10/16/2009
ANDE Course - Phased Array Ultrasonics
October 08, 2009
C.V.Krishnamurthy
Overview
Phased Array probe
Beam forming
Array probe configurations
Linear
Matrix
Circular
Sectorial-annular
Probe modeling
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Array Probe
A
e
A aperture
e element width
g gap
p pitch
L element length
An array is basically a large single element transducer,
which has been subdivided by cutting it into small segments
Typical element sizes are from 0.02 inches to 0.1 inches,
although custom sizes are available.
Why not an array of large elements?
A large probe will give a
good flat coverage, but its
small beam angle limits
its "visibility".
Recall that the 6 dB beam
divergence is given by
sin 0.5
A
Aperture
6 dB beam width
6.35 mm (0.25 inch)
4.52
12. 7 mm (0.5 inch)
2.26
25.4 mm (1.0 inch)
1.13
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Why divide the probe into small elements?
A small element has a much larger
beam divergence angle, and it is this
large angle which opens up the
useful features of arrays such as
dynamic focusing and beam
steering.
Another feature of small elements is
their energy transfer efficiency smaller elements take less energy to
excite and are more efficient
receivers due to the lower mass to
be energized.
Beam divergence is also a function
of frequency, lower frequencies will
give more divergence than higher.
Typical element sizes/frequencies for industrial applications
are 1mm wide for 2.5 MHz and 0.5 mm wide for 5 MHz
Overlapping beams using
Phased Array Elements
Small Flaw
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Phased Array Beamforming
Beamforming requires precise pulsing and time delays.
Receiving is the reverse of pulsing.
Array Probe Head
The array head module includes
16, 32, 64, or 128 elements
(dependant on array type)
A separate pulser and
preamplifier for each element,
together with a multiplexer, which
connects up to 8, 16, or 32
elements to create a
virtual probe.
The output from the virtual probe
is connected to 8, 16, or 32 coaxial
wires,which connect the module
to the main evaluation electronics.
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Typical Parameters
Max No. of elements in system
256
Max No. of elements to fire as
one group 32
Pulser Voltage 50V fixed spike
Amplifier Bandwidth 0.25 - 20
MHz
Max PRF 20 kHz
Pre amplifier gain fixed 6 dB
Digitization resolution 50 MHz
The pulser fire signals can be
delayed from 0 to 2.5 s, in
steps of 2.5 ns.
The returned RF echoes from
each channel are amplified
+/- 10 dB in steps of 0.1 dB
and are digitized at 50 MHz.
The digitized echoes are
delayed from 0 to 2.5 s in
steps of 2.5 ns. This process is
entirely digital.
Typical Array Probe Types
A Linear array is a series of transducer elements
aligned in a single housing, typically a rectangular
single element that has been segmented into smaller
individual elements.
A Curved array is similar to the linear array
with the elements curved to produce a desired
beam shape or conform to the geometry of the
part under test.
An Annular array is a series of
concentric ring elements contained
in a single housing. Imagine a single
round element being divided into
multiple individual concentric rings.
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Other Array Configurations
Electronic Linear Scan
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Electronic Focusing
Electronic Steering and Focusing
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Uniform Arrays - I
Uniform Arrays - II
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Uniform Arrays - III
Uniform Arrays - IV
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Array Beam Characteristics - I
Near-field to far-field distance
6 dB angular beam divergence
Focusing power (when focusing
option is used)
Beam dimension at focal
distance (in steering plane)
A2
N
4
sin 0.5
F
N
d st
F
A
A is the dimension of the active aperture
Recap: Depth of Field
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Strong and Weak Focusing: Example
Linear array probe pitch p = 1 mm,
frequency f = 5 MHz
Number of
active
elements
10
16
32
Active
Aperture
(mm)
10
16
32
N (mm)
84
216
865
84
84
84
0.99
0.39
0.10
d (in mm)
at F
2.49
1.55
0.78
F (mm)
Calculations for water medium
(v = 1480 m/s)
Array Beam Characteristics - II
Beam width (main beam)
determined by active
aperture A
sin 0.5
Steering width determined
by element width e
sin st 0.5
Angular position of lobes
determined by frequency f
and pitch p:
lobe
e
p
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Focusing using Phased Array - I
Focal depth: 4 mm
Focal depth: 8 mm
Focusing using Phased Array - II
Focal depth: 12 mm
Focal depth: 16 mm
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How many elements are needed?
(Beam Formation I)
Simulations at 5 MHz in Al
How many elements are needed?
