PHY401 Quantum Mechanics
Instructor Coordinates
Instructor:
Office:
Class:
225 Fronczak Hall
Mon, Wed and Fri, 1:00-1:50 PM,
219 Fronczak Hall
Office hours: Tuesday 2-3 PM or by appointment
Textbook:
Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd edition)
Bransden & Joachain, Quantum Mechanics (2nd edition)
TOPIC UNITS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Students are expected to master the following
subjects:
OUTCOME ASSESSMENT
Learning on topics is assessed as follows:
the origins of quantum
theory
blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, Bohr model
of hydrogen atom, [1,2,5]
HW, quizzes, Midterm Exam
the wave function and
Schrodinger equation
de Broglies hypothesis, wave-particle duality,
interpretation of wave function, the Schrodinger
Equation, Borns Statistical Interpretation, Probability
Normalization, Momentum, Heisenberg uncertainty
principle [1,2,3]
HW, quizzes, Midterm Exam
Time-independent
Schrodinger equation
formalism of quantum
mechanics
Stationary States, The Infinite Square Well,
The Harmonic Oscillator, The Free Particle
The Delta Function Potential,
The Finite Square Well [1,2,3]
Hilbert Space, Observables,
Eigenfunctions of a Hermitian Operator,
Generalized Statistical Interpretation,
The Uncertainty Principle, Dirac Notation [3]
Schrodinger equation in spherical coordinates, the
hydrogen atom, orbital angular momentum,
Quantum Mechanics in three
eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz, general
dimensions and angular
angular momentum, spin angular momentum, spin
momentum
one-half, total angular momentum, addition of angular
momentum [1,2,3]
HW, quizzes, Midterm Exam, Final Exam
HW, quizzes, Final Exam
HW, quizzes, Final Exam
Grades
Homework (15%): Approximately one problem set per two weeks of lectures will be
assigned. The homework is due in class on the due date (one week after it is assigned).
You must show both your work and correct answers to earn full credit.
In class quizzes (15%): Mostly conceptual questions concentrating on materials to be
covered in class.
Mid-term Exam (30%): An open-book mid-term exam will be held out of class, time
and location to be announced.
Final Exam (40%): TBA
A final letter grade will be assigned based on your accumulative score (> 60% for C and
> 90% for A).
QM is difficult
Richard Feynman
I think I can safely say that nobody
understands quantum mechanics.
Max Planck
"One should not hold against him too much that in
his speculations he might have occasionally overshot
the goal, as for example in his hypothesis of the
quanta of light."
Albert Einstein
GOD does not play dice with the universe!
6
Then, why should we care
No matter how much it has been questioned or objected,
quantum theory has never failed an observational test
and has beaten off innumerable challenges.
no quantum mechanics, no modern technology
All electronic devices, e.g., computers, mobile phones
Lasers
Superconductors
Nano materials
Some Tips
What are we going to learn? A language that describes
atoms, electrons and photons alike.
A pragmatic attitude or approach to quantum mechanics:
First: Accept it or assume it is true.
Accept its principles and the related results, no matter how
peculiar they look.
Never get stuck for too long. Just move on and come back later.
Second: Practice, in class and after class
In the preface of many quantum mechanics textbooks, a common
advice is to do exercises. No practice, no understanding
What are the expectations?
Read ahead (and gain basic understanding)
before coming to class
Do every single HW. Collaboration allowed,
but you should produce your own work
Required background
Basic knowledge of classical physics (classical
mechanics, statistical mechanics,
electromagnetism)
Linear algebra, eigen functions and eigenvalues,
matrix presentation, inner products, etc
Ordinary differential equation
Integration
Do not skimp on math!
12
Some History
Until early 20th century: Classical Newtonian Mechanics
Newtons second Law
ma F
dp
F
dt
Kinetic energy
1
T mv 2
2
Mechanical energy of the system
E T V
Deterministic view:
All the parameters of one particle can be determined exactly at any given time
14
All fundamental discoveries in physics have already
been made, and subsequent developments will be in
the sixth place of decimals.
(Michelson, 1894)
There is nothing new to be discovered in physics
now. All that remains is more and more precise
measurement.
(Lord Kelvin)
15
two small, puzzling clouds
remained on the horizon.
1. Michelsons experiments (1887):
light speed is a constant,
regardless of the movement of the light source
Special theory of relativity
Lord Kelvin
2. Black body radiation (late 19th century):
energy emitted discontinuously,
Planck constant
the beginning of quantum mechanics
16
In the beginning of the 20th century, there emerged more
and more experiments that could not be reconciled with the
classical physics.
