MSc Building Services Fire Safety

MSc Building Services Engineering

Programme

Fire Safety Engineering

Written originally by Dr Peter Warren

Revised August 2013 by Martin Ratcliffe
For Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Brunel University
Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH
Copyright 2013 Brunel University
All right reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form, or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Aims of this booklet
Direct interaction of building services engineers with fire safety is likely to
arise in the following areas:
(a)
The design of fire detection and suppression systems and the possible
integration of these with other building services.
(b)
The control of the movement of smoke in the event of a fire within a
building to ensure that escape routes remain clear.
(c)
The possible effect on spread of fire of the penetration of ventilation
ducts and other services through fire resisting building elements.
A brief background on the nature of fire and factors affecting fire safety is
given in chapter 2. Fire safety is a substantial topic and it is not possible here
to cover even this limited range of topics in depth. However, references are
given to sources where further and more detailed information may be found.
These are mostly available via the Brunel electronic library. A list useful
organisations and internet sites dealing with various aspects of fire safety and
from which useful information can be obtained is set out in appendix 1 .
These include government departments and official bodies, professional
societies, trade associations, research organisations and universities.
The remaining chapters deal with fire safety areas with which the building
services engineer may be particularly concerned:
Chapter 3 - Systems for detecting fire and operation of alarm systems.
Chapter 4 - Methods of fire suppression, including sprinkler systems.
Chapter 5 - Methods of controlling the movement of smoke within a building
Chapter 6 - The possible effect of building services on the resistance to fire of
building elements and, hence, on fire spread within buildings

Fire Safety Engineering is governed by regulations and codes of practice.

These vary from country to country. This booklet uses the regulations and
codes of practice that apply specifically to England as an example. These are
not reproduced in detail: the student is expected to access these via the
appropriate web site and the Brunel electronic library.
Within each chapter are a number of personal feedback (PF) questions which
the student is strongly advised to attempt.
Should you discover any errors in this booklet, please do contact the author
([email protected]).

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

1. Introduction to Fire Safety Engineering

1.1. Some statistics
In Great Britain, (England, Scotland and Wales), in 2010-2011, there were
some 70,000 fires in buildings (Fire Statistics GB, 2010-11, DCLG) that were
attended by the fire services. Of these, 45,000 were in dwellings and 25,000 in
non-domestic buildings. Around two-thirds were accidental. In total there
were 388 deaths, (306 of which were in dwellings) and 11,300 non-fatal
casualties. Cause of death was:

Smoke inhalation 34%

Burns 24%
Smoke inhalation and Burns 18%
Not specified 24%

To put the above into context, there are around 25 Million dwellings in Great
Britain and about 2 Million non-domestic buildings. The population is about
60 Million. That is about 1 fire death and 29 casualties per 150,000 of the
population per annum, a figure that is typical of most developed countries. It is
apparent that the incidence of fires in non-dwellings (1 per 80 per annum) is
very much higher than for dwellings (1 per 555 per annum) but that the
incidence of deaths is very much lower. The number of building fires in Great
Britain has been falling steadily year-on-year for some time. In 2000-2001
there were about 107,000 fires in buildings attended by the fire services and
some 460 deaths.
The total cost of fires in England (in 2008) has been estimated as 3.3 Billion,
(fire research report 3/2011, DCLG). This includes not only direct losses to
property and life but also costs associated with fire, police and health services.
It is not uncommon for small businesses to fold following a major fire in their
premises due to inability to continue functioning. The costs of running the fire
services, fire-insurance and installing fire protection, detection and fire
fighting equipment in buildings was estimated at around 5 Billion per annum.

1.2. Aims and objectives of fire safety engineering design

The aims of fire safety engineering is to minimise loss of life and injuries to
occupants and to limit the property and consequential losses resulting from
fire. The essential objectives are as follows:
(a)

To reduce as far as possible factors that might cause a fire to start.

(b)

If a fire should start, to inhibit its development.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

(c)

To ensure for the safe evacuation of building occupants in the event of

a fire by providing adequate warning and protected escape routes.

(d)

To limit the spread of fire within the building.

(e)

To prevent fire from spreading to neighbouring buildings.

(f)

To provide facilities and access for the fire brigade to fight the fire.

1.3. Development of standards and regulations

The cost of fire, both in terms of human life and material losses, has led to the
development of requirements for fire protection covering the design of
buildings. Initially, following major fires such as the Great Fire of London in
1666, the aim was to prevent fire spread from one building to another and
regulations were drawn up to ensure separation between buildings and
adequate design of party walls. Later, additional emphasis was placed on
reducing the risk of fire spread within a building by dividing it into
compartments with fire-resting boundaries and by reducing the risk to
occupants by ensuring adequate means of escape. Further developments
included restrictions on the use of materials for construction and the use of
sprinklers and other fire suppression systems to inhibit fire development and
spread.
Over time, the specifications for tests to measure the fire resistance of building
components; the way that materials react in fire and the performance of
sprinkler systems became encapsulated in standards. Initially these were
national standards the first standards for fire resistance and the reaction to
fire of materials were produced in the UK in the 1930s. Subsequently, these
have been developed and, in many cases, are the subject of CEN and ISO
standards. Because sprinkler and related systems for the detection and
suppression of fire were first developed by insurance companies, the
installation and specification of these have largely been governed by the
insurance company rules, developed in the USA by the Underwriters
Laboratories and in the UK by the Fire Offices Committee, now the Loss
Prevention Council.
1.4. 1.3.

Fire safety engineering

In the first half of the 20th century developments were largely based upon
experience and the resulting regulations and building codes dealing with fire
were very prescriptive. The development from about 1950 onwards of
scientific investigation of the many different facets contributing to fire safety
led to a much greater understanding of the fundamentals of fire safety. This,
in turn, has led to a less prescriptive approach to fire safety in buildings. In
the United Kingdom, the Building Regulations related to fire safety are set out

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

in functional terms. Detailed guidance is given in the form of Approved
Document B which describes in detail one or more methods for satisfying the
regulations. However, these are not exclusive and alternative approaches are
allowed, provided that the designer can show that these achieve the same level
of safety. While the standard approaches set out in Approved Documents B
will generally be used for routine building design, the option of alternative
approaches provides the architect and designer with greater freedom in design
together with the possibility of reducing costs. This, together with the
underpinning scientific understanding, has encouraged the development of an
engineering specialism in fire safety. It is now increasingly common for a fire
safety engineer to be part of the design team on a major building project.
There is at present no internationally agreed definition of fire safety
engineering but for present purposes the following is used:
The application of engineering principles, rules and expert judgement, based
on a knowledge of human behaviour and a scientific understanding of the
phenomena of fire and its effects, to:

save life, protect property and preserve the environment and heritage

quantify the hazards and risk of fire and its effects

evaluate analytically the optimum protective and preventative

measures necessary to limit, within prescribed levels, the consequences
of fire.

1.5. Current regulations and standards applicable to England

Table 1.1 sets out some of the key regulations and standards relating to fire
safety engineering in England. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have
very similar building regulations.
Table 1.1 Regulations and Standards applicable in England
Approved Document B Dwelling houses are
Volume 1
individual single dwellings
Dwelling Houses
and include semi-detached
and terraced houses: an
apartment building is not
treated as a dwelling
house.
Building Regulations
Amended 2013
2010 (England)
Approved Document B
Deals with:
Volume 1
All buildings other than Means of warning
Escape
Dwelling Houses
Internal fire spread
External fire spread
Access and facilities for
the fire service

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Table 1.1 continued
Fire Safety Order 2005
The Dangerous
Substances and Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations
2002
Gas Safety Regulations
1998
BS 9999:2008
Code of Practice for Fire
Safety in the Design,
Management and Use of
Buildings

BS 7974:2001
Application of Fire Safety
Engineering Principles to
the Design of Buildings

BS EN 1201
Smoke and Heat Control
Systems

Imposes duties on building owner/occupier

related to fire safety. Applicable to non-domestic
buildings.
Deals with safe storage and handling of
dangerous substances. The codes of practice
associated with this Act, produced by Health and
Safety Executive, have been revised (2013) and
are out for consultation until end of 2013.
Deals with the design and maintenance of gas
installations in buildings
Applicable to most buildings other than single
dwellings. Concerned principally with prevention
of harm to building users, public and fire officers
rather than protection of property.

This sets out the principles of fire safety

engineering and is supported by nine Published
Documents (PDs):
Part 0
Design framework
Part 1
Initiation and development of fire
Part 2
Spread of smoke
Part 3
Structural response and fire spread
Part 4
Detection of fire
Part 5
Fire service intervention
Part 6
Human factors
Part 7
Risk assessment
Part 8
Property potection
A ten-part series that sets performance
specification for smoke and heat control systems
including:
Smoke barriers
Natural smoke and heat exhaust
Powered smoke and heat exhaust
Pressure differential systems
Smoke control ducts and dampers
Power supplies
Some parts are covered by BS 7346

In addition, there are numerous BS and EN standards that apply to the

specification of components used in fire safety systems and methods by which
they are tested.

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2. The nature of fire

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should:
1.

appreciate the basic principles of combustion;

2.

be able to identify the main products of combustion and their potential

effect on occupants;

3.

understand the typical stages of development of a fire within a building

and the factors that affect this:

4.

understand the concept of the design fire, and

5.

be acquainted with the factors which influence the escape of occupants.

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2.1 The combustion process
Fire is basically an exothermic chemical reaction involving the combination of
a substance with oxygen. Three essential components are required (a) fuel, (b)
oxygen (usually as air) and (c) an initial source of heat. Provided that these
are all present at appropriate levels, then ignition will occur. Due to the heat
produced by the reaction, fire is usually self-propagating and the principal
limitations on fire development are the availability of either oxygen or fuel.
Artificial cooling by, for instance the application of water, will also affect fire
development.
In the context of fire safety, fuel is used to describe any material involved in
the combustion process. In general, items involved in a fire consist of a
composite of different compounds. However, there are occasions, for instance
involving industrial processes and storage, where a single compound is
involved.
The term ignition is generally used to describe the initiation of a fire. In
characterising fuels it is important to distinguish between the ease with which
a fuel can be ignited, the subsequent rate of fire development and the potential
effects of the products of combustion. For instance, an item may be difficult
to ignite but, once ignited, may burn readily with a high rate of heat release.
The topics of ignition; heat release and combustion products are dealt with in
following sections.
2.2

Ignition

If sufficient heat is applied to combustible materials, whether in liquid or solid

form, then there is an increased production of vapour at the surface of the
liquid and, in the case of solids, production of volatile components by the
process known as pyrolysis. Combustion of the resulting combination of fuel
in the gaseous/vapour phase with oxygen, may be initiated by a high
temperature source such as a spark or pilot flame. Alternatively if the heat
applied is sufficiently high, the reaction may occur without any additional aid,
resulting in auto-ignition.
The propensity of liquid fuels to ignite is often described in terms of
flashpoint. This is the temperature at which the fuel will ignite in the presence
of a pilot light. Because factors such as the location of the pilot light, the
method of applying heat to the fuel, pressure and the ability of the vapour to
mix with the surrounding air are important, detailed test methods have been
evolved and are encapsulated in national standards. For some purposes a
slightly higher temperature the firepoint or ignition temperature is appropriate.
This is the temperature at which not only ignition occurs but fire is sustained.
For any given fuel, the temperature required for auto-ignition is usually much
higher than the flashpoint or fire point temperatures. Typical values of
flashpoint and auto-ignition temperatures are illustrated in Table 1 for several
common liquids fuels.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Flashpoint
temperature

Fuel

Firepoint
temperature

Auto-ignition
temperature

Fuel oil

133

164

---

Light fuel oil

187

220

---

Kerosene

50

250

---

Methanol

11

---

380

Benzene

-11

---

498

Table 2.1 Flashpoint and firepoint temperatures (0C) for selected liquid
fuels

2.3

Heat release

A property of any combustible substance is the heat of combustion, defined as

the total energy released per unit mass by complete combustion. This is the
maximum heat available. In real fires, the arrangement of the fuel and
restrictions on air supply generally mean that, generally, complete combustion
does not occur. However, for illustration, the heats of combustion of some
common materials are listed in Table 2.2.
Heat of
combustion
(MJ/kg)

Material

Material

Heat of
combustion
(MJ/kg)

Timber

18

Polyurethane
foam

26

Cellulose

17

Foam rubber

37

Paper

17

Ethanol

27

Polystyrene

40

Kerosene

44

Polyethylene

44

Crude oil

29

Polyvinylchloride

17

Gasoline

44

Table 2.2

Heat of combustion for selected common materials

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

A knowledge of the heat of combustion of materials commonly found in
buildings is important in determining the fire load of a space. This is the total
potential energy available for release if complete combustion of all of the
combustible material takes place. It is the sum of the estimated mass of each
material present multiplied by its heat of combustion and is usually expressed
per unit area (ie MJ/m2). Depending upon the nature and form of the
combustible material some may not be fully consumed. If this is taken into
account the term effective fire load is used. Fire load is important in relation
to the prevention of fire spread from one compartment of a building to another
and is discussed further in Chapter 6 and in determining the requirements for
sprinkler systems, discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 6 also contains a table
giving typical fire loads for a range of different occupancies.

