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Mining of Massive Datasets

Jure Leskovec, Anand Rajaraman, Jeff Ullman
Stanford University

http://www.mmds.org

We often think of networks being organized

into modules, cluster, communities:

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

Find micro-markets by partitioning the

query-to-advertiser graph:

query

advertiser

[Andersen, Lang: Communities from seed sets, 2006]

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

Clusters in Movies-to-Actors graph:

[Andersen, Lang: Communities from seed sets, 2006]

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

Discovering social circles, circles of trust:

[McAuley, Leskovec: Discovering social circles in ego networks, 2012]

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

How to find communities?

We will work with undirected (unweighted) networks

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org



Edge betweenness: Number of

shortest paths passing over the edge
Intuition:

Edge strengths (call volume)

in a real network

b=16

b=7.5

Edge betweenness
in a real network

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

[Girvan-Newman 02]

Divisive hierarchical clustering based on the

notion of edge betweenness:
Number of shortest paths passing through the edge

Girvan-Newman Algorithm:

Undirected unweighted networks

Repeat until no edges are left:

Calculate betweenness of edges

Remove edges with highest betweenness

Connected components are communities

Gives a hierarchical decomposition of the network
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

12
33

49

Need to re-compute
betweenness at
every step

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

10

Step 1:

Step 3:

Step 2:

Hierarchical network decomposition:

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

11

Communities in physics collaborations

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

12

Zacharys Karate club:

Hierarchical decomposition

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

13

1.
2.

How to compute betweenness?

How to select the number of
clusters?

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

14

Want to compute
betweenness of
paths starting at
node

Breath first search

starting from
:

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

15

Count the number of shortest paths from

to all other nodes of the network:

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

16

Compute betweenness by working up the

tree: If there are multiple paths count them
fractionally

The algorithm:
Add edge flows:
-- node flow =
1+child edges
-- split the flow up
based on the parent
value
Repeat the BFS
procedure for each
starting node 

1+1 paths to H
Split evenly
1+0.5 paths to J
Split 1:2
1 path to K.
Split evenly
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

17

Compute betweenness by working up the

tree: If there are multiple paths count them
fractionally

The algorithm:
Add edge flows:
-- node flow =
1+child edges
-- split the flow up
based on the parent
value
Repeat the BFS
procedure for each
starting node 

1+1 paths to H
Split evenly

1+0.5 paths to J
Split 1:2
1 path to K.
Split evenly
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

18

1.
2.

How to compute betweenness?

How to select the number of
clusters?

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

19



Communities: sets of
tightly connected nodes
Define: Modularity 

A measure of how well

a network is partitioned
into communities

Given a partitioning of the
network into groups  :
Q s S [ (# edges within group s)
(expected # edges within group s) ]
Need a null model!
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

20

Given real  on  nodes and edges,

construct rewired network 

Same degree distribution but

i
random connections
j

Consider  as a multigraph

The expected number of edges between nodes
 and  of degrees  and  equals to: 

The expected number of edges in (multigraph) G:


   


  


 

   

  

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

Note:

   2



21

Modularity of partitioning S of graph G:

Q s S [ (# edges within group s)
(expected # edges within group s) ]

 ,  


  


Normalizing cost.: -1<Q<1

 

Aij = 1 if ij,
0 else

Modularity values take range [1,1]

It is positive if the number of edges within
groups exceeds the expected number

0.3-0.7<Q means significant community structure
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

22

Modularity is useful for selecting the

number of clusters:

Next time: Why not optimize Modularity directly?

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

23



Undirected graph , !:

2
3

Divide vertices into two disjoint groups
, #

Bi-partitioning task:
A

How can we define a good partition of ?

How can we efficiently identify such a partition?

Questions:

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

25

What makes a good partition?

Maximize the number of within-group
connections

Minimize the number of between-group
connections
5

1
2
3

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

26

Express partitioning objectives as a function

of the edge cut of the partition

Cut: Set of edges with only one vertex in a

group:

1
2
3

cut(A,B) = 2
4

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

27

Criterion: Minimum-cut

Minimize weight of connections between groups

arg minA,B cut(A,B)

Degenerate case:
Optimal cut
Minimum cut

Problem:

Only considers external cluster connections

Does not consider internal cluster connectivity
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

28

[Shi-Malik]

Criterion: Normalized-cut [Shi-Malik, 97]

Connectivity between groups relative to the
density of each group
$%&
!: total weight of the edges with at least
one endpoint in
: $%&
 


 Why


use this criterion?