These challenges were fundamental rather than technical
and led to a revolution in physics
Blackbody Radiation
Photoelectric Effect
Compton effect
Stern-Gerlach experiment
Spectra of Hydrogen
17
Black body Radiation
Black body: a perfect absorber of light.
A good approximation: Cavity kept at
constant temperature and blackened in
the interior. Once light enters the cavity
through the aperture, it will almost
never come out.
A good light absorber is also a good light
emitter (not the same incident light!)
= 4
R: total emissive power (J Stefan, 1879)
: Stefans constant 5.6710-8 Wm-2K-4
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
(1)
Spectral Distribution of Black Body Radiation
Lets look at the spectral distribution of black body radiation
, emissive power (spectral emittance)
, : power emitted per unit area at T, corresponding to radiation with
wavelength between and +d
=
,
0
For fixed , , increases with
increasing T
At each T, there is a max for which
, is maximum
max varies inversely with T
Wiens displacement law
O. Lummer and E. Pringsheim (1899)
(2)
19
Spectral Distribution of Black Body Radiation
, (wavelength) spectral distribution function (monochromatic energy density)
, : energy density (energy per unit volume) in wavelength interval (, +d) at T
4
(show: , = , )
Wiens Law (1893)
Based on thermodynamics
, = 5 ()
(3)
() is a function of variable (), which can not be
determined by thermodynamics (or classical physics)
To determine , , we need to find ()
20
n Space
nz
= + +
Each intersection point represents a
distinct combination of (n1, n2, n3);
Each mode occupies a volume of 1.
ny
nx
21
Spectral distribution of blackbody radiation
Rayleigh and Jeans (1905) (classical electromagnetic theory and equipartition of
energy):
Thermal radiation within a cavity exists in the form of standing EM waves; the
8
number of modes per unit volume per unit wavelength = 4 (show)
If is the average energy of the mode, then
, =
(1)
The average energy of a classical oscillator is =
Average energy per degree of freedom of a dynamical system in equilibrium is
/2 (classical law of equipartition of energy).
For a linear harmonic oscillator, /2 kinetic and /2 potential energy.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
, =
Spot the problem!
22
Ultraviolet Catastrophe
,
Exp.
, =
Rayleigh-Jeans model blows
up at high frequencies!!
Q: What is wrong with the classical model?
24
Plancks quantum theory
(1) Treat blackbody as a large number of atomic oscillators ( simple
harmonic oscillator), each of which emits and absorbs electromagnetic waves
(2) Each atomic oscillator can have only discrete values of energy that must be
multiples of h
= = , n = 0, 1, 2,
h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js ( Plancks constant, obtained by fitting the exp.)
Spectrum of the atomic Oscillators
Classical
Plancks model
Energy is quantized!
25
E = nh,
According to Plancks theory:
E
e
h
kT
(show)
Recall Rayleigh-Jeans Law
( , T )
Replace kT in Rayleigh-Jeans law with
kT
, =
Plancks law
8
5
kT is the average energy
h
kT
hc
hc
kT
( = )
Quantization of energy is totally at
variance with classical physics.
At large
1
1
kT
hc
hc
hc
kT
e 1
kT
( , T )
kT
Why?
26
Photoelectric Effect
Electrons ejected from metallic surfaces irradiated by high frequency EM waves.
monochromatic light ,
Photocurrent IP: The electrons in the
cathode absorb the electromagnetic
energy of light and escape into the
vacuum, forming photocurrent.
Classical wave theory:
vacuum tube
by Philipp Lenard, 1900
Classical Picture:
the energy of a light wave is given
by its intensity.
1 2
= 0sin( ), 0
2
1. IP is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
2. If the incident light is strong enough, there should always be IP
produced, regardless of the frequency of the light.
28
Experimental Findings
1. When frequency is above a threshold 0,
no matter how weak the light is, there is IP.
2. When is below a threshold 0, no matter
how strong the light is, there is no IP.
(a) The maximum kinetic energy
Fix
Change light intensity of any single emitted electron
increases linearly with frequency
above some threshold value and is
independent of the light intensity.