PF 2.1
A room with a floor area of 30 m2 is estimated to contain the following
materials: wood 120 kg; paper - 50 kg; polystyrene 15 kg; cellulose
25kg; polyurethane foam 50kg. What is the fire load ? If only 80% of the
material is in a form to be consumed by a fire what is the effective fire load?

The heat released is transferred principally (i) by convection to the hot plume
of air and airborne combustion products above the fire and (ii) by radiation to
the surroundings. A small amount of heat may be transferred by conduction to
any surface that is in direct contact with the fire. The proportion of heat lost
by convection depends upon the nature of the fuel burnt but is usually in the
range of 60 to 80% of the total heat released.
The heat of reaction can be determined directly for individual materials but
most items burning in real fires consist of a combination of many different
materials. What is generally required for engineering calculations is the rate
of heat release of an item or group of items. In the past this was not easy to
obtain due to the complex heat transfer processes. However, the solution has
been provided by the development, over the past twenty years, of oxygen
depletion calorimetry. This technique is based upon the observed fact that
materials produce very similar heat release rates per unit consumption rate of
oxygen. Thus, if all of the products of combustion from a burning item are
collected, usually by a hood connected to an extract system, and the mass flow
rate of the extract mass flow rate is known, then the reduction in oxygen
concentration below ambient can be used to give the instantaneous rate of heat
release of the burning object.
This technique is now widely used for samples ranging from bench-scale,
using the cone calorimeter, to objects as large as a motor car, using very large
calorimeters. A particular advantage of the method is that it allows the
variation of the rate of heat released from a burning object to be measured

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continuously over a period of time. As an example Figure 2.1 shows the
measured heat release rate for a burning sofa. A particular point to note is that
although the heat release rate is relatively low to start with it increases almost
exponentially until a maximum of about 3.5 MW is reached after when all of
the material of the sofa is involved. Thereafter, it decays as material is
consumed.
This illustrates that rates of heat release during a fire can reach levels which
are very high when compared with those which building services engineers
typically deal with in the context of heating and cooling buildings. By way of
further illustration, Table 2.3 lists typical maximum heat release rates
developed during the burning of other common items in an unconfined space.

Figure 2.1

Variation of heat release rate for a burning sofa

Item

Maximum heat release rate (kW)

Waste paper basket

20

Television set

300

Arm chair

1000

Table 2.3

Typical rates of heat release for some common items

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2.4

Products of combustion

Most materials involved in fire are composed of organic compounds and, in

consequence, the principal reaction products are water vapour and carbon
dioxide. However, as noted earlier, complete combustion rarely occurs and
other products, in particular carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon particles,
are also produced in quantities that are determined by the combustion
conditions. The complex mixture of gases, vapours and particulates which
form the airborne products of a fire are generally loosely termed smoke
These become diluted and cooled as they move away from the combustion
zone.
2.5
2.5.1

Effects of smoke on occupants

Introduction

Smoke and fire products can cause considerable damage by deposition and
corrosion to contents and fabric of a building. The principal concern, however,
is effect of smoke products on people. Home Office statistics indicate that the
predominant cause of death and serious injury in fires is exposure to smoke
and fire products.

70

%ge of all fatalities

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
mid 50's

mid 60's

mid 70's

mid 80's

mid 90's

Figure 2.2Percentage of fatalities in UK fires ascribed to exposure to

smoke.
As Figure 2.2 shows, the percentage of fatalities that can be ascribed to smoke
has risen from about 20% in the mid-1950's to approximately 60% now.
These are taken from UK fire brigade records which are compiled on an
annual basis by the Home Office. Death and injury arises from exposure to
smoke constituents which may be toxic (such as carbon monoxide and

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

hydrogen cyanide) or irritant (such as acrolein and hydrogen chloride). The
raised temperature of smoke can also be lethal (particularly if the water vapour
content is high). A useful summary of the effects of exposure to the
combinations of constituents of smoke is contained in Chapter 1-15 of the
SFPE Handbook . Smoke also reduces visibility leading to disorientation and
restriction on movement.
2.5.2

Visibility

Particulate matter in smoke absorbs light and results in reduced visibility.

Visibility is the furthest distance at which an object can be perceived depends
upon whether is self-illuminated or illuminated by reflected light and is
inversely proportional to the density of the smoke. For escape purposes
visibility should be at least 8m.
2.5.3

Toxic and irritant effects

Gases, both free and absorbed by particulates, commonly found in fire

products can have both toxic (CO and HCN) and irritant (HCl, acrolein, other
organics). The former can lead initially to incapacitation and eventually to
death. Effects depend upon cumulative dose (ie concentration x time of
exposure). CO2 and reduced oxygen levels also have important physiological
effects. If concentrations can be estimated over the period of exposure
methods (Fractional Incapacitating Dose) exist for determining the combined
effects of various components.
2.5.4

Temperature

Temperature effects can result from direct contact, external skin or inhalation,
or indirectly due to radiation from the hot smoke. For dry combustion
products exposure to temperatures as high as 180 oC can be sustained for short
periods but if water vapour is present (either from combustion or suppression
system) burning can occur at much lower temperatures. For saturated air the
limit is 60 oC. The upper limit for continuous exposure to radiation is 2.5
kW/m2 although exposure at 10 kW/m2 is tolerable for a few seconds. For
practical purposes a smoke layer at a temperature of 200 oC will give a
radiation intensity of 2.5 kW/m2.

IE 2-1
Determine the radiation intensity due to a smoke layer at 500oC if the smoke
has an emissivity of 0.9
Radiation intensity, I = T4
Where T is absolute temperature of the smoke and is emissivity of the smoke
and is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4). So,
I = 0.9 x 5.67 x 10-8 x (500+273)4 = 18000 W/m2 = 18kW/m2

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PF 2-2
What are the constituents of smoke that may affect occupants and how may
these act to hinder or prevent escape in a fire?

2.6

Fire within an enclosure

The discussion of ignition and fire development above relates to an

unenclosed fire. Most fires of concern occur within buildings. While in the
initial stages, when a fire is relatively small, it may be treated as if it were in
an unenclosed space, as the fire develops the effect it has on its surroundings
becomes increasingly important. The enclosure restricts the movement of
products of combustion and these begin to fill the space, unless appropriately
vented. This hot layer of combustion gases radiates heat to other contents of
the space which may also be heated directly by radiation from the fire and
heated enclosure surfaces. In due course, other contents reach their limit of
flammability and new fires start, causing the process to accelerate, until all of
the combustible material in the space is involved. This rapid acceleration to
full involvement is generally termed flashover. The onset of flashover is often
assumed to occur when the temperature of the hot gas layer reaches 600 0C.
Once flashover occurs the rate of combustion tends to stabilise, being limited
either by the availability of air or by the availability of fuel. In due course, as
the available fuel is consumed, the fire decays. This general progression of a
fire is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Fully developed
stage

Flashover
Rate of
heat
release

Decay stage

Growth stage
Not flashed over

Ignition

Time from ignition

Figure 2.3 Typical pattern of fire development in an enclosed space

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

In most real situations, sufficient air for flashover is achieved via open
doorways or windows. However, if the supply is substantially restricted, then
the oxygen in the enclosure will become exhausted and combustion may decay
before flashover occurs. In practice this can lead to a very dangerous situation
where the fire appears to have decayed but the space contains a high
concentration of combustible gases and vapours at a high temperature, if air is
suddenly allowed to enter such a space, for instance by opening a door,
explosive combustion can take place. This is sometimes referred to as
backdraught. Figure 2.3 illustrates the four main stages of a fire:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Initiation
Growth
Fully developed, steady state
Decay

2.7 Factors affecting fire development

In addition to the factors mentioned above, other factors can affect the
development of a fire within an enclosure, in particular, the use of fire
suppression systems. These are designed to operate during the growth stage of
the fire, usually by detectors that respond to the temperature of the gas layer
above the fire. There are two principal types of suppression systems:
(i)
those which eliminate the availability of oxygen by flooding the space
with an inert gas or foam, and
(ii)
those which reduce the temperature of the fire usually using a water
sprinkler system.
In the case of (i) the fire is usually completely suppressed, as illustrated
schematically as (a) in Figure 2.4. However, the cost of such systems usually
means that they are used where the potential losses are high and where water
damage from sprinkler systems would be unacceptable (eg archived record
store). Sprinkler systems may fully suppress a fire, as in (d) but it is usual to
assume that they will control a fire but not extinguish it, as in (b). This
depends to a certain extent on the way that the fire load is distributed. Often,
some combustible material may be shielded from direct contact with the water
spray and may continue to burn.

PF 2-3
Outline the main stages of a fire in a building. What is flashover and when
does it occur? What factors may restrict the development of a fire?

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Ventilation controlled

(c) Uncontrolled

(b) Controlled

Rate of
heat
release
(a) Extinguished by gas

(d)Extinguished
by sprinklers

Time

Figure 2.4 Schematic illustration of the effect of suppression systems

on fire development

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2.8
2.8.1

Design fires

Introduction

Although fires in buildings have common characteristics as set out above, no

two fires are identical. Nevertheless, the design of any form of fire protection
requires suitable assumptions to be made. This has led to the concept of the
design fire. A design fire is one that is generally accepted, both by designers
and regulators, as providing a suitable basis for design calculations for a given
fire scenario. Design fires are mainly used in the context of smoke control
systems (covered in Chapter 5) and the discussion here will be limited to this
application.
Two types of pre-flashover design fire are commonly used:
(a)

Growing fire

(b)

Steady state fire

The growing fire is more representative of real fire development, as indicated

by Figure 2.1 above, but the assumption of a steady state fire is often sufficient
for many purposes, although it may give conservative results. It is based upon
a fire controlled to a constant level, for instance by a sprinkler system.
2.8.2

Growing fire

It has been found by experience that a simple power law represents the early
growth of a fire;
Q = k . t2
Where,

(equation 1.1)
Q
t

=
=

Rate of heat release (kW)

Time from ignition (seconds)

This is often referred to as a t-squared fire. The constant k determines the

growth rate. For design purposes, fires can be broadly divided into four
categories, as shown in Table 2.4, which gives the associated value of k for
each category. Figure 2.5 illustrates the growth rates for the four categories.

