmerran

Australia

2x430

249/568/595

37.4

2001

44

Callide

Australia

420

251/566/565

39.4

2001

45

Tarong Nth

Australia

443

250/566/565

39.2

2002

46

Kogan Creek

Australia

750

250/540/560

37.1

2007

47

Tanners Creek

USA

580

241/538/552

39.8/42

48

Duke Power

USA

1120

241/538/538

49

Ptnw II

Poland

464

266/544/566

44.3

2007

50

Genesee at Sunset

Canada

495

241/566/566

2005

51

Lagisza *

Poland

460

275/560/580

45

52

Belchatw *

Poland

833

266/554/582

2010

53

Neurath *

Germany

2x1100

270/600/610

2010

54

Boxberg R *

Germany

670

286/600/610

2010

55

Dateln *

Germany

1100

286/600/610

2011

57

Moorburg *

Germany

2x820

276/600/610

2010
2010

No.

58

Walsum *

Germany

790

274/603/621

59

Karsruhe *

Germany

820

250/600/620

2011

60

Hamm *

Germany

800

286/600/620

2012

61

AD700EU Project *

Germany

375/700/720/720

50-55

2020

POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1

47

schematic diagram of the external cooling is shown in

Fig. 4. The cooling steam taken before the first
superheating is directed to the high-pressure (HP) part,
to be mixed with the superheated steam. The cooling
steam for the first stages of the intermediate-pressure
(IP) turbine is taken from the third or fourth stage of HP
turbine.

Boilers of pressurized fluid-beds make it possible to

reach higher power concentration and higher efficiency
values. Circulation fluid-bed technology in association
with supercritical steam parameters constitutes a safe
solution, more technologically and economically effective
than the option of pulverized-fuel boiler. Advantages of
the technology are: fuel flexibility, possible co-combustion of
coal, sludge and biomass, compliance with WE80/2001/EU
directive in the area of pollution emission, limitation of
hazard to occurrence of high-temperature corrosion and
erosion, increasing power units cycle effciency due to
heat recovery and lowering exhaust gas temperature,
uniform distribution of heat flow in combustion chamber
as well as improved dynamics of load changes [2], [3],
[7], [8], [10], [11], [12], [14], [22], [23], [24], [27], [33],
[41], [42], [46], [47].

Fig.4Schematic diagram of external cooling

Application of the high parameters is associated with

necessity of using special materials. Elements of HP and
IP turbines, which are in direct contact with superheated
steam, are made of a highalloy steel (of high percentage
content of such elements as Cr, Mo and V). The first
stages of HP and IP turbine are made of Ni-alloy steel
which is resistant to thermal loads resulting from the
difference between temperature of superheated steam
and that of steam after expansion. The low-pressure (LP)
turbine module is made of NiCrMoV-high-alloy steel.
The material is brittle-crack resistant due to lowered
content of such elements as P, Sn, Mn and Si and
increased Ni content. For the LP part it is very important
to appropriately design the last stages exposed to high
loads and erosion.

Results of calculations of steam cycles

The increasing of fresh steam pressure and temperature
at steam pressure in condenser kept constant, is the first
step to the achieving of a higher cycle efficiency [6], [18],
[19], [26], [32]. Successive figures present respectively:
Fig. 5 relation of ideal efficiency, Fig. 6 real efficiency,
and Fig. 7 cycle efficiency -with wetness loss taken
into account -of Clausius-Rankine cycle, all in function
of fresh steam pressure (555MPa) and temperature
(500760C) at condenser internal pressure kept constant
(4kPa); and, in each of the figures the dryness degree
limit line (xgr=0.85) is depicted. The figures illustrate
the possibly obtainable increase of efficiency in function
of values of fresh steam parameters at inlet to turbine,
at condenser internal pressure kept constant. In the
diagrams can be distinctly observed the limitation of
upper value of steam initial pressure, resulting from the
limit wetness. The CR cycle ideal efficiency obtainable
due to application of high fresh steam parameters exceeds
52% (see Fig.5), whereas the real efficiency of the cycle
does not exceed 43% (see Fig.6). It should be also noted
that the real efficiency of the cycle in which steam wetness
degree has been taken into account does not exceed 39%,
and that C-R cycle optimum pressure values amount to
about 100 bar (seeFig.7). The applied here notion of the
taking into account of wetness degree means that work
is done only by steam and that water does not provide
any work [26].

In present for steam temperatures up to 600C ferritic

steels, e.g. SAVE12 steel, are used; for temperatures
over 650C austenitic steels, e.g. SUPER304H steel
and HR6W steel; and for temperatures in the range
of 620720C various alloys, e.g. Inconel 617,
Haynes 230, Inconel 740 etc. Tab. 2 shows chemical
element composition of selected kinds of materials used
for the units of supercritical parameters.
To produce the steam of suprecritical parameters,
monotube boilers with elements made of special steels
(e.g. high-temperature creep resisting, austenitic or
ferritic-martensitic ones), are used. For its flow system
a turbine-driven water-feed pump of high elevation
head is necessary to overcome high flow drag resulting
from higher density of medium and smaller internal
diameters of pipes in the boiler. Another kinds of steam
generators with supercritical parameters are atmospheric
fluid-bed boilers as well as those of circulation fluid-bed.

