E=

T 4

5.67108Wm2K4 (affected by: vary distance Earth-Sun, 23.5 tilt axis, Earths Curvature) Hadleys Circle (complexity by: Earths

rotation, suns oscillation abt equator, deposition of land, oceans) Warm air at equator rises causing low pressure- Angular momentum from Coriolis force causes
deflection thus 3 cells divide. Aridity- high pressure causes desserts. Evaporation- when ea=es, es is exponentially proport to temp. Evap is not important during stormes=ea and storms have low duration. Evap can be decreased by releasing large quantity of H2O from dams, placing thin chemical over surface. Pan evap is higher due to
pan heating up-apply pan coefficient. Eddy covariance- measures energy flux. Mechanism for Rain- Convective (warm air rise), Orographic (air rising mountain
condenses), Frontal (warm air front meets cool), Convergent (low pressure zone). Errors in rain- wind, time to tip bucket, spatial variation, new construction.
Catchment divide is line divided catchment. Rainfall runoff model- (estimate streamflow in absence of rainfall event, ability to separate total rainfall into losses
etc,relates excess rainfall to direct runoff) Hydrograph(rising limb, peak recession) Larger Catchment- more discharge, shape, slope, Denser network,
pervious/impervious, moisture in land. Mechanism for runoff- total infiltration, partial, saturated surface, subsurface stormflow, percehed subsurface. Initial lossinterception, depression storage. Continuing loss- infiltration.
IFD
Reasonsforreviseddata30yrsofmoredataavailable,Datafromotheragencies,improvedstatisticalmethodofanalysis,impactsofclimatechange.Problemswith
IFD:1.Lengthofrecord2.Spatialinterpolation3.Climaticchange.ReductioninrainfallintensityduetoincreaseincatchmentareaiscalledAreaReductionfactor.=
ratioofthemeanarearainfalltothemeanpointrainfallforthesamedurationandreturnperiodinthesamearea.AdvofIFD:EstimateIFDrelationshipinanylocation
inAusduetoIFDcurveparametersbeinginterpolatedacrossnearbylocations.Canstillbeusedevenwhenthecatchmenthasundergoneextensivechanges.
Limitations:parametersbasedonrecordsupto1980susingshortdurationrecords.Simplifieddesign.Assumednotrendinrainfallcharacteristics,couldleadtodesign
errorsovernext50100years.FloodFrequencyanalysis- Adv - Directlyuseflowdatatoestimatedesignflowhencenoerrorcozofuseofarainfallrunoffmodel,
Disadstreamflowdatanoteasilyavailable;streamflowdatanotalwaysstationarybecauseofurbanisationeffects.StorageRoutingmethodsusingdesignstormsfrom
IFDanalysisAdvaphysicalbasisfortherainfallrunoffmodelispresentinthestorageroutingmethodsbetterthanusingtheempiricalprobabilisticrationalmethod;
givesfulldesignhydrograph,hencecanbeusedforvolumebaseddesignthatisessentialindesignofwaterstoragestructuresDisadmoreworkthanprobabilistic
rationalmethod;needspropercalibrationoftheequationS=kqm,somethingthatmaynotbesimplewhenlimitedstreamflowdataisavailableforsite.Probabilistic
RationalMethodusingdesignstormfromIFDanalysis.AdvverysimpletouseDisadempirical,hencecouldhaveseriouserrorsinbuiltifusedoncatchmentsother
thantheonesthatwereusedincalibrationofthemethodcoefficients;doesnotgiveinformationonthedesignfloodhydrograph,hencenotusefulwhendesigninga
storagestructureTemporalpatterndistributionofrainfallintime.AEPneutralityprocedureforconvertingdesignrainfallwithcertainARIintodesignwithsame
ARI.Choosingdesigntemporalpatterndependson:region,durationand=sizeofevent.Limitationoftemporalpatternfinalpatterndoesntlooklikerealstorm.
Rainfallintensitydoesntdependoncatchmentarea.

Methodfortemporalpattern1.Estimaterainfallofeachstormaspercentagewithinthestormandrankfromhighesttolowest.2.Findtheaverage
ofpercentageacrossthestormforeachrank.3.Takeaverageofrankfrom1acrosseachperiodandranktheaverageofrank.Matchaverage
percentagefrom2withsamerankfrom3.
RationalMethod(ProbabilisticRationalMethodPRMforruralandUrbanRationalMethod)
DifficultyiswithcalculatingC,therunoffcoefficient,sinceitdeterminesamountofrainfallthatwillendupasdirectrunoff.LimitationassumessameCforallstorms,

not recommended for catchments over 25km2

PRMassumptionsAEPneutrality,durationofstorm=timeofconcentration,Cvarieswithstormsize.