Table 2.4

Category

k (kJ/s2)

Slow

0.0029

Medium

0.012

Fast

0.047

Ultra-fast

0.188

Fire growth parameter, k, for standard fire types

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Ultra-fast

Fast

Medium

Slow

Heat output (kW)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

420

480

540

600

Time from ignition (sec)

Figure 2.5

Fire growth rate for four standard categories of developing

fire

Location

Growth rate

Dwelling

Medium

Office

Medium

Shop

Fast

Warehouse

Ultra-fast

Hotel bedroom

Medium

Hotel reception

Medium

Assembly hall

Medium to fast

Picture gallery

Slow

Display area

Slow to medium

Table 2.5

Design fire growth rates for selected fire locations

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2.8.3

Steady state fire

The steady state fire is a statistical concept based upon the assumption that
most fires are controlled, usually by sprinkler action or other means before
they reach flashover. Fire brigade records of fire sizes, in terms of area of
burnt material for instance, provide a statistical basis for estimating the size
reached by fires in a particular type of occupancy and fire protection system,
say an office with a sprinkler system. BRE Report BR368 discusses the
derivation of design fire sizes in more depth and Table 2.6 summarises design
fire sizes proposed in that report for selected occupancies.

Fire area

Fire
perimeter

Heat release
rate per
unit area

Design fire
size

(m2)

(m)

(kW/m2)

(kW)

10

12

625

5000

625

2500

16

14

255

2700

47

24

255

8000

Standard response
sprinklers

250

400

No sprinklers

Entire room

Width of
opening

100

1000
(at window)

10

12

400

3000

Occupancy
type

Retail areas
Standard response
sprinklers
Quick response
sprinklers
Open plan offices
Standard response
sprinklers
No sprinklers
fuel-bed controlled
Hotel bedroom

Car park
A burning car

Table 2.6

Design fire sizes for various occupancies (from BR368)

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2.9

Means of escape

In a preceding section we reviewed the ways that fires develop. The principal
concern in the event of a fire in most buildings is to ensure that occupants can
escape safely. Factors that contribute to the ability to escape safely are:
(a)

Detection of the fire and warning to occupants

(b)

The availability of an identifiable escape route

(c)

Protection of the escape route while it is likely to be in use from:

(i)

smoke,

(ii)

fire and radiated heat, and

(iii)

structural failure.

In the past, regulations, codes and design guidance defined requirements for
means of escape mainly in terms of travel distance. However, it is
increasingly recognised that time for escape is the most important issue.
Figure 2.6 is a schematic diagram which compares the time which occupants
take for escape with the time taken for the fire to develop to a point when
conditions become unsafe, at any point on the escape route.

AVAILABLE SAFE ESCAPE TIME

ACTUAL ESCAPE TIME

ALARM TIME

Ignition

PRE-MOVEMENT TIME

RECOGNITION

RESPONSE

TIME

TIME

Alarm

TRAVEL TIME

Evacuation
complete
Movement
begins

Tenability
limit

TIME
Figure 2.6

Time line showing comparison of escape time with time for

conditions to become untenable

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Actual escape time consists of three separate components:
1.Alarm time
This is the interval from the onset of the fire to the time when the alarm is
given. This is made up of two components time to detection plus any
interval between detection and sounding the alarm. Usually time to detection
and time to alarm are very similar, although, in the case of human detection
there may be some delay and automatic systems may wait until a confirmatory
signal is received from a second detector, in order to verify if the event is real,
called coincidence detection.
2. Pre-movement time
Occupants do not generally respond immediately to an alarm. There is an
initial period, recognition time, during which they become aware of the alarm
and its meaning. This depends a great deal on factors such a familiarity of
occupants with a building and their condition (e.g. asleep or awake). This is
followed by a second period during which they begin to respond but before
they start to leave the building. Again this interval depends upon
circumstances. Examples of alternative activities to immediate escape include
investigating the fire; collecting valuables; securing other risks, such as a
production process; seeking other members of a social group e.g. parents
searching for children.
3. Travel time
This is the interval between entering an escape route and arrival in a place of
safety. This depends upon distance and speed of travel but often, more so, on
the time taken to get through exits, such as doorways.

Adequate provision for means of escape requires the actual escape time to be
as short as possible and the time available for escape to be as long as possible,
by delaying the onset of untenable conditions.
In relation to actual escape time, building services, as opposed to building
layout and design, contribute principally to reducing alarm time, through the
provision of detection and alarm sounder systems.
The other equally important contribution of building services is to lengthen the
time taken for conditions to become untenable, by
(i)

reducing fire growth by the use of automated suppression systems,

such as sprinklers;

(ii)

limiting the spread of smoke using active smoke control systems and
by appropriate switching of the operation of ventilation and air
conditioning systems, and

(iii)

ensuring that the provision of services does not encourage the spread
of fire (e.g. through services penetrations through the main building
elements).

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

PF 2-4
The ability to escape from a fire depends upon the time needed to escape being
less than the time available for escape (ie until conditions become untenable).
Can you suggest ways to reduce the time needed and to increase the time
available?

Summary of Chapter 2
Fire is a rare and largely unpredictable event. However, it is possible to
identify common features and patterns to fires which provide a basis for
ensuring safety of occupants and reducing property loss. From this chapter
you should have gained an understanding of the basic conditions required for
fire to occur and the way in which a fire develops within an enclosed space.
Typical rates of heat release from materials and items of building contents
have been given. You should be aware of the main products of combustion,
produced by the growing fire and the way that these can affect occupants. The
different stages of fire development - ignition, growth, flashover, full
development and decay - have been set out, together with possible methods of
control, such as the use of sprinklers. Although fires vary, it is necessary, for
design purposes, particularly in relation to smoke control measures, to use
standard fires, of given heat output. The main types of design fire, appropriate
to different types of building and occupancy, have been given. Finally, a
principal aim of fire safety engineering and regulation is to save life and the
key, time-based, components influencing ability to escape have been
introduced. The aim of this chapter has been to introduce you to a number of
the main concepts relating to fire safety and related building services

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3. Fire detection and activation

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should:
1.

be able to identify the main types of detector, and

2.

be acquainted with the ways that they can be deployed.

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3.1 Introduction
We have seen from Chapter 2 that fires can develop quickly and that smoke
can move rapidly to fill parts of a building remote from the fire. It is,
therefore, essential that, in addition to providing the physical means of escape
for the occupants of a building, the fire is detected as early as possible and
warning systems are activated. Detection is also important in relation to the
operation of fire suppression systems and to alerting the fire fighting
authorities.
Fire detection should take place during the early growth phase of the fire, as
soon as possible after ignition. However, it important to limit false alarms
since these encourage complacency among occupants and the unnecessary
operation of fire suppression systems, with possible consequent damage to the
building contents.
The types of detector that are commonly used and the way that they are
installed are discussed in the following sections.
3.2
3.2.1

Methods of fire detection

Heat detection

Heat detectors contain elements that respond to either the temperature of

surrounding gases or to the rate of change of temperature. The latter are
intended to respond to fast growing fires. They are usually used in
conjunction with a smoke detector to ensure that slowly growing fires are also
detected. They may either be (a) point-type detectors or (b) line-type
detectors. The former measure conditions at a particular point. Line-type
detectors measure conditions near to a linear cable and may either respond to
the integrated response along the whole cable or to a change in conditions at
point along the cable. In both main types (point and line) there are two main
subdivisions:
Fixed temperature (static) elements; designed to operate when they reach a pre
selected threshold temperature.
Rate-of-rise of temperature elements; they operate when the rate of heat rises
abnormally quickly.

3.2.2

Smoke detection

The two most commonly used types of smoke detector are ionisation-chamber
and optical-scatter detectors. Both types react to the particles (either solid or
droplet) suspended in the air convected past them.

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Ionisation chamber detector
The detector contains a mildly radioactive source that ionises air in its vicinity,
allowing a current to flow between electrodes. The presence of particles
reduces the level of ionisation and, hence, the current. The detector response
is approximately proportional to product of the number density and diameter
of the particles.
Optical scatter detector
The detector contains a light source and a photocell. In the presence of
airborne particles, light is scattered and falls on the photocell producing a
current. The response depends upon the wavelength of the light used, the
scattering angle and the scattering volume. At a wavelength of 0.3 m the
response is approximately proportional to the mass concentration of the
particles.
Ionisation detectors are more sensitive to small particles, such as those
produced in the early stages of flaming fires of materials such as wood or
paper; optical scatter detectors are more sensitive to larger particles, broadly
equal to the wavelength of light, such as those produced by smouldering fires
or from burning plastics. Smoke detectors can also come with a combined
heat detector built into the smoke detector head to verify if indeed it is a real
alarm. These are known as combined heat/smoke detectors and are available
from some manufacturers.
In addition, a second type of optical detector is the beam detector. This
consists of a narrow light beam directed at a receiver, usually a photocell.
Interruption of the beam by the presence of smoke reduces its intensity and the
detector signal. Detectors of this type are particularly useful where the
installation and/or maintenance of point smoke detectors would be difficult
due to the height of the space or undesirable for aesthetic reasons.
An Aspirating Smoke detector is a particularly sensitive, although relatively
expensive, form of smoke detection. A small air pump mounted in a control
panel, locally mounted, draws air from the detection area via small diameter
plastic tubes. Sampling points (detector points) consist of small holes bored
into the tube. The air is then drawn into the tube to be sampled by a light beam
mounted inside the control panel, usually a lazer, which can detect small
particles of smoke. The aspirating panel sensitivity can be modified to suit
ambient (level of airborne contamination) air conditions, in order to avoid
false alarms. This type of detection is usually specialist and is suitable for
data/computer rooms and buildings of high national value. Also due to the use
(inconspicuous) of small hole sampling points, it is suitable for old heritage
buildings where smoke detectors would detract from the architectural feature
to be viewed. Standard smoke detectors cannot operate effectively in rooms
(such as in the process clean room industry) with high air velocities, since the
air to be sampled is drawn too quickly across the smoke chamber on the
detector head. Aspirating type detection does not have this problem as the air
itself is drawn in, to be sampled. Note that it is necessary to have a central fire

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

alarm panel to monitor the building and activate the appropriate alarms, as the
aspirating system would usually be mounted in small areas of the building.

3.2.3

Flame detection

There are two main types of flame detector depending upon the wavelength of
radiation, either ultra-violet or infra-red, to which each is sensitive. Ultraviolet detectors normally operate in the wavelength range from 200 to 270 nm.
Infra-red detectors operate in a range of bands. Because they could react to
other heat sources, such as the sun, they are usually designed to respond to the
rapid change in radiation intensity typical of a flickering flame. This type of
detection is used in large aircraft hanger applications.
3.2.4

Human detection

The human senses of smell, sight and hearing can potentially detect a fire at an
early stage and initiate an alarm procedure. However, the effectiveness of
human detection depends upon the characteristics (e.g. disabled), state (e.g.
asleep) and location of the occupants of a building. Nevertheless, many
systems include manual call points.
3.2.5

Summary of detector types

Table 3.1 summarises the most suitable applications for the various types of
detector.
Detector
type

Response to
smouldering
fires

Response to
rapid,
flaming fires

Speed of
response

Application

Heat

None

Good

Slow

Wide but not for

escape routes or
high value
facilities

Smoke optical scatter

Good

Less good than

ionisation
chamber

Fast

Very wide

Less good than

optical

Good

Fast

Very wide

Good

Good

Fast

Wide

Very good

Very good

Very fast

Special

None

Very good

Very fast

Special

Smoke ionisation
chamber
Smoke beam
Aspirating
Flame

Table 3.1 Summary of characteristics of automatic detectors

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

PF 3-1
What are the principal types of fire detectors? What type of detector would
you propose, and why, for (a) a library, (b) a computer suite, (c) a tall atrium?