Produces more balanced partitions

How do we efficiently find a good partition?

Problem: Computing optimal cut is NP-hard
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

29


Aij =1 if , ! is an edge, else 0

A: adjacency matrix of undirected G

Think of it as a label/value of each node of 

x is a vector in n with components ', , '!

What is the meaning of A x?

Entry yi is a sum of labels xj of neighbors of i

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

30


jth coordinate of A

x:

Sum of the x-values

of neighbors of j

Make this a new value at node j

')'

Analyze the spectrum of matrix representing 

Spectrum: Eigenvectors ' of a graph, ordered by
the magnitude (strength) of their corresponding
eigenvalues ) :

Spectral Graph Theory:

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

31



Suppose all nodes in  have degree *

and  is connected
What are some eigenvalues/vectors of ?

'  ) ' What is ? What x?

Lets try: '  , , , !

Then:
'  *, *, , *  ) '. So: )  *

We found eigenpair of : '  , , , !, )  *

Remember the meaning of + 
':

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

32

Details!

G is d-regular connected, A is its adjacency matrix

Claim:

d is largest eigenvalue of A,

d has multiplicity of 1 (there is only 1 eigenvector
associated with eigenvalue d)

Proof: Why no eigenvalue *, - *?

To obtain d we needed '  ' for every ., /

This means '  0 1,1, , 1! for some const. 0
Define:  = nodes  with maximum possible value of '
Then consider some vector + which is not a multiple of
vector , , !. So not all nodes  (with labels + ) are in 

Consider some node   and a neighbor   then
node  gets a value strictly less than *

So 3 is not eigenvector! And so * is the largest eigenvalue!

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

33



What if  is not connected?

 has 2 components, each *-regular

'  Put all s on
and 4s on # or vice versa

What are some eigenvectors?

'  , , , 4, , 4! then 6 '  *, , *, 4, , 4

|B|
|A|

'  4, , 4, , , ! then
'  4, , 4, *, , *!

And so in both cases the corresponding )  *

A bit of intuition:
A

)  )7

)  )7 8 4

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

2nd largest eigval.

9:7; now has
value very close
to 9:
34

More intuition:

)  )7

)  )7 8 4

2nd largest eigval.

9:7; now has
value very close
to 9:

If the graph is connected (right example) then we

already know that '  , ! is an eigenvector

Since eigenvectors are orthogonal then the
components of '7 sum to 0.

Why? Because ' '7   '  '7 <=

So we can look at the eigenvector of the 2nd largest

eigenvalue and declare nodes with positive label in A
and negative label in B.

But there is still lots to sort out.
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

35

Adjacency matrix (A):

n n matrix

A=[aij], aij=1 if edge between node i and j
5

1
2
4

Important properties:

Symmetric matrix

Eigenvectors are real and orthogonal
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

36

Degree matrix (D):

n n diagonal matrix

D=[dii], dii = degree of node i
5

1
2
4
3

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

37

Laplacian matrix (L):

n n symmetric matrix
5

1
2
3

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

>  ? 

'  , , ! then > '  4 and so )  )  4

What is trivial eigenpair?

Important properties:

Eigenvalues are non-negative real numbers

Eigenvectors are real and orthogonal
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

38

Details!

(a) All eigenvalues are @ 0

(b) B C DB  EF DEF BE BF @ 0 for every B
(c) D  G C G

That is, D is positive semi-definite

(c)
(b): B C DB  B C G C GB  BG

Proof:

As it is just the square of length of GB

GB @ 0

(b)
(a): Let ) be an eigenvalue of >. Then by (b)
B C DB @ 0 so B C DB  B C 9B  9B C B ) @ 4

(a)
(c): is also easy! Do it yourself.
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

39

Fact: For symmetric matrix M:

T

x Mx
2 = min T
x
x x

What is the meaning of min xT L x on G?

x I L x  :E,FK; DEF BE BF  :E,FK; LEF  MEF BE BF

 E LEE BEN 



N
B
E,F O E

E,F O 2BE BF

BFN

 2BE BF ! 