Change
Fix light intensity
v0
(b) The number of electrons
emitted per second (i.e. IP) is
Fix
independent of frequency and
Change light intensity
increases linearly with the light
intensity
29
Classical picture
Experiment
Photoelectric effect should
occur for any frequency as
long as the intensity is high
enough to give enough
energy to eject electrons
There is a threshold frequency
Maximum kinetic energy of
electrons should increase
with intensity of light
Maximum kinetic energy of
electrons is independent of
intensity of light
Maximum kinetic energy of
electrons should be
independent of frequency
Maximum kinetic energy of
electrons is linearly proportional
to frequency of light
30
Photon, the particle (quanta) of light
suggests that the energy of light is related to frequency, in
addition to intensity. But how?
The difficulty of the classical picture: light as continuous wave
Einstein (1905, Nobel price 1921):
light is discrete rather than continuous. In a beam of light, there are
many massless particles, photons. Each photon has an energy of:
Ephoton =h = ( =h/2, h: Plancks constant)
Only when > EW (EW: work function of the metal),
electrons can be knocked off.
Potential well
1. Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons:
Ekin,max = - EW= ( - 0)
Below this frequency limit 0, no electrons can
leave the metal. Agrees with the experiments.
2. The intensity of photocurrent (the number of photoelectrons):
Increasing the intensity of the light beam increases the
number of photons, and hence increasing the photocurrent.
Elight=N*
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The duality of light
Stopping potential (V)
0 =
V0: Stopping potential
= 0
Slope is
R.A. Millikan, 1916
E = =h (=h/2, =2)
Light is a particle (with discrete energy)
e: 1.602 10-19 C
h is determined to be 6.5610-34 Js,
agrees well with value determined
from black body radiation
But it also as a frequency (diffraction, interference).
It is both a particle and a wave.
This duality is incompatible with classical physics.
The wave-particle duality is a general character of ALL physical quantities!
Bohr model for hydrogen
Rutherfords atomic model (1911)
Vast majority of -particles passed
straight through the foil.
Approximately 1 in 8,000 were
deflected.
most of the atom was made up of
'empty space'.
Planetary model
Electrons circling
the central nucleus
The orbits and energy are
continuous in this model.
Planetary model: unstable
hydrogen spectrum
A circling electrons radiates energy.
electron
nucleus
The atom would collapse within
10-10 second if it collapses.
Line spectrum had been known for more
than a century. No one had thought very
deeply about what their relationship might
be with atoms.
A clear contradiction to reality.
34
Balmer series: four lines of visible light
Balmer's formula
Why is the atomic spectrum discrete instead of continuous?
Cannot be explained by Rutherford model (continuous orbits).
Indicating that the electron stays at some discrete orbits
In 1913 Bohr, by accident, stumbled across Balmer's
numerology for the hydrogen spectrum, and came up with a
workable model of the atom.
35
Bohrs theory
1. The planetary model is valid.
2. The electrons can only travel in special orbits: at a certain discrete set
of distances from the nucleus with specific energies.
3. When an electron is in an allowed orbit it does not radiate. Thus the
model simply throws out classical electromagnetic theory.
(A hypothesis without any explanation)
4. Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed
orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with
a frequency determined by the energy difference of the levels
according to the Planck relation
= 2 1 =
5. The angular momentum of the allowed orbits is quantized (discrete)
=
= , = 1,2,
2
36
Quantization of the orbits
centripetal
force
me v
ke e
2
r
r
Coulomb
force
Z=1 for
hydrogen
2
k
e
me v 2 e
r
( n ) 2 ke e 2
n2 2
L me vr n (me vr ) (n ) me v
rn = 2
2
me r
r
ke e me
2
Quantization of the energy
2
2
2
2
k
e
k
e
k
e
k
e
1
E me v 2 e e e e
2
r
2r
r
2r
ke e me 13.6eV
ke e
E
2 2
2rn
2 n
n2
2
2 2
Q: What is the energy required to ionize a hydrogen atom?
37
hydrogen spectrum explained
4
1
=
2(40 )2 2 2
4
1
1
=
2 =
2
2
2
2(40 )
= (na < nb)
1
4
1
1
=
=
(
2(40 )2 2 2 2
= (
1
2
1
)
2
n=6
Lyman series
Rydberg formula
4
1
=
=10
973
731.6
m
80 2 3
Rydberg constant
Rydberg unit of energy (atomic physics):
Paschen series
Balmer series
If this nonsense of Bohr should in the end prove to be right,
we will quit physics!"
-- Otto Stern and Max von Laue
Otto Stern: Stern-Gerlach experiment, Spin quantization (p181-183)
Student of Einstein
Max von Laue: discovery of the diffraction of X-rays in crystals
Student of Max Planck
Other experiments: Compton effect, Stern-Gerlach experiment
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