3.3.
3.3.1

Fire detection systems

Zoning

Detectors must be linked into a control system to operate alarms and/or

protection arrangements such as suppression systems. To ensure the
effectiveness of alarms and protection systems it is important for the detection
system to be able to identify the fire location as precisely as possible.
However, to connect each individual detector back to a control panel with a
conventional protected two-conductor system is usually impracticable and as a
compromise buildings are zoned. The detectors in each zone are connected in
parallel and the operation of any one indicates a fire in that zone. CIBSE
Guide E suggests the following guidelines for deciding on the size of zones:
(a)

If the total floor area (i.e. the total floor areas for each storey) of the
building is not greater than 300 m2 then the building may be treated as
a single zone, no matter how many storeys it may have.

(b)

The total floor area for a zone should not exceed 2000 m2.

(c)

The search distance (i.e. the distance that has to be travelled by a

searcher inside the zone to determine visually the position of the fire)
should not exceed 30m.

(d)

Where stairwells and similar structures extend beyond one floor but are
in the fire compartment, this should be treated as a separate zone.

(e)

If the zone covers more than one compartment, then the zone
boundaries should follow compartment boundaries.

(f)

If the zone is split into several occupancies, no zone should be split

between two occupancies.

3.3.2

Main fire alarm control panel systems

A main control panel is required to interrogate the devices monitoring the

building for smoke. The control panel then has to analyse this data and if
necessary to activate an alarm to evacuate the building and initiate appropriate
control strategies, such as AHU shut down, magnetic door closure, fire damper

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

closures, etc. There are a number of fire alarm control panels on the market.
There are three main types available, they are:
(a) Conventional Fire Systems
Each fire zone within a building is wired separately (in fire rated cabling) into
the control panel. Each fire zone is indicated separately on the control panel by
LEDs. This type of panel is most suitable for smaller building applications
and can be obtained with different quantities of zones available i.e. 6, 8, 12
etc... The control panels are much more economical (and less sophisticated
than analogue addressable type) but this can sometimes be offset by the
additional cost of cabling. It is not possible to pin point which smoke detector
head has operated, as only a zone will indicate an alarm when a detector head
or a number of heads have activated.
(b) Addressable systems
This type of system is wired in a similar way to an analogue addressable
system but uses conventional detector heads. It lies somewhere between
conventional and analogue addressable in that it has the cost advantages of
being able to have all detectors in one detection loop but it has not got the
same advanced control and monitoring features of analogue addressable
systems.

(c) Analogue addressable systems

These are the most sophisticated type of fire alarm control panels available.
Their advantage is that the detectors are monitored continuously by the control
panel. It is possible to wire an entire building in one cable circuit (dependant
on size of building), therefore making this system economical in terms of
cabling costs. Each detector head is an address on the cable loop and can be
tagged with the exact room name. Therefore it is possible to pinpoint a fire to
one room or area. The panels also come with additional features such as prealarm, dirty head, and many other programmability features that can reduce
the possibility of false alarms and provide ease of modification. Sounder
circuits are wired separately as per the conventional panel.

3.4
3.4.1

Activation of other systems

Alarm systems

The most common form of alarm is a simple sounder. These need to be both
adequate in number and sufficiently well distributed to ensure that all
occupants can be alerted. The response of occupants depends to a great deal
on training. The advent of addressable and analogue addressable systems
allows the use of more sophisticated alarm systems. These include voice
systems which can give specific directions taking into account the location and

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

nature of the fire. Such systems are particularly useful where occupants may
not be familiar with the building and can substantially reduce the recognition
time shown in Figure 2.6.
In addition, alarm systems can be directly linked to the nearest fire brigade
station. Again, the more detail that is available from the detection system, the
more effective can be the fire brigade response.
3.4.2

Other systems

While the main purpose of the detection system is usually to alert occupants
and the fire-fighting authorities, they can also be linked to other active fire
protection measures and the general building services control systems,
allowing actions such as the following:
(a)

Shut down or changed operation of HEVAC systems to prevent the

spread of smoke within the building (see chapter 5).

(b)

Operation of fire and smoke dampers in ventilation ducts, to limit fire

spread (see chapter 6).

(c)

Operation of fire doors and shutters to prevent fire spread from the fire
compartment. (see chapter 6).

(d)

Operation of smoke control systems and smoke curtains

(see chapter 5).

(e)

Operation of fire suppression systems where these are not

automatically operated by local, integrated detectors.

(f)

Operation of emergency lighting systems for escape routes.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

3.5

Emergency lighting

Emergency lighting is installed to provide adequate lighting for escape and

essential tasks in the event of failure of the main lighting system. Detailed
information can be found in BS 5266:Part 1 2011 Emergency lighting
Code of practice for the emergency escape lighting of premises and in CIBSE
Lighting Guide 12, 2004.
The locations for emergency lighting, specified in BS5266:Part 1 are:
a) at each exit door intended to be used in an emergency;
b) near stairs so that each flight of stairs receives direct light;
c) near any other change in level;
d) at mandatory emergency exits and safety signs;
e) at each change of direction;
f) at each intersection of corridors;
g) near to each final exit and outside the building to a place of safety;
h) near each first aid post;
i) near each piece of fire fighting equipment and call point
Lighting levels for defined escape routes should be at least 0.2 lux along the
centre-line of the escape route and a minimum of 0.1 lux over a central band
one metre wide. For undefined escape routes the average level should 1 lux.
Emergency lighting systems are usually designed to operate for a minimum
period of one hour to allow time both for escape and for search and rescue
operations, should these be required. Longer times may be required for certain
types of building use such as places of entertainment and premises with
sleeping accommodation (such as hospitals and nursing homes).

PF 3-2
Why are detection systems zoned? What are the advantages of addressable
versus standard detection systems?

Summary of Chapter 3
One of the important factors determining ability to escape and the operation of
building fire protection systems is the early detection of a fire. From this
chapter you should have gained an understanding of the main types of detector
that are available and under what circumstances each is most appropriate,
together with the way that they can be linked in detection systems to give
different levels of information. You should be aware of the types of fire alarm
and protection system that detectors can activate, as well as the basic
requirements for emergency lighting.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

4. Fire suppression

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should:
1.

be able to identify the main characteristics of sprinklers;

2.

understand the way that sprinklers are chosen and deployed in relation
to particular hazards, and

3.

be aware of suppression systems using media other than water.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

4.1

Introduction

Fire suppression systems are designed to operate during the early growth stage
of a fire in order, either to extinguish the fire, or to restrict its growth until it
can be extinguished by the fire brigade. They can work in a number of ways:
(a)

By reducing the temperature of the fuel.

(b)

By restricting the availability of oxygen.

(c)

By inhibiting the chemical reaction between the fuel and oxygen.

The most common form of fire suppression is the use of automatic water
sprinklers. Water has a very high thermal capacitance (both sensible and
latent) and so is able to quickly reduce the temperature of the burning material
below that at which pyrolysis can occur and so extinguish the fire. A spray is
used rather than a jet as this increases the surface area of the water so
increasing heat transfer rate to the water as well as increasing coverage.
Other methods are also used, mainly for specialist applications. These
include gaseous, foam and powder based systems.
4.2
4.2.1

Sprinkler systems

Introduction

The earliest fixed sprinkler systems were installed nearly two centuries ago.
The principal components of most modern systems are the:

Sprinkler heads
Distribution pipework
Alarm valves
Pumps
Water supply and Storage tanks

Sprinkler head
This is a valve connected to a water supply that opens once a heat sensitive
element, usually a glass bulb or fusible link, reaches a preset temperature and
allows water, in the form of a spray, to be directed over a set area.. A typical
sprinkler head is shown in figure 4.1.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Frangible
element
Deflector plate

Figure 4.1

Typical sprinkler head

General arrangement
A typical sprinkler installation is shown schematically in figure 4.2. Each floor
is equipped with a number of sprinkler heads installed in a regular pattern so
as to cover the floor area evenly. The distribution pipework on each floor is
connected back to a common rising main. Large installations may include
more than one rising main. On each floor and within the rising main is an
automatic alarm valve that will operate in the event of detecting water flow. If
the mains water is of sufficient pressure to serve the highest floors and is
sufficiently dependable then pumps and tanks are not required. Otherwise,
pumps are provided that will start on detecting a drop in water pressure and
tanks are installed to maintain a design flow rate for a minimum period of
time. The system needs to be tested regularly and for this reason a drain is
provided.
Sprinklers are designed to extinguish a fire before it can grow to an
appreciable size. As each sprinkler head is a fire (heat) detector, only the
sprinkler head(s) close to the fire will activate. The system is therefore sized
on the basis that only a small number of heads will ever operate
simultaneously.
CIBSE Guide E 2010 Fire Safety Engineering provides a detailed description
of the sprinkler system and the basis of its design.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Figure 4.2

Typical sprinkler arrangement

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

4.2.2 Sprinkler Head characteristics

The main characteristics of a sprinkler head are

(a)

The design operating temperature

(b)

The thermal response of the heat sensitive element

(c)

The orifice size (and hence water delivery rate)

(d)

The spray pattern produced

Design operating temperature

The design operating temperature of a sprinkler head should be at least 30K
above the highest expected ambient temperature of the location in which it is
installed. In order that the design operating temperature of a sprinkler head
can be readily identified a colour coding system is used, as shown in Table
4.1. for glass bulb operated sprinklers. A similar system operates for fusible
link type heads.

Table 4.1

Operating
temperature (oC)

Bulb colour

57

Orange

68

Red

79

Yellow

93

Green

141

Blue

182

Mauve

227-260

Black

Schedule of colour coding for glass bulb sprinkler heads

Thermal response
The speed with which a sprinkler head responds to an increase in temperature
depends upon the thermal inertia of its components and is it indicated by its
response time index (RTI). The lower the value of RTI, the more rapidly it

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

will respond. Table 4.2 shows the ranges of RTI corresponding to the main
categories of sprinkler.
RTI range (m.s)

Sprinkler sensitivity
Quick response

50

Special response

> 50 80

Standard response A

> 80 200

Standard response B

> 200 350

Table 4.2

Response time index (RTI) ranges for sprinklers

Orifice sizes and flow rate

The flow rate from a sprinkler head is principally determined by the size of the
orifice and the water pressure. The flow rate is given by

Q k P o.5

(equation 4.1)

Where Q is flow rate (L/minute)

k is a constant for a given orifice size (L min-1 bar-0.5)
P is the water pressure at the sprinkler head (bar gauge)
Three sizes are used 10mm, 15mm and 20mm diameter. Table 4.3 gives the
flow rate based on a typical 1.0 bar gauge water pressure. (Note that Q has
been converted to L/s).