(Beam Formation II)
Simulations at 5 MHz in Al
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Beam quality
15 MHz / 6mm x 0.2mm / 0.3mm spacing / 1.5 focus
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
Focus
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
10
1
8 Elements
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0.1
90
0.9
0
-30
1
0.9
0.8
-20
-10
10
20
30
Narrower
Main Lobe
16 Elements
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
Focus
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
10
Grating Lobes
0.5
0.5
0.4
8 Elements
16 Elements
20
30
40
50
60
On Axis (mm)
70
80
0.1
90
0
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
Off Axis (mm)
Effect of Steering Angle on Directivity
N = 16, d = /2
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Directivity for small d/
Grating Lobes
For an N-element array, inter-element spacing d,
time-delay between adjacent elements , the
steering angle is given by
c
s sin 1
Directivity is a product of the directivity of
discrete line sources H2( ), and the directivity of
a single element H1( )
H ( ) H1 ( ) H 2 ( )
For sufficiently small e/, H( ) H2( )
and is given by
Example plot for N=16,
c = 5850 m/s, f = 2.3 MHz,
e = /100, d = 2/(1+3) and
s = 30
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Directivity for large d/
Avoiding Grating Lobes
Maximum inter-element
spacing without producing
grating lobes
Note: When N is large, for a 60 sector scan corresponding to
maximum steering angles 30, even an inter-element spacing of
2/3 does not produce grating lobes.
Maximum steerable angle
given the inter-element
spacing d, and the
number of elements N
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Modeling a 1-D Phased Array
64 rectangular elements
Centre Frequency: 7.5 MHz
Overall lateral dimension: 19.1 mm
(Near field distance in Steel is about 115 mm)
Medium: Steel
Normal Incidence
Axial Distance (mm)
Beam Steered to 39
20
Focused & Steered to 39
0
20
20
20
40
40
40
60
100
0
20
40
60
60
80
100
80
-60 -40 -20
40
60
60
80
120
Focused On-axis
0
-60 -40 -20
20
40
60
120
80
-60 -40 -20
20
40
60
-60 -40 -20
20
40
60
Lateral Distance (mm)
Steering and Focusing
- Beam Quality in the Far Field of the Array
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Steering and Focusing
- Beam Quality in the Near Field of the Array
Regular and Random 2D - Arrays
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Random and Optimized 2D - Arrays
Array probes on Wedges
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Focal law for Wedge - I
Refraction
point
X axis or Scan axis
Interface
Law scan offset
Depth
Refracted Angle
The calculator searches the Snell point. It considers the center of the active aperture
(from elements 2 to 7 in this example). Then, the X, Z point of the focal point is
determined. The wedge delay is calculated and the focal law is offset accordingly.
Focal law for Wedge - II
X axis or Scan axis
Interface
Time
Sound path (time)
Focal point (X,Z)
In wedge
In material
Element number
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Examples of PAUT Applications
Relative Arrival Time Technique (RATT)
Absolute Arrival Time Technique (AATT)
Linear scan - Cruciform case
Dynamic depth focusing
Sectorial scan
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique
Advantages of phased array
Limitations
Tandem Scans
Phased arrays allow for dynamic scanning using the tandem technique.
Separate array groups are defined as transmit and receive "virtual
probes" and scanned to cover the test area.
This technique can be used for testing weldments in thick sections.
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Dynamic Depth Focusing
Uses the basic focusing techniques, but sequentially
focuses at various depths to cover the thickness of the part
to be tested.
Useful with linear arrays for a line scan effect, or annular
arrays to give a point focus effect
Dynamic Depth Focusing
Phased array with specified
focal depth
Phased array with
dynamic depth focusing
DDF is useful for inspecting thick components in a single pulse.
The beam is refocused electronically on its return.
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Tube Inspection
Segment arrays for
large pipes
Rotating water
system segment
arrays for mid-size
pipes
Rotating water system
encircling arrays for
small size tubes.
Relative Arrival Time Technique - Principle
h (CD AB) cos
Ultrasound path between crack tip and corner trap signals
for a surface crack.
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RATT Notches in Large MS Pipes
Actual
Depth (mm)
Estimated
from
Simulations
Estimated
from
Experiment
3.1
2.9
4.8
4.7
7.2
7.4
Comparison of the simulated and experimental
estimated notch sizes obtained by RATT on 10-mm
thick mild-steel pipe sample at 45 angle of incidence
RATT Inspection Angle
Comparison of simulated and experimental B-scan images of 7-mm bottom surface crack
obtained for the various angles of incidence. (a) 35, (b) 45 and (c) 55 angle inspections
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Example of Signal Processing in RATT