Qy=kCyItc,yAtc=

kL
2
0.2 wherek=58fort(mins)andAinkm ,Lismainstreamlength(km),Se=equalslopearea(m/km)
A Se
0.1

ForEasternNSWQy=kFFyC10Itc,yAandtc=0.76A0.3A(km^2)t(hrs)
UrbanRationalMethod(deterministic)Cnowdependsonthesurfacematerial.

ln

0.6
C10=0.9f+(1f)(0.1+0.0133(I125))tc=

6.94

t(mins),L(m),I(mm/hr),S(%)slope,n*=surfaceroughness.Iterativeequation.

PartialArea:Forcatchmentwheret<tc,p=t/tc.Q=kICpA.

UH
UH theory
Unit period does not have to be equal to 1. Duration of surface runoff is constant for all storms of the same length and duration
irrespective of how much rain.
-Effective rainfall is distributed uniformly over the entire catchment area
-Effective rainfall is distributed uniformly within the unit period that the unit hydrograph is from e.g 1-hour unit hydrograph having 1
mm of rain converted to a 2 hour UH will have 0.5 mm of rain in each hour.
-Area under the unit hydrograph gives is equal to the total area of the catchment
-rainfall is directly proportional to runoffe.g. a UH reflecting 1 mm of rain can be used to determine the runoff due to 4mm of rain by
multiplying Qs by 4. Constant duration for all rainfall(time-invariant)
Limitations of UH theory:
1. Spatial invariance increases with increasing catchment size due to assumptions that effective rainfall occurs uniformly over the
catchment.2.the effective rainfall is assumed to be constant in the time period of the UH. 3.Linearity assumption: ordinates of surface
runoff hydrograph are directly proportional to the volume of surface of a given unit storm. Catchments are non-linear in nature
therefore theres a problem.4. Cant use a 2-hr unit hydrograph to predict a 30-minute storm.non-fixed time base: linearity does not
apply, different length effective rainfall hyetographs.non-linear catchment: 10mm rain does not equal 10 times the flood of a 1 mm
rainfall storm smaller time-scale: more likely for rainfall to be constant over the unit duration(UH assumption). time base =
hydrograph-hyetograph+UH= x hours given time base for y UH = t, time base for 2y UH = t + (2y-y), time base for 0.25y UH = t
+(0.25y-y)
UH is a catchment property not a storm property. It is simply one way to convert any rainfall hyetograph into the corresponding runoff
hydrograph.
Estimate the hydrograph - When given UH ordinate,
intensity, loss rate & baseflow:
1. Calculate excess rainfall = (intensity loss rate )* hours

Derive single period UH (given total discharge,

intensity, loss rate & baseflow):
1. Calculate runoff = discharge - baseflow
2. Calculate excess rain = (intensity rate loss rate) *
hours in time period
3. Single period UH = runoff / excess rain
4. Graph step 3 VS time period

2.

Use equation to calculate surface runoff

Converting 2hr UH to 4hr UH

1.

If given a time period of 2 hours,

Construct UH as normal using
equation, although use P = (1/4)*2.
Similary if needing to convert to a 6hr
UH, P = (1/6)*2

3.

Add baseflow

3.

Converting from a 4hr UH to 2hr UH (time on x axis=UH being

considered)
1. Construct the S hydrograph by drawing table : 0 - 4hr periods at
top, fill in table by multiplying rain by given UH ordinate.
(Original UH time periods)
2. Shift this down by 4 hours for each time increment (shifted by
original UH)
3. Sum up rows to gather S hydrograph (m3/s)
4. Shift the position of S hydrograph by duration D (ie 2hrs) (new
UH)
5. Compute the differences between the two S hydrographs
6. Divide the estimated difference by D (2hr UH) (to make 1mm
UH). This is the desired D hour UH.
Tim
ss-hydrograph
Difference(2m
2-hour UH(1
e
hydrograp
lagged by 2
m
mm rain over
h
hours
rain over 2
2hrs)

Q3=P1 U 3+ P2 U 2 + P3 U