0.5

flow rates from sprinklers = k.P

pressure drop
1
bar
size (mm)
k
Q L/s
10
57
1.0
15
80
1.3
20
115
1.9
Table 4.3

Typical flow rates from sprinkler heads

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

4.2.3 Sprinkler performance requirements
The detailed design and performance requirements of a sprinkler installation is
set out in BS EN 12845:2004 (amended 2009)- Fixed fire-fighting systems Automatic sprinkler systems; Design, installation and maintenance .
Performance requirements are dependent upon the fire hazard classification.
These are listed in Table 4.4, as defined in the standard, together with some
example applications.
Low Hazard

Ordinary Hazard

High Hazard
Process

High Hazard
Storage

Low density of
combustible
material

Where there is a
medium fire load
and materials with
medium
combustibility are
processed or
manufactured

Where there is a
high fire load and
materials with
high
combustibility so
that an intense fire
could develop
quickly

Where materials
are stored of
varying
combustibility but
stacked to
significant height

Offices
Educational
Prisons
2
Where <126m
30min
containment area

OH 1
Hospital
Hotel
Restaurant
Offices
Educational

HHP 1
Printing works

HHS 1
Ceramics

OH 2
Laundry
Museum
Car Park

HHP 2
Carpet factory

HHS 2
Books

OH 3
Department Stores
Plant rooms
Clothing factory

HHP 3
Car tyre factory

HHS 3
Corrugated
Cardboard rolls
stored horizontally

OH 4
Exhibition Hall
Saw Mill

HHP 4
Fireworks factory

HHS 4
Corrugated
Cardboard rolls
stored vertically

> 126m

Table 4.4

Examples of Hazard Classification (BS EN 12845:2004)

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Sprinkler head spacing

Both the maximum floor area per sprinkler head and the linear spacing
between any two sprinkler heads allowed depends upon the hazard
classification as set out in table 4.5. The linear spacing is based on a
rectangular array of sprinkler heads. For staggered arrangements, see BS EN
12845, 2000.
Hazard
LH
OH (1,2,3 and 4)
HHP and HHS
Table 4.5

Maximum floor area per

sprinkler head (m2)
21
12
9

Maximum linear
spacing (m)
4.6
4.0
3.7

maximum sprinkler head spacing (BS EN 12845, 2004)

Delivered water flow rates

BS EN 12845, 2004 then sets a minimum rate at which water should be
supplied (in mm depth of water per minute per m2 of floor area) together with
the maximum area over which it is assumed that sprinkler heads will be
operating. Table 4.6 reproduces the requirements for light and ordinary hazard
applications and shows the total water flow rate from the sprinkler heads that
this equates to.

hazard
rating
LH
OH1
OH2
OH3
OH4

Table 4.6

BS 12845
derived data
minimum design
density
maximum floor
cooling fire load that
(mm water per area over which water potential
can be
2
sprinklers
minute per m
flow rate of water accommodated
2
floor area)
operate (m )
(L/s)
(MW)
(MJ/m2)
2.25
84
3.15
8.19
117
5
72
6
15.6
260
5
144
12
31.2
260
5
216
18
46.8
260
5
360
30
78
260

design delivered water flow rates from sprinklers

Looking, for example, at the light hazard application, as the maximum

permitted floor area per sprinkler head is 21m2, this implies that typically, only
four sprinkler heads would be expected to operate before the fire is
extinguished. This suggests that a 10mm orifice size is sufficient provided that
1 bar water pressure is available (when flow rate would be 1.0L/s per sprinkler
head).

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

4.2.4 Hydraulic design

The sprinkler installation can now be designed based on the design flow rate
of water and spacing requirements for the sprinkler heads. The pipework and
pumps must be designed so that the design flow rate will be delivered under
worst case conditions that is at usually to a group of sprinkler heads furthest
(hydraulically) from the pumps. The tanks must be sized so as to provide this
flow rate of water for a minimum period of time (specified in BS 12845,
2000). At the same time, the design must ensure that should a group of
sprinklers (hydraulically) close to the pumps operate, then the resulting flow
rate would not be so high as to drain the tank in a significantly shorter time
period.
BS 12845, 2000 provides for two methods of hydraulic sizing of the system
using a set of standard tables or carrying out a full and detailed sizing
procedure. The later is more time consuming that allows for more flexibility.

4.2.5 Other forms of sprinkler systems

Alternate wet-dry
Where there is a risk of low ambient temperatures, precautions may be
required to prevent water freezing within the distribution pipework. One such
method involves the use of trace heating combined with insulation. Otherwise,
an alternate wet-dry sprinkler system may be used. This involves the draining
down of the water during cold weather and filling the pipework at risk with
pressurised air. Special valves are installed that hold back the water until a
sprinkler head operates and air pressure is lost.
Permanently dry
Where the ambient temperature may at times exceed about 70oC, a
permanently dry system can be used. This operates in the same manner as the
alternate wet-dry system but remains in the dry mode all year-round.
Pre-action
Where the accidental operation of a sprinkler head would result in
unacceptable damage to the building or its contents, a pre-action system may
be preferred. This relies on the operation of a sprinkler head plus the operation
of a second and independent fire detector.

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Drencher
Where fire risk is particularly high, this system uses permanently open
sprinkler heads. Water is held back by a valve that is operated by a remote fire
detector(s). When a fire is detected in the space being served, the valve opens
and water is discharged simultaneously through all the sprinkler heads.
4.3
4.3.1

Other types of fire suppression system

Gaseous systems

These act either by diluting the oxygen level to the fire to a level that will not
support combustion using inert gases or by inhibiting the chemical process of
combustion.
Oxygen accounts for about 20% by volume of air with the remainder
composed mainly of inert gases nearly 80% nitrogen, 0.25% carbon dioxide
and a few trace gases. Inert gases can be used to physically displace oxygen.
Unfortunately, any inert gas used to suppress fire is dangerous to people as it
also displaces the oxygen needed for respiration. Carbon dioxide has been
used for many years but at the concentrations needed to extinguish a fire, it is
deadly to people. Above about 5% concentration, unconsciousness occurs
within seconds followed by asphyxiation. As a result, it is used only in
locations such as electrical transformer cells where only competent personal
are allowed access and other forms of fire suppressant would create problems.
A nitrogen and argon mixture is increasingly used, sometimes in conjunction
with a small amount of carbon dioxide, (less than 5%). The carbon dioxide
provides a warning to people that the atmosphere is un-breathable without
causing unconsciousness allowing occupants time to leave.
In the past, halons were used. These were gases that inhibited the chemical
process of combustion. However, these proved to have a high Ozone
Depleting Potential (ODP) and so, in most countries, are banned. Alternatives,
with lower ODPs are being sought.
It is important to realise that gaseous systems do not remove the heat of
combustion as the thermal capacitance of gases is very low. Therefore, care
needs to be taken to ensure that oxygen is not allowed to re-enter the fire room
before all material in it has cooled down so as to prevent re-ignition.

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4.3.2

Foam systems

Foam systems act by blocking the passage of air to the combustion zone of a
fire and, in some cases, act as wetting agent. There are three principal
categories:
Low expansion foams:
These expand up to 20 times their original volume. They are used for fires
with a horizontal surface such liquid pool fires and act as a blanket, preventing
contact between fuel vapour and air and cooling the surface.
Medium expansion foams:
These expand up to 200 times their original volume. They are suitable for
combustible solids up to 3m high and act by excluding air and by wetting the
surface of combustibles.
High expansion foams:
These expand up to 1000 times their original volume. This is suitable for
situations where it is necessary to fill a space or to submerge an object.
Because of their low water content, they work solely by excluding air from the
fuel.
By their nature, foam systems are specialised and need to be matched to a
known hazard rather than applied for general use. As with gaseous systems
they do not remove the heat of combustion.
4.3.3

Dry Powder systems

Dry powder systems are effective against fires of flammable liquids, including
spray fires. Dry powders are capable of providing rapid extinguishing of the
areas affected, but provide little cooling whilst the powder has settled.
Different powders are used for different applications, and toxicity levels are
generally low, but are nevertheless unsuitable for occupied areas. Typical
areas are fuel loading areas, engine rooms, etc. Post-fire clean up also presents
a disadvantage for this type of suppression system.
4.3.4 Fine water spray systems
Fine water spray systems are another environmentally friendly alternative to
gaseous fire suppression. It is generally accepted that fine water sprays do not
behave in the same manner as gases in that they do not totally diffuse into
shielded areas. In this respect fine water spray systems have to be designed
differently when compared to gaseous systems. Research has shown that fine
water sprays do not conduct electricity in the same way as a solid water
stream, so that they can be considered to be used on live electrical equipment.
But caution should be used to ensure that the water mist does not react
violently with the product being sprayed, as water can react with other
chemicals and metals to exasperate the event.

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PF 4-1
Outline briefly the mechanisms by which suppression systems suppress fires
and, in each case, illustrate by reference to a particular type of system.

Summary of Chapter 4
From this chapter you should have gained an understanding of the basic
characteristics of water sprinklers and their installation. In particular, you
should be aware of the way that premises are categorised in relation to hazard
and type of sprinkler system that would be required in each case. While water
main means suppressing a fire, other media such as inert gas, powder and
foam may be used for specific situations and these have been covered briefly.

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5. Smoke spread in buildings and its control

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should:
1.

be able to identify the criteria for limiting exposure to smoke;

2.

appreciate the main factors which affect smoke movement in buildings;

3.

be aware of the principal methods available for smoke control;

4.

understand the way that a smoke plume develops and be able to use the
equation for a simple plume to calculate mass flow rate and average
plume temperature;

5.

be able to estimate the time taken for smoke to fill a large enclosure to
a given depth;

6.

be able to calculate the required area of natural smoke venting system

for a large enclosure, and

7.

understand the basic principles of pressurisation systems for protecting

escape routes.

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5.1

Criteria for smoke control

In Chapter 1, data was presented showing that the greatest cause of loss of life
in fires within buildings is smoke inhalation. In Chapter 2 we looked at the
characteristics of smoke and its potential effect on occupants. The latter
forms the basis of criteria for control measures. Except under unusual
circumstances, the specific characteristics of smoke in any particular fire are
difficult to predict. Therefore, most smoke control methods are designed to
ensure that smoke is kept clear of any escape route.
In large spaces with ceiling heights above about 4m, this means ensuring that
any smoke layer is kept well above the heads of escaping occupants, with its
lower boundary no lower than 2.5m. In these circumstances there is an
additional criterion the temperature of smoke layer. As noted in 2.5.3, there
is a need to limit exposure to radiant heat from the layer and this imposes a
maximum layer temperature 200 0C. For spaces with lower ceilings, the
movement of smoke into escape routes must be prevented by some form of
barrier. These methods are discussed in more detail below.
5.2
5.2.1

Patterns of smoke movement in buildings

Fire within an enclosure

Figure 5.1

Smoke plume contained within an enclosure

As noted earlier, the hot combustions products form a turbulent plume which
rises vertically, gaining in volume as it entrains surrounding air. Within an
enclosure, the plume rises until it reaches the ceiling and then spreads
laterally. Eventually, the walls of the enclosure restrict the horizontal
movement of smoke and a stably stratified layer forms. As the fire continues
to burn, this layer deepens and the lower boundary descends. Eventually it
reaches the level of the fire and the air for combustion is vitiated by
combustion products. In due course, if the enclosure has no openings, this
leads to oxygen starvation and the extinguishing of the fire.