'  '

Node  has degree * . So, value ' needs to be summed up * times.

But each edge , ! has two endpoints so we need ' P'
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

40

x Mx
2 = min T
x
x x

Details!

Write B in axes of eigenvecotrs Q; , QN , , Q: of

R. So, B  :E SE QE
Then we get: TB  E SE TQE  E SE 9E QE
 4 if  X 
) W
So, what is 'U R'?
1 otherwise

B C TB  E SE QE E SE 9E QE  EF SE 9F SF QE QF

 E SE 9E QE QE   ) V

To minimize this over all unit vectors x orthogonal to:
w = min over choices of S; , S: ! so that:
SEN  1 (unit length) SE  0 (orthogonal to Q; )

To minimize this, set V   and so  ) V  )
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

41


' is unit vector:  '  

' is orthogonal to 1st eigenvector , , ! thus:
 '    '  4

What else do we know about x?

Remember:

= min
All labelings
of nodes . so
that BE  0

( i , j )E

( xi x j )
i

2
i

We want to assign values ' to nodes i such

that few edges cross 0.
(we want xi and xj to subtract each other)

BE

BF

Balance to minimize

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

42



Back to finding the optimal cut

Express partition (A,B) as a vector
P Z 

+  Y
 Z  #
We can minimize the cut of the partition by
finding a non-trivial vector x that minimizes:

Cant solve exactly. Lets relax + and

allow it to take any real value.

3E  1 0

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

3F  P1

43

BE

)  [\] Z + : The minimum value of Z+! is

+

BF

given by the 2nd smallest eigenvalue 2 of the

Laplacian matrix L
 ^  _`a [\] b Z + : The optimal solution for y
is given by the corresponding eigenvector ',
referred as the Fiedler vector
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

44

Details!

Suppose there is a partition of G into A and B

# ghigj klmn o pm q!
where M c |e|, s.t. V 
o
then 2V @ )

This is the approximation guarantee of the spectral

clustering. It says the cut spectral finds is at most 2
away from the optimal one of score V.

Proof:

Let: a=|A|, b=|B| and e= # edges from A to B

Enough to choose some ' based on A and B such
that: 9N c

rs 7rt
s rsu

c 2S

) is only smaller

(while also E BE  0)

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

45

Details!

Proof (continued):

1) Lets set: ' 



Z 
w
v 
Z 
P
x

#

Lets quickly verify that E BE  0: y 

2) Then:

;
z

;
|

rs 7rt
s rsu

;
z

;
z

} } u
s,t 
~
} u
} u
z 7 | ~

e number of edges between A and B

 V

;
z

P{

;
|

} } u

~
} }

~

4

Which proves that the cost

achieved by spectral is better
than twice the OPT cost

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

46

Details!

V
V @ ) @
 w'

Putting it all together:

where nzr is the maximum node degree

in the graph

Note we only provide the 1st part: V @ )

We did not prove ) @

V
 w'

Overall this always certifies that ) always gives a

useful bound
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

47

How to define a good partition of a graph?

Minimize a given graph cut criterion

How to efficiently identify such a partition?

Approximate using information provided by the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a graph

Spectral Clustering

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

48

Three basic stages:

1) Pre-processing

Construct a matrix representation of the graph

2) Decomposition

Compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

Map each point to a lower-dimensional representation
based on one or more eigenvectors

3) Grouping

Assign points to two or more clusters, based on the new
representation

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

49

1) Pre-processing:

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

0.0

0.4

0.3

-0.5

-0.2

-0.4

-0.5

1.0

0.4

0.6

0.4

-0.4

0.4

0.0

0.4

0.3

0.1

0.6

-0.4

0.5

0.4

-0.3

0.1

0.6

0.4

-0.5

4.0

0.4

-0.3

-0.5

-0.2

0.4

0.5

5.0

0.4

-0.6

0.4

-0.4

-0.4

0.0

Build Laplacian
matrix L of the
graph

2)
Decomposition:

Find eigenvalues
and eigenvectors x
of the matrix L

Map vertices to
corresponding
components of 2

3.0
3.0

0.3

0.6

0.3

-0.3

-0.3

-0.6

X=

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

How do we now
find the clusters?
50

3) Grouping:

Sort components of reduced 1-dimensional vector

Identify clusters by splitting the sorted vector in two

How to choose a splitting point?