L. Satyanarayan et al., Inverse method for detection and sizing of cracks in thin sections ..., Theor.
Appl. Fract. Mech. (2008)
AATT - Principle
h UT2 cos 2 UT1 cos1
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AATT Examples
Estimated crack length: 4.9 mm (5 mm)
Angle of Inspection: 49
Estimated crack length: 6.4 mm (6.3 mm)
Top tip Inspection Angle: 74.5
Corner Inspection Angle: 42.5
Example: Monitoring Crack Growth
PA
A
B
C
Steel specimen
Schematic
Snapshot
Scanned Images
10
10
20
30
20
40
30
50
60
40
70
50
80
90
Experiment
10
15
20
25
Simulation
60
30
35
40
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Applications in the Fatigue Crack Growth Studies
in Large Nuclear Components - BARC
Nondestructive PA results compared with that of
Destructive Dye penetrant test
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S-scan
S-scans are stacked A-scans
Detection of four side-drilled holes (SDHs)
(a) Sectorial scanning, (b) S-scan view using 30
Examples of S-scan
Turbine Blade Root
Turbine Welded Rotor
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Volumetric Weld Coverage - I
TOFD is sensitive to all defects
including volumetric defects
TOFD has dead zones near surfaces
PE complements TOFD
The combination covers 100% of the
weld volume
Alternative to RT (ASME CC2235,
AWS)
Volumetric Weld Coverage - II
TOFD
PE 45 SW
PE 60 SW
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Probe Movement
Volumetric Weld Coverage - Data Visualisation
45-SW
60 SW
TOFD
60-SW
45-SW
Synthetic aperture focusing
with Phased Array
Individual A- Scans
Time
Small Flaw
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Example of SAFT
Element by element pulse-echo from a 1.5 mm dia SDH in Al
100
200
300
400
RAW
Image
500
600
100
100
100
200
200
200
300
300
400
400
500
500
300
400
500
600
600
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
10
60
20
30
40
50
60
10
100
200
300
400
100
100
100
200
200
200
300
300
300
400
400
400
500
SAFT
Image
500
600
10
20
30
40
50
10
20
30
40
50
1
X: 27
Y: 1
X: 36
Y: 1
X: 29
Y: 0.8049
10
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
X: 31
Y: 0.3422
30
40
X: 25
Y: 1
X: 42
Y: 0.8298
50
60
10
X: 45
Y: 0.9315
X: 35
Y: 1
20
30
40
50
60
1
X: 35
Y: 1
X: 27
Y: 0.9589
X: 43
Y: 0.9178
0.9
0.8
X: 35
Y: 0.7397
0.8
X: 29
Y: 0.6986
0.7
X: 22
Y: 0.6438
0.7
0.6
X: 27
Y: 0.5802
0.6
X: 34
Y: 0.5054
0.4
X: 35
Y: 0.3466
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.4
X: 36
Y: 0.2977
X: 37
Y: 0.254
0.3
X: 53
Y: 0.5802
X: 36
Y: 0.5309
X: 18
Y: 0.4938
0.5
X: 33
Y: 0.3148
X: 49
Y: 1
X: 47
Y: 0.9505
X: 36
Y: 0.9146
X: 22
Y: 0.8764
X: 40
Y: 0.6809
X: 32
Y: 0.6489
0.5
0.4
20
0.9
0.6
0.5
60
X: 44
Y: 0.9255
X: 40
Y: 0.8049
0.8
50
600
60
X: 43
Y: 0.9681
0.9
X: 34
Y: 0.8171
40
X: 45
Y: 0.9681
X: 27
Y: 0.9146
X: 24
Y: 0.8902
30
500
600
60
0.9
0.3
X: 34
Y: 0.2826
0.3
X: 37
Y: 0.2653
X: 30
Y: 0.2619
0.2
X: 29
Y: 0.115
0.2
0.2
X: 34
Y: 0.1011
X: 33
Y: 0.0715
0.1
10
20
30
0.2
X: 40
Y: 0.112
0.1
500
600
20
40
50
60
70
13 mm deep SDH
10
20
30
X: 32
Y: 0.07272
0.1
40
50
60
70
19 mm deep SDH
10
20
30
X: 32
Y: 0.1241
X: 39
Y: 0.09162
X: 40
Y: 0.1107
0.1
40
50
60
26 mm deep SDH
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
45 mm deep SDH
Advantages of Phased Arrays
Inspection Speed
Real-time images
Flexibility
POD ( many angles and imaging)
Access to remote areas
Analysis Tools
Reporting
Good coverage (Multiple scan
options)
Real-time images
Wedge-based applications
Variety of probe types
Similar to conventional procedures in
TOFD
Lends to Image processing
techniques
Simulations aid quantitative
assessment
Allows for new probe designs
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Advantages of Digital Recording
Permanent record of all collected data
Various signal processing options
Enables data to be compared throughout the service life
of a component
Re-analysis of raw data, at any time
Variety of visual displays available
All the usual ultrasonic limitations
Coupling
Frequency, attenuation etc.
Acoustic impedance mismatch requirements
Dead zones
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ASME Codes
Phased arrays specifically accepted
as Computerized Imaging
Techniques
ASME CC 2235 (CIT) allows use of
UT instead of RT for wall thickness
> 12.7mm
Code cases for manual S-scans and
E-scans first submitted Feb 2006.
Now approved.
TOFD, PA and TOFD/PE techniques
allowed
Code cases for encoded E-scans
and S-scans expected for August
2006. Now Approved
Phased arrays specifically approved
for ASME CC
Mandatory phased array appendix
being drafted concurrently. Expect
approval of appendix in a few years
Phased arrays currently being
approved through Performance
Demonstration approaches, e.g.
Article 14 and ASME code case
2235
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