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5.2.2

Fire in an enclosure with openings to other parts of the building

Figure 5.2

Smoke movement from a fire in an enclosure opening on to

a large space

If the enclosure containing a fire has a large opening in, say, a wall then the
layer of smoke will spill into an adjoining space. This may be a much larger
space, such as an atrium or a shopping mall, in which case the buoyancy of the
hot layer causes it to form a second plume, often called a spill plume. The
spill plume rises and eventually forms a hot layer in the larger space.
5.2.3

Fire in a multi-celled building

Figure 5.3

Possible routes for smoke movement in a multi-celled

building

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Figure 5.3 illustrates schematically some of the possible routes for smoke
movement in a more complex, multi-celled building. Smoke may move
through doors or other openings into stairways or other vertical shafts, rising
and causing these to be smoke-logged. Alternatively, smoke may enter other
enclosures within the building through leakage routes such as openings around
services. The driving force near to the fire will be the buoyancy of the smoke
itself. However, far from the fire, when the smoke has cooled, the smoke will
respond to other mechanisms that cause air movement through the building,
including pressure differences caused by the wind and stack effect, resulting
from the difference between internal and external air temperature. If an airconditioning system is in operation, this can also distribute smoke rapidly to
other parts of the building.
5.3
5.3.1

Methods For Managing Smoke In Buildings

Fill-time Calculation

The simplest approach is for a designer to demonstrate that no special smoke

management provision is required since the rate at which smoke spreads
within a space, for a given design fire, is sufficiently slow for any escape route
to remain unobstructed during the time necessary for escape to occur.
Relatively simple zone models, which will be discussed later, are usually
sufficient for this purpose, although care should be taken if, for instance, the
space is sufficiently large in comparison with the fire for cooling of the hot
smoke by contact with surrounding surfaces.
5.2.2

Smoke Removal

Another approach is to remove hot smoke, establishing, for a steady state fire,
an equilibrium situation which ensures that a buoyant layer of smoke is always

(a) Mechanical
Figure 5.4

(b) Natural

Mechanical and Natural Smoke removal methods

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

sufficiently far above any escape route. This may be achieved either
mechanically (as illustrated in Figure 5.4 (a)), using fans, or naturally (as
illustrated in Figure 5.4 (b)), using the buoyancy of the hot layer of smoke to
drive an outflow through specially provided openings, usually in the roof.
With either approach, adequate areas of low-level opening must be present to
ensure the entry of outside air to balance the mass flow rate of extracted hot
gases.
5.3.3

Smoke dilution

If the smoke from a fire is sufficiently diluted then there may be sufficient
visibility to allow escape, even if occupants are directly exposed. Similarly,
the toxic constituents may be sufficiently reduced in concentration so as not to
affect occupants adversely over the time that they are exposed. However, such
approaches should be treated with caution as the conditions of smoke may be
highly variable depending upon a number of factors, including burning
conditions, and there is consequently a high degree of uncertainty in the
prediction of, for instance, particulate content and carbon monoxide
concentration. Dilution is often used by the fire service (who wear protective
equipment) for clearing smoke either during, or more commonly after, fighting
a fire.
5.3.4

Barriers

Physical barriers
Physical barriers may be used to prevent the spread of smoke. These may
range from simple smoke-stopping procedures and lobbies to more
sophisticated devices such as smoke curtains. The latter may be installed in a
large space and, in the event of a fire, lowered to contain the smoke within a
limited volume rather than allowing it to spread. This enables the more
effective and rapid operation of smoke removal systems mentioned in 5.3.2
above.
Pressure differential
The flow of hot smoke through out of one space to another may be inhibited
by a applying a pressure differential across the opening to counteract the
buoyancy forces generated by the hot layer. Such methods are particular
appropriate to tall buildings with many floors and are designed to isolate and
retain smoke within the compartment containing the fire and maintain routes
clear for the escape of occupants or for access by fire-fighters.
5.3 5

Control of Fire Growth

Since the volume of smoke produced is a function of fire size, any methods of
restricting fire growth will reduce the volume of smoke produced. Thus, for
completeness, sprinklers and similar systems, should be included in methods
of smoke control. Other approaches, such as those described above, often
assume that the fire growth is restricted by the operation of a sprinkler system.

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PF 5-1
Outline the possible methods for managing smoke from a fire within a
building. Which would be appropriate to (a) an atrium; (b) a 7-storey office
building and (c) clearing smoke from a basement by fire brigade after a fire?

5.4

5.4.1

Design of systems for controlling smoke in large

enclosures

Introduction

The principal design aim is to ensure that the smoke layer, formed in the
enclosure in the event of a fire, does not inhibit the escape of occupants from
the enclosure or from adjoining spaces. Either of the approaches in 5.3.1 or
5.3.2 may be used. Whichever approach is used, it is necessary at first to
consider the flow characteristics of the smoke plume from the fire. This can,
then be used in conjunction with a choice of design fire (see 2.8) and the
chosen criteria for smoke control (see 5.1) to determine the design parameters
for the chosen solution. Here, we will consider only the smoke removal
approach.
5.4.2

The fire plume

In Chapter 2 we discussed the basic characteristics of a building fire and the

way that it may develop. As a result of combustion a complex mixture of air
and fire products is produced. Because this is much hotter than the
surrounding air it rises due to buoyancy forming a thermal plume above the
fire, as shown in Figure 5.5

Figure 5.5

Principal regions of flow in a simple thermal plume

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This plume is turbulent and the large eddy structure of the flow draws in air
from the surroundings. This results in an increase in the volume (and,
therefore the mass) of the plume and the dilution of the concentration of fire
products and reduction in smoke temperature. This process is known as
entrainment and is a key feature in understanding the movement and control of
smoke. Even for a simple, axisymmetric plume the flow is quite complex and
may be considered as consisting of three principal regions (i) the flame
region where the flow is dominated by the geometry of the fire and the
burning characteristics of the fuel; (ii) the established flow region where the
flow has lost its memory of the originating fire and is determined solely by
the heat input from the fire and the distance above the fire and (iii) a transition
region between the Equations have been developed (see CIBSE Guide E
2010) to describe the flow in regions (i) and (ii). For present purposes we
shall only consider the equations related to region (ii). Here, the variation of
mass flow with height is given by the following equation :

5/3
M = K.Q1/3
p .z

where M

(equation 5.1)

mass of smoke produced (kg/s)

Qp

convective heat output from the fire (kW)

height above base of fire (m)

0.071

Equation 5.1 applies to fires that are not adjacent walls. Adjacent walls will
inhibit entrainment and so reduce the amount of smoke produced. For a fire
adjacent a wall entrainment is roughly halved and K takes the value 0.44 in
equation 5.1. For a fire in a corner of a room, entrainment is roughly halved
again and K takes the value of 0.28.
The average temperature of the plume ,T, may be obtained from an energy
balance. Assuming that no heat is transferred from the plume by radiation:
MC p (T To ) Q p

(equation 5.2a)

Where T

mean temperature of the plume (K)

To

temperature of the surrounding air (K)

Cp

specific heat of air at constant pressure (kJ/kg.K)

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Combining with equation 5.1, the mean temperature of the plume at any
height, z, can be found:

Q p2 / 3
C p .K .z 5 / 3

(equation 5.2b)

To

The specific heat of smoke, which is predominantly air, is approximately

equal to 1.0 KJ/kgK.
In order to give some idea of the magnitude of the flow in fire plumes, Tables
5.1 (a), (b) & (c) give the mass flow rate (in kg/s); the volume flow rate (in
m3/s) and the average temperature above ambient (in K).
The following may be noted:
Magnitude of plume flows
The size in mass or volume flow in terms of the smoke plume is large in
comparison with the flow rates generally used for air conditioning or
ventilation purposes. We will return to this later when discussing methods of
smoke control. However, it should be noted that a fast-growing, uncontrolled
fire will very rapidly produce a sufficient flow rate of smoke to overwhelm
any smoke control system within the space of origin. For this reason, systems
designed to control smoke within large single undivided spaces are usually
used in conjunction with some form of fire suppression system, usually a
sprinkler system.

Effect of dilution on temperature

For all fires, the dilution by entrainment results in a rapid fall in average
temperature of the plume above ambient with distance away from the fire. As
a consequence, buoyancy is also reduced and the plume becomes much more
susceptible to other forces, such as those produced by air motion within the
space in the absence of the fire. This is important for two particular reasons.
At the early stage of fire development within a space, the heat input is low and
the movement of fire products will depend upon the existing flow patterns,
including those generated by the air-conditioning system. This needs to be
considered when placing smoke detectors. Secondly, in some large spaces,
such as atria, there may be some stratification due, for instance to solar gain at
roof level. In such cases, the temperature in the stratified layer can exceed the
ambient by 10K or more. The excess temperature of the plume could well be
of the same magnitude and instead of proceeding higher the plume will tend to
spread laterally at the interface with the stratified layer

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Heat release rate - Qp

Height above plume origin z (m)

(kW)

10

15

20

500

5.7

11.2

18.0

26.2

51.4

83.0

1000

7.2

14.1

22.7

33.0

64.8

104.6

2000

9.0

17.7

28.6

41.5

81.6

131.8

5000

12.2

24.1

38.9

56.4

110.8

178.9

(a)

Mass flow rate in the thermal plume (kg/s)

Heat release rate - Qp

Height above plume origin z (m)

(kW)

10

15

20

500

73.4

37.3

23.1

15.9

8.1

5.0

1000

116.4

59.2

36.7

25.3

12.9

8.0

2000

184.8

94.0

58.2

40.1

20.4

12.6

5000

340.5

173.2

107.2

73.9

37.6

23.3

(b)

Average temperature rise above ambient in the thermal plume (K)

Heat release rate - Qp

Height above plume origin z (m)

(kW)

10

15

20

500

5.9

10.50

16.2

23.0

44.0

70.4

1000

8.4

14.1

21.3

29.9

56.4

89.6

2000

12.3

19.6

28.6

39.4

72.8

114.6

5000

22.2

32.0

44.4

58.9

10.3

161.1

(c)

Volume flow rate in the thermal plume (m3/s)

Table 5.1

Variation of flow rate and temperature in plume with

height above origin and convective heat released by the fire

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An alternative equation which is widely used and which can be used for large
area fires (ie those whose typical lateral dimension is large compared with z)
is as follows:
M = 0.188 P. z3/2

(equation 5.3)

Where:
P

the perimeter of the fire source (m)

As

the plan area of the source (m2)

This equation applies only for z < 2.5P and 200 < Qp/As < 750.

PF 5-2
What has the bigger effect on the mass flow in a smoke plume (a) increasing
the height above the fire by a factor of 2 or (b) increasing the convective heat
release rate by a factor of 5? Which has the bigger effect on average
temperature in the plume?

5.4.3

Fill time calculation

Either of the equations for the axisymmetric fire plume can be used to
determine the development of the hot smoke layer in an enclosed space
without any system for smoke removal. Consider the arrangement in Figure
5.6. This simplifies the flow regime by considering three zones:
Zone 1 - The fire plume
This zone consists of the fire plume defined by one of the equations given
above.
Zone 2 - The hot smoke layer
This zone consists of the smoke layer formed and for present purposes it is
considered to be at a constant temperature and any flow within the zone and
heat transfer to surrounding surfaces is ignored.
Zone 3 - Ambient air
This zone consists of the remaining air within the enclosure which is assumed
to be at constant, ambient temperature.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Figure 5.6

Simple zone model of a plume within an enclosed space

By noting that the mass flow entering zone 1 from zone 2 equals the mass
flow given by the simple plume equation for the value of z corresponding to
the position of the lower boundary of the stratified hot layer, together with the
assumption that there is no heat loss from the layer, the following differential
equation can be derived:

0 .A

Qp
dz
M
0
dt
T0 c p

(equation 5.4)

In combination with either of the equations for the mass flow, M, in the
axisymmetric plume, given above, the height of the lower boundary of the hot
layer and its temperature can be calculated. Taken together with the criteria
set out in 5.1, the time from the start of the fire to untenable conditions can be
calculated.

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5.4.4

Smoke Removal

Figures 5.7 shows schematically a smoke extract system. Whether the extract
is achieved naturally or mechanically, the mass flow rate, me, of hot gases
extracted from the smoke layer, zone 2, must balance the mass flow, mp, of
combustion products entering from the plume, zone 1. Further, neglecting the
mass rate of consumption of fuel which is relatively small, the extract mass
flow must be balanced by an equal mass flow rate, mo, of air entering the zone
3 from outside.

Zone 2

me
Zone 1

mo

Figure 5.7

Zone 3

Schematic diagram of smoke extract system

PF 5-3
Consider a large, undivided space with a horizontal roof 10m above floor
level. Given a steady-state design fire of 5 MW, at floor level, determine the
smoke extract mass flow rate required to ensure that the base of the smoke
layer remains above 5 metres from the floor.

Using an appropriately chosen design fire and the criteria from 5.1 for the
smoke layer temperature and depth, the required mass flow to be extracted by
the mechanical system from the smoke layer can be determined. Because the
temperature of the extract flow will be much higher than normal temperatures,
special smoke extract fans will be required, rather than those normally
employed for HVAC purposes. It is important to ensure that adequate air
inlets are provided to the space, below the potential level of the hot gas layer.
The resistance of these will contribute to the pressure difference against which
the fan will have to work and, hence, will affect the fan specification.