Nave approaches:

Split at 0 or median value

More expensive approaches:

Attempt to minimize normalized cut in 1-dimension
(sweep over ordering of nodes induced by the eigenvector)
Split at 0:
Cluster A: Positive points
Cluster B: Negative points

0.3

0.6

0.3

-0.3

0.3

-0.3

-0.3

0.6

-0.3

-0.6

0.3

-0.6

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

51

Value of x2

Rank in x2
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

52

Value of x2

Components of x2

Rank in x2
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

53

Components of x1

Components of x3
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

54

How do we partition a graph into k clusters?

Two basic approaches:

Recursive bi-partitioning [Hagen et al., 92]

Recursively apply bi-partitioning algorithm in a
hierarchical divisive manner

Disadvantages: Inefficient, unstable

Cluster multiple eigenvectors [Shi-Malik, 00]

Build a reduced space from multiple eigenvectors

Commonly used in recent papers

A preferable approach
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

55

Approximates the optimal cut [Shi-Malik, 00]

Can be used to approximate optimal k-way normalized
cut

Emphasizes cohesive clusters

Increases the unevenness in the distribution of the data

Associations between similar points are amplified,
associations between dissimilar points are attenuated

The data begins to approximate a clustering

Well-separated space

Transforms data to a new embedded space,

consisting of k orthogonal basis vectors

Multiple eigenvectors prevent instability due to

information loss
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

56

[Kumar et al. 99]

Searching for small communities in

the Web graph
What is the signature of a community /
discussion in a Web graph?

Use this to define topics:

What the same people on
the left talk about on the right
Remember HITS!

Dense 2-layer graph

Intuition: Many people all talking about the same things
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

58

A more well-defined problem:

Enumerate complete bipartite subgraphs Ks,t

Where Ks,t : s nodes on the left where each links
to the same t other nodes on the right

|X| = s = 3
|Y| = t = 4

K3,4
Fully connected
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

59

[Agrawal-Srikant 99]

Market basket analysis. Setting:

Market: Universe U of n items

Baskets: m subsets of U: S1, S2, , Sm U
(Si is a set of items one person bought)

Support: Frequency threshold f

Goal:

Find all subsets T s.t. T Si of at least f sets Si
(items in T were bought together at least f times)

Whats the connection between the

itemsets and complete bipartite graphs?
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

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[Kumar et al. 99]

Frequent itemsets = complete bipartite graphs!

How?

View each node i as a
set Si of nodes i points to

Ks,t = a set Y of size t
that occurs in s sets Si

Looking for Ks,t  set of
frequency threshold to s
and look at layer t all
frequent sets of size t

b
i

Si={a,b,c,d}

d
a
j
i
k

b
c
d

Y
s minimum support (|X|=s)
t itemset size (|Y|=t)

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

61

[Kumar et al. 99]

Say we find a frequent

itemset Y={a,b,c} of supp s
So, there are s nodes that
link to all of {a,b,c}:

View each node i as a

set Si of nodes i points to
a
b
i

c
d
x

Si={a,b,c,d}

Find frequent itemsets:

s minimum support
t itemset size

We found Ks,t!
Ks,t = a set Y of size t
that occurs in s sets Si

a
z

a
x
y
z

J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

b
c

Y
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{b,d}: support 3

{e,f}: support 2

c
d
e

f

Itemsets:
a = {b,c,d}
b = {d}
c = {b,d,e,f}
d = {e,f}
e = {b,d}
f = {}

Support threshold s=2

And we just found 2 bipartite

subgraphs:
a

c
d

c
d

e
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

63

Example of a community from a web graph

Nodes on the right

Nodes on the left

[Kumar, Raghavan, Rajagopalan, Tomkins: Trawling the Web for emerging cyber-communities 1999]
J. Leskovec, A. Rajaraman, J. Ullman: Mining of Massive Datasets, http://www.mmds.org

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