Application of the interstage superheating is the next

way to increase efficiency of the cycle with steam turbine.
Its efficiency depends, apart from fresh steam parameters
and condenser internal pressure, on superheating pressure

Tab.2.List of chemical element composition of materials used for the power units of supercritical parameters [14]
Name/
Composition

SAVE12

Si

Mn

Ni

Cr

Co

Nb

Ta

Nd

Cu

Ti

Al

Mo

Fe

La

0.01

0.3

0.20

11.0

3.0

3.0

0.20

0.07

0.04

0.07

0.04

SUPER304H

0.1

0.2

0.8

9.0

18.0

0.4

0.1

3.0

HR6W

0.08

0.4

1.2

43.0

23.0

6.0

0.08

0.08

0.003

Haynes 230

0.07

22.0

14.0

12.5

1.0

9.0

Inconel 617

0.1

55.0

22.0

5.0

0.015

0.35

2.0

3.0

0.02

Inconel 740

0.03

0.5

0.03

48.3

25.0

20.0

2.0

1.8

0.9

0.5

0.7

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POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1

0,53

0,43

0,42

0,51
0,41

C-R cycle ideal efficiency

C-R cycle ideal efficiency

0,49

0,47

0,45

0,40

0,39

0,38

0,37

0,36

0,43

0,35

0,41

0,34

0,33

0,39
100

P1 [bar]

150

200
To=500C

250

300
To=600C

350
To=700C

400

450
To=760C

500

50

550

Fig.5Relation of ideal efficiency of Clausius-Rankine cycle in function of

fresh steam pressure and temperature at condenser internal pressure kept
constant (4kPa), and the wetness degree limit curve xgr=0.85

value too. There is one optimum pressure value for which

the cycle efficiency reaches its maximum. In steam power
units various configurations of the system with single
interstage superheating applied in the boiler are possible.
The solution in which HP part and IP part are placed in
a common casing, is often applied. The integrated HP/IP
module is connected with LP part which can be of single
or double jet. Such system is characteristic of compact
structure and lower investment and operational costs.
The units which operate with supercritical parameters
and have that kind of structure can reach output power
of over 600 MW. The system in which HP and IP turbine
parts are placed is seperate casings is only sporadically
applied. In the units of a greater power the solution in
which single-jet HP part and double-jet IP part are placed
in separate casings and connected with double-jet LP part,
is applied. The LP module is consisted of one, two or three
casings, depending on the output power the unit has to
develop. In practice, finds also application the system
in which the first casing contains HP part and single-jet
IP part of countercurrent flow, and in the other casing
double-jet IP part connected with LP module consisted
of two casings, is placed. Its alternative is to place
HP and IP parts in separate casings [2], [6], [9], [15], [18],
[19], [26], [32], [33], [35], [36].
The profits resulting from the application of double
superheating became obvious as early as in 1960s. In
optimizing the cycle with double secondary superheating
attention should be paid to appropriate choice of the
pressure for the first and second superheating.
In practice the 1st superheating pressure is selected
depending on thermodynamic optimum, the 2nd
superheating pressure is usually chosen depending on
an assumed steam temperature at inlet to LP turbine.
Maximum temperature of inlet steam to LP part is limited
with respect to thermal strength of materials. Classical
turbine-set consists of three separate modules designed
for definite steam parameters, i.e.: HP, IP, and LP parts.
Electric generator is directly connected with the last part,
i.e. LP. The arrangement of steam turbine for supercritical
parameters depends first of all on choice of a kind of
secondary superheating, units operation range as well
as special requirements as to regenerative preheating. To
the arrangement with double superheating the solution in

100

150

P1 [bar]

Xgr=0.85

200

250

To=500C

300
To=600C

350

400

To=700C

450
To=760C

500

550

Xgr=0.85

Fig.6Relation of real efficiency of Clausius-Rankine cycle in function of

fresh steam pressure and temperature at condenser internal pressure kept
constant (4kPa), and the wetness degree limit curve xgr=0.85
0,39

0,37

0,35

C-R cycle ideal efficiency

50

0,33

0,31

0,29

0,27

0,25

0,23
50

100

150

P1 [bar]