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Design of natural venting systems is more difficult, since the force driving the
hot gases through the roof vent arises from the buoyancy of the hot layer itself.
Equation (5.5) below gives the mass flow through a roof vent, in terms of the
areas and characteristics of both the roof vent and the inlet openings, and the
temperature and depth of the hot layer. The derivation of this equation is
given in Appendix 2. Using this equation in conjunction with the thermal
plume mass flow equation enables the required area of vent to be calculated
for a given design fire.

1/2

2g. d b . c .T 0

M = Av .C v . 0 . 2
2

+
(A
.
/
.
.
.
)
T0 Tc
v C v Ai C i
Tc

(equation 5.5)

Where, Av

the throat area of smoke vent being considered (m2)

Cv

discharge coefficient (typically 0.5 to 0.7)

Ai

the total area of all inlet openings (m2)

Ci

discharge coefficient for inlet openings (typically 0.6)

db

depth of smoke layer beneath ventilator (m)

Tc

temperature of the smoke layer (K)

vertical distance between level of inlet openings smoke

vents (m)

PF 5-4
In the example given in PF 5-3, assuming that no cooling of the smoke layer
takes place, determine the temperature of the smoke layer. What area of roof
vent opening would be required to achieve the rate of extract determined in
PF5-3, assuming an equal available area for make-up air?
Assume the following values: Ambient air temperature - 288K; density of air
at ambient temperature - 1.22 kg m-3; specific heat of air and smoke - 1.0 kJ
kg-1 K-1 and discharge coefficient 0.6

PF5-5
In the example given in PF5-3/PF5-4, can you suggest any advantages or
disadvantages of using a mechanical extract system instead of a natural vent
system?

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Two other factors that need to be considered in designing and specifying
smoke removal systems are reservoir size and plug-holing:
Reservoir size
In spaces with a large floor area, the hot layer takes some time to develop and,
more particularly, will tend to cool, with the increased possibility of mixing
with the clear space below the layer. It is, therefore, usual practice to limit the
size of the area to be served by a smoke removal system (the reservoir) to
about 2000-3000 m2.
Plug-holing
When a smoke layer is relatively shallow, it is possible for the smoke removal
system to extract cool air with the hot gases, reducing its efficiency. By
analogy with the entrainment of air by water leaving a bath this is known as
plug-holing. Restricting the extraction mass flow through the extract point
and having multiple extract points, if necessary, can prevent this. The limiting
mass flow rate is given by

M g.d b5 .Tc T0 .T0

5.4.5

0.5

T0

(equation 5.6)

Other fire sources

The preceding discussion was based upon the mass flow and entrainment into
a simple axisymmetric plume. However, other formulae for entrainment apply
for situations where this assumption does not apply. These include:
(a)

A plume from a fire close to a wall or in a corner;

(b)
A plume which is subject to local transverse air flow, such as flow
through a doorway into an enclosure;
(c)

A plume from a line or rectangular fire source;

(d)
A spill plume resulting from smoke flow out of a smaller enclosure
into a larger enclosure.
Equations have been developed for many of these cases, (see CIBSE Guide E,
2010, Chapter 6), although in some cases these are still subject to further
research and development.

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5.5
5.5.1

Pressurisation methods

Staircase pressurisation

The methods discussed in 5.3 are appropriate for large enclosures with
relatively large floor to ceiling heights. Most buildings consist of multiple
floors, divided into rooms linked by corridors, with floors linked vertically by
staircases and other vertical shafts. Often the building is served by one or
more air-conditioning systems, usually placed situated in the basement, at roof
level or on a services floor. Figure 5.8 shows a simple schematic of such a
building. If a fire occurs on one of the floors, one way of preventing leakage
through openings from the floor to the staircase, which forms the principal
means of escape for occupants, is to apply a pressure difference across the
surface dividing the floor enclosure from the staircase. This is usually
achieved by using a dedicated fan to introduce air into the staircase in the
event of a fire.
In designing a pressurisation system a balance has to be struck between
providing a sufficient pressure difference to prevent the egress of smoke onto
the staircase but not so great as to prevent doors being opened. Usually a
pressure difference of the order of 50Pa is chosen. It is important, also to
recognise that if a sufficient pressure difference is applied across the openings
to the staircase, there will be a flow into the fire enclosure which must be
balance by an equal mass outflow, preferably to outside air. This is usually
ensured by linking automatic vents in the outer wall of the enclosure to the
detection system which causes the pressurisation fan to operate.
Another important consideration is the effect of opening doors onto the
staircase, either to allow escape from other floors or to allow egress to the
outsider of the building. The pressurisation system must be designed to
operate satisfactorily under these conditions without providing excess pressure
difference when the doors are closed. There are a number of methods of
dealing with this problem
Pressurisation

Fire floor

Fire floor

Figure 5.8

Schematic representation of staircase pressurisation system

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

(i) Automatic opening of external door
With this system when the pressurisation fan is operated an external door to
the staircase opens. This, combined with the choice of a pressurisation fan
with appropriate characteristics, reduces the potential changes in changes in
pressure. It has the advantage of simplicity and low costs.
(ii) Constant supply variable barometric damper
This system includes an external vent which is controlled by a barometric
damper which operates to compensate for the opening of doors onto the
staircase and to outside.
(iii) Variable supply rate
In this system the air supplied is varied to maintain a constant pressure
difference in the staircase using either a variable flow fan or a bypass system
with variable dampers. In either case, the system is controlled by a pressure
sensor in the staircase. If the pressure drops the fan speed or damper position,
respectively, is changed to increase the flow rate and maintain the pressure at a
preset level. Systems of this type are relatively more expensive than the other
systems discussed above.

In all cases it is essential that there are adequately sized openings in the
external envelope to allow the air used for pressurising the staircase and the
smoke to escape to atmosphere. If not, the required pressure difference
between staircase and fire floor will not be achieved.

5.4.2

Zone pressurisation

Another approach, which can be used either alone or in conjunction with

staircase pressurisation, is to use an existing mechanical ventilation system to
reduce the pressure in the fire floor and increase it on adjacent floors. This
prevents smoke leaking through any adventitious paths through the common
building elements.
Figure 5.9(a) shows a simplified schematic of a mechanical ventilation system
with common supply and return serving each floor of a building. Under
normal conditions air is supplied and extracted by central plant, with a
proportion of the air being recirculated. In the event of a fire being detected
on a particular floor, a damper is closed in the supply duct to the floor and the
return air damper is fully opened, as shown in Figure 5.9(b). In other floors
the return duct is closed and the supply dampers are fully opened.
Simultaneously the return damper in the main plant room is closed to ensure
that all of the smoke extracted from the fire zone id exhausted to outside air.
The dampers incorporated in systems of this type must be resistant to smoke
leakage, as well as being fire-resistant.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Services
floor

Return
Duct

Supply
Duct

Fire floor

Figure 5.9(a) Normal operation

Services
floor

Return
Duct

Supply
Duct

Figure 5.9(b) Operation in event of a fire

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

PF5-6
It has been suggested that the cost of a system such as that shown in Figure 5.9
could be reduced if smoke dampers were only provided at the supply duct. In
the event of a fire only the supply duct damper on the fire floor is closed. All
other supply and return dampers remain open. Do you think that this is a good
idea? If not, why not?

Summary of Chapter 5
Smoke is a general term that can be used to describe the hot airborne
combustion products from a fire. The way that smoke moves within is
determined by the location of the fire in relation to surrounding enclosures, its
buoyancy and the availability of openings in those enclosures. Vertical
movement of smoke is turbulent and surrounding air is entrained, increasing
the volume of the smoke and reducing its temperature. At locations away
from the fire, the smoke may be sufficiently cooled for its movement to be
determined principally by the general air movement within the building.
Possible methods of controlling smoke depend upon the nature of the building
and location of the fire. In large spaces, the availability of adequate time
before the smoke layer reaches a sufficiently low level to hinder escape is one
approach. More common is the installation of either active or passive extract
ventilation from the smoke layer, together with sufficient low level openings
to allow a balancing flow of air to enter the space. A method of calculating
the required area of opening for natural smoke venting using the equations for
entrainment of air into an axisymmetric plume has been demonstrated.
Similar approaches can be used for more complex plumes from other types of
fire source. For tall buildings, the methods of smoke control include the use
of barriers and the application of a pressure difference across boundaries
between an enclosure containing a fire and an escape route. A method of
using the installed HVAC system to achieve this has been described. This
chapter can only provide an introduction to a complicated design problem and,
if you wish to follow it up, you will find more information the reading list in
Appendix 1.

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6. Fire spread

Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should:
1.

be aware of the main mechanisms and routes for fire spread and
understand the principles of compartmentation;

2.

understand fire resistance and the way that it is measured;

3.

be aware of the methods for relating the severity of real fires to

exposure in a standard furnace test.

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6.1

Methods of fire spread

In Chapter 2 we discussed the development of a fire within a single enclosure.

From the very early days of fire legislation, one key aim of fire protection has
been to limit the spread of fire by containment as close as possible to the point
of origin, in order:
(a)

to limit damage and losses to property to as small an area as possible,

and

(b)

to protect escape routes, in order to allow the evacuation of occupants

from other parts of the building.

Figures 6.1 (a) & (b) illustrate schematically a range of routes by which fire
can spread from one enclosure to another. The main factors that determine the
spread of fire from one enclosure to another are:
(a)

the fire severity within the enclosure, determined by the temperature

and pressure generated by the fire and the length of burning period.

(b)

the ability of the elements forming the boundaries of the enclosure to

withstand the fire of a particular severity.
6.2

Compartmentation

Once flashover has occurred fire spread can be restricted by containing the fire
within the enclosure or room of origin. It is usual to define a larger volume,
usually consisting of several enclosures and to set standards for the
construction of the boundaries of this volume, termed a compartment, to resist
the spread of fire. The maximum size of a compartment is usually stipulated
in relation to the type of building and its use. Compartmentation is achieved
by ensuring the following:
(a)

that all enclosing surfaces have an appropriate standard of fire

resistance;

(b)

that all junction between constructional elements (i.e. wall, floors,

ceilings) are effectively sealed;

(c)

that all openings, including (penetrations for services, wiring etc.) are
fire-stopped;

(d)

that ducts (e.g. HVAC) are both fitted with fire-resisting dampers and
are fire-resisting, and

(e)

that openings (such as doors, hatchways etc.) are fitted with fireresisting shutters.

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Through wall or openings

created in wall
Through floor

Spread Mechanism: Conduction, convection

Direct Pyrolysis (collapse)

Spread Mechanism: Conduction, Convection

Direct Pyrolysis (collapse)

Along or through
Horizontal Duct

Through fixed opening

Spread Mechanism: Convection, Radiation

Direct Pyrolysis
Mass Transfer

Spread Mechanism: Conduction, convection

Within roof

Along or through Vertical Duct

Spread Mechanism: Conduction, convection

Figure 6.1(a) Possible routes for fire spread

6-3

Spread Mechanism: Direct pyrolysis

MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Above ceiling

Void

Void

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to ceiling void
2. Void to adjacent enclosure

Below floor

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to floor void
2. Void to adjacent enclosure

Over external roof

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to outside
2. Outside to adjacent
enclosure

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to roof
2. Roof to adjacent enclosure

Via windows

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to facade
2. Facade to adjacent
enclosure
Within facade or building envelope

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to facade
2. Facade to adjacent
enclosure
Surface of facade

Spread Route:
1. Enclosure to roof
outside
2. Roof flames
through external
envelope,
eg window

Flying Brands

Exposed
Building

Exposed
Building
Radiation

Spread Route: Radiation/Mass transfer/direct pyrolysis

Figure 6.1(b) Possible routes for fire spread

6-4

Via external route

MSc Building Services Fire Safety

6.3

Measurement of fire resistance

Fire resistance is formally defined as a measure of performance of

construction elements or assemblies as determined by heating in a furnace in
accordance with BS476:Parts 20-22: 1987. Typically furnaces test wall
assemblies as 3m by 3m specimens and floor assemblies as 3m by 4m
specimens. Furnaces are gas or oil-fired and are fitted with controls to enable
the temperature in the furnace to follow a preset curve. There is a facility for
applying a pressure difference across the specimen. The furnace test involves
exposing the specimen to a standard temperature-time curve shown in Figure
6.2. The fire resistance is given in terms of the time from the start of the test
to the occurrence of failure. The test recognises three types of failure:
Loadbearing capacity:
The ability of an element to maintain its design load under test conditions.
Integrity:
The ability of a separating element to remain free of openings (cracks, holes
etc.) through which flame or combustion products can pass.
Insulation:
The ability of a separating element to resist transfer of heat, to ensure that the
temperature of the unexposed face of the element is below that which could
ignite combustible material in contact with or adjacent to it.