200

250
To=500C

300
To=600C

350

400
To=700C

450
To=760C

500

550
Xgr=0.85

Fig.7Relation of Clausius-Rankine cycle efficiency (with steam wetness

degree taken into account according to Bauman formula) in function of
fresh steam pressure and temperature at condenser internal pressure kept
constant (4kPa), and the wetness degree limit curve xgr=0.85

which HP part is placed in a separate casing and connected

with casing of double-jet IP part after 2nd superheating, is
often applied. LP part is consisted of one or two casings.
In order to obtain higher power values the solution in
which HP parts and IP1 part after 1st superheating are
placed in common casing, is used. The second casing is
intended for IP2 double-jet part after 2nd superheating,
connected with LP module consisted of one, two or three
double-jet parts [2], [6], [9], [15], [18], [19], [26], [32],
[33], [35], [36].
Increase of cycle efficiency to a large extent depends on
an appropriate choice of number and kind of preheaters.
Regenerative preheating is a very important element of
the power unit and it influences the units main elements,
i.e. boiler, turbine, condenser and feed pump. The
increased jet of steam produced in boiler, resulting from
regeneration, is associated with the necessity of fitting the
unit with feed pumps of greater capacity. High feed water
temperature makes it difficult to maintain low exhaust gas
temperature on which to a large extent depends boiler
efficiency. It should be also remembered that along with
increasing number of exchangers degree of complexity of
the entire system also increases, that consequently leads to
increasing investment cost. The first step in optimizing the
system is to select an appropriate number of regenartion
stages. To high power units 610 stages of superheating
are usually applied. When considering profits due to
POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1

49

application of regenerative superheating attention should

be first of all paid to possible achieving higher efficiency
of turbine stages. Drop of steam jet in LP part makes blade
system forming easier and, on the other hand, absorption
of steam from interstage space of the turbine makes its
design more complex and results in generating flow losses
within the turbine [6], [18], [19], [26].
In this work the analysis is performed of the
cycles with single and double interstage superheating
and, additionally, with the regenerative feed water
preheating system fitted with six, seven, eight, nine
and ten regenerative heat exchangers. Respective
calculations were performed for various values of fresh
steam temperature (500C, 600C, 700C) and pressure
(565MPa), various pressure values of secondary
superheating: p2=(0.240.36)*p0, and p2=(0.060.12)*p0,
as well as with internal pressure value in condenser
maintained constant (4kPa). The performed calculations
indicate that the increase of efficiency of the steam
cycle with double interstage superheating and extended
regeneration, up to 51%, is possible.
Comparison of cycle efficiency

0,52

Thermie 700

0,51
0,50

Real C-R cycle efficiency [ -]

0,49

agisza

0,48

Ptnw
Bechatw

0,47
0,46
0,45
0,44
0,43
0,42
0,41
0,40
200
C-R

250
1-prz

300
2-prz

350
1-prz 8w

P1 [bar] 400
2-prz 8w

450
Ptnw

500
agisza

550
Bechatw

600
Thermie 700

Fig.8Comparison of efficiency of steam turbine cycles of various

configurations, including values for Polish electric power stations operating
with supercritical parameters

Fig. 8 presents comparison of efficiency of the

following cycles:
Clausius-Rankine cycle (marked C-R);
The steam cycle with single interstage superheating
without regeneration (marked 1prz);
The steam cycle with single interstage superheating
and 8 regenerative heat exchangers (marked
1prz 8w);
The steam cycle with double interstage superheating
without regeneration (marked2prz);
The steam cycle with double interstage superheating
without regeneration and 8 regenerative heat
exchangers (marked 2prz 8w);
The steam cycle with supercritical parameters
operating in Ptnw electric power station (marked
Ptnw);
The steam cycle with supercritical parameters
operating in agisza electric power station (marked
agisza);
The steam cycle with supercritical parameters
50

POLISH MARITIME RESEARCH, Special issue 2009/S1

operating in Bechatw electric power station

(marked Bechatw);
The demonstrative cycle for supercritical
parameters (marked Thermie 700).
Fig.8 was prepared for optimum values of interstage
superheating pressure, fresh steam temperature (of 700C)
and constant value of condenser internal pressure (of
4kPa) in function of fresh steam pressure (in the range
of 2060MPa). From the diagram it can be concluded
that the application of double interstage superheating
increases the cycle efficiency by about 1.5 % as compared
with that of the cycle with single single superheating and
by about 9 % as compared with the simple C-R cycle.
Summary
In Poland coal plays the most important role in the
process of electric power production. With a view of
it resources, gained experience and reliability of the
coal-based technology of electric power production that
fuel will be dominating for electric power generation
in the years to come. Ecological and energy policy,
both in Poland and EU, compels to apply low-emission
technologies, e.g. clean coal-based technology. In Poland,
because of its coal resources and its role for the states
energy balance, investments in clean coal technologies
should be a natural phase of power industry development
in this country. Other probable development directions
of Polish power industry are a.o. the following: coal
gasification integrated with high-temperature fuel cells,
power systems with fuel cells combined with coal hydrogasification, cola gasification and liquefaction, coalnuclear synergy systems, pressurized coal combustion
in fluid-bed boilers, combined production systems of
electric power and hydrogen, or polygeneration. In the
age of greater and greater electric power demand and
stronger and stronger limitations imposed on emission
of noxious compounds to the atmosphere, development
of power production technologies based on supercritical
and ultrasupercritical parameters, seems inevitable.
The turbine power units fed with steam of supercritical
parameters, which have been built so far, are characteristic
of a higher efficiency and lower carbon dioxide emission,
resulting from it.
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