1400

Temperature (deg C)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

Time (minutes)

Figure 6.2

Standard furnace temperature/time curve used for

determining the fire resistance of building elements

6-5

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Regulations and codes generally set out performance requirements in terms of
an acceptable period of fire resistance in respect of each of the above types of
failure. The construction of the element is approved if it can be shown to
exceed the required period in a fire resistance test without failure.

6.4 Fire-stopping of service penetrations

Of particular interest to building services engineers, are the requirements for
ventilation ducts, pipework and cables etc where these pass through the
boundaries of a fire compartment. These are set out in BS999, 2008. The
basic principle is that the fire rating of a compartment wall should not be
compromised by service penetrations. Testing of such materials and methods
used should be carried out in accordance with BS EN 1366:3, 2009.
Illustrations of common methods for achieving fire resistance of service
penetrations may be found from manufacturers links in some of the websites
included in Appendix 1.

PF6-1
Explain what is meant by fire resistance and how it is measured.

6.5

Fire severity

It is important to note that the performance of an element in a fire test is not

necessarily directly related to its performance in a real fire (i.e a wall
construction rated as one-hour may retain its integrity for a longer or shorter
period in a real fire). This is because the temperature-time curve, shown in
Figure 6.2, infers a fire severity that is not often found in practice. Fire
severity in real applications depends upon the dimensions and thermal
properties of the walls, floor and ceiling of the compartment, the ventilation of
the compartment and the fire load. If these factors are known then theoretical
methods have been derived to predict the expected actual temperature-time
variation in a real fire. For present purposes, we will limit consideration to
predicting the maximum temperature likely to be achieved, using the equation
given below:

1 exp( 0.10 )
Tmax T0 6000.
.1 exp( 0.003 ) (equation 6.1)
0.5

where,

At
Aw .hw0.5

q. A f

Aw . AT 0.5

AT At AW

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Tmax
T0
At
Aw
Af
hw
q

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Maximum expected enclosure temperature (K)

Ambient temperature (K)
Total area of enclosure surfaces (m2)
Area of ventilation opening (m2)
Area of enclosure floor (m2)
Height of ventilation opening (m)
Fire load density (MJ/m2)

Also, a measure of the expected fire severity can be obtained from the
following equation for the equivalent fire resistance period, also known as
the time-equivalent. This gives fire severity as an estimate of the period of
exposure (in minutes) in the standard furnace test.

t c c.wv .q

(equation 6.2)

where,

wv

Af

A .A .h

0.5 0.5

and c is a constant related to the thermal properties of the surfaces of the

enclosure. For typical building surfaces (e.g. masonry, gypsum plaster), c
takes the value 0.07. For surfaces with a high level of insulation, a higher
value of 0.09 should be used. Table 6.1 gives value for fire load density, q
(MJ/m2).
Fire load density (MJ/m2)
Building use
Average

80% fractile

90% fractile

Dwellings

780

870

920

Offices

420

570

670

Shops

600

900

1100

Hotel bedroom

310

400

460

Hospitals

230

350

440

Libraries

1500

2250

2550

Schools

285

360

410

Table 6.1

Typical values of fire load density for different building uses

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

PF6-2
A room has the dimensions, height 3m, breadth 3m and depth 4m. It has an
open doorway, of height 2m and width 2m. It is constructed from standard
materials (gypsum plaster on masonry etc.) and has a fire load of 400 MJ/m2.
Using a spreadsheet, calculate the maximum temperature in a fire and the
severity of the fire in terms of time-equivalent. Investigate the effect on
maximum temperature and time-equivalent of increasing the door width to 3m
and 4m and of increasing the fire load to 800 MJ/m3.

Summary of Chapter 6
In this chapter we have considered the ways that fire can spread from one
enclosure to another within a building and way that this can be prevented. The
concept of fire resistance and its measurement by a furnace test have been
introduced. Simple formulae have been given to enable the relative severity of
fires and maximum temperatures reached within fire enclosures to be
estimated from the enclosure dimensions, fire load and enclosure ventilation.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

7. Concluding remarks

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Fire safety is a very substantial area of engineering expertise in its own right
and in this short course it has only been possible to give a very limited
overview. The aim has been to introduce you to the topic and to identify areas
where fire safety interacts with building services. If you wish to follow up any
topics in more depth, then the material listed in Appendix 1 should be helpful.
In particular the NIST Building and Fire Research Laboratory website allows
you to download software covering a range of fire-related calculations,
including, for instance solutions to smoke control design problems, touched on
in Chapter 5 of the course. Most British and European standards are available
via the Brunel electronic library. UK Government websites allow you to
download the detailed Building Regulations Approved Document B on Fire
Safety. The CIBSE Guide E 2010: Fire Engineering provides a detailed and
comprehensive guide to fire safety engineering as does the British Standard on
fire safety engineering, BS 7974, 2001, and its associated documents. The
latter also provides a checklist that will help in the early stages of formulating
a fire safety design strategy for a building. This is reproduced as Table 7.1.

Although an engineering approach to fire safety is increasingly feasible, it is

likely to be an area largely governed by prescriptive approaches for some time
to come in most countries. You will need to be sufficiently familiar with the
specific national and local regulations and standards which apply in the
countries in which you will be working.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Fire protection system

Examples of information to be considered

Automatic suppression

Extinguishing medium
Design Standards

Detection

Detector types
Locations
Zoning
Response characteristics
Fire resistance
Location
Boundaries
Fire-stopping
Dampers
Shutters
Auto-door-hold devices
Fans
Vents
System type (extract/pressurisation)

Sub-divisions

Automatic system

Smoke control
Alarm and warning systems

Evacuation strategy
Means of escape

First aid fire fighting

Fire service facilities

Fire safety management

Table 7.1

Sounder/public address
Zoning
Investigation delay period
Phased, simultaneous; staged or progressive.
Management procedures
Escape routes
Exit widths
Travel distances
Stairways
Occupant capacity
Protected lifts
Refuges for disabled persons
Extinguishers/hose reels
Availability of trained staff
Access routes
Rising mains
Fire-fighting shafts
Smoke extraction
Management plan
Staff availability
Staff training
Audit of procedures
Maintenance schedules

Checklist of items to be considered at the early stage of the

fire safety design of a building (BS 7974, 2001)

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APPENDIX 1: Useful sources of information

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

(i) Publications
CIBSE Guide E Fire Engineering
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 2010.
SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th Edition, 2008.
Society of Fire Protection Engineers. Boston, MA, USA.
Aspects of fire precautions in buildings, Read, R E H and Morris, W A .
BRE Report BR225, 1993
Principles of Smoke Management, Klote J H & Milke J A.
ASHRAE 2002.
Standard for Smoke Management in Malls, Atria, Large Spaces, NFPA92B
National Fire Protection Association, 2009
Standard for Smoke Control Systems, NFPA 92A
US National Fire Protection Association, 2009
Design Methodologies for Smoke and Heat Exhaust Ventilation,
BRE Report BR368, Morgan H P, Ghosh B K, Garrad G, Pamlitschka R, De
Smedt J-C & Schoonbaert L R
BRE 1999.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

(ii)

Web sites

http://fire.gov - US site run jointly by NIST/BFRL and US Fire

Administration
http://www.usfa.fema.gov - FEMA/USFA Learning Resources Centre
http://www.fire.org.uk general information on fire safety
www.planningportal.gov.uk/buildingregulations - access to approved documents
www.thefpa.co.uk - UK fire protection association

http://www.nfpa.org/ - US National Fire Protection Association

www.iafss.org - International Association for Fire Safety Science
www.sfpe.org - Society of Fire Protection Engineers
http://www.nist.gov/building-and-fire-research-portal.cfm - Building and Fire
Research Laboratory, National Institute for Standards and Technology, USA
http://www.bre.co.uk/page.jsp?id=1725 - BRE, Fire Research and Loss
Pevention Council, UK

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APPENDIX 2: Derivation of equations for natural smoke

removal

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These notes set out the principal steps in calculating the flow through a roof
smoke vent generated by the layer of hot gases beneath the roof. This
equation is given in the section 5.4 of Chapter 5.
1/2

2g. d b . c .T 0

M = Av .C v . 0 . 2
2

+
(A
.
/
.
.
.
)
C
C
T
A
T
T
c
i
0
c
v
i
v

Where;
Av

the throat area of smoke vent being considered (m2)

Cv

discharge coefficient (typically 0.5 to 0.7)

Ai

the total area of all inlet openings (m2)

Ci

discharge coefficient for inlet openings (typically 0.6)

db

depth of smoke layer beneath ventilator (m)

Tc

temperature of the smoke layer (K)

vertical distance between level of inlet openings smoke)

vents (m)

pw

pressure difference between ventilators and inlet

opening (Pa)

These notes also consider the additional situation in which the wind creates a
pressure difference between the vents and lower inlet openings (note: this
pressure difference is taken as positive if the pressure at the smoke vent is
higher than that at the lower openings).

(a)

Mass flow through inlet opening

The pressure difference across the inlet opening is Pi , given by

pi

pio - pie

where
pio

is the pressure outside of the enclosure at the height of the opening and

pie

is the pressure at the same height within the enclosure.

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

The mass flow through the inlet opening is given by the standard equation for
flow through an opening
0.5

2 pi

M i = 0 . Av .C v .

0
:
(b)

Mass flow through smoke vent

The pressure difference across the smoke vent is given by

pv

pvo

is the pressure outside of the enclosure at the height of the vent and

pve

is the pressure at the same height within the enclosure.

pve - pvo

The mass flow through the smoke vent is given by the standard equation for
flow through an opening:
0.5

2pv

M v = c .C v . Av

c
(c)

Mass balance

The mass flow of air entering at the low level opening plus the rate of mass of
fuel consumed equals the mass flow of gases leaving at the smoke vent. The
rate of mass of fuel consumed is relatively small and for practical purposes,
Mi
(d)

= Mv

= M

Pressure balance

Under equilibrium conditions, the pressures acting to drive the flow through
the enclosure may be related as follows:
pie

pve + c.g.H + o.g.( H - db )

pio

pvo + o.g.H - pw

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

Subtracting the equation for pio from that for pie and rearranging, yields
pi + pv

.g.H - pw

where,

- c

(e)

Derivation of equation for mass flow through the smoke vent

It is now possible to eliminate the pressure differences across the openings,

using the mass flow equations for each opening, as follows;

1
2
= .g. d b - p w
M .
2
2
2
.
.

C
A
i
i
o

Assuming that the smoke has the same thermodynamic properties as air and
that both may be regarded as perfect gases, then we can eliminate and c
by writing these in terms of temperature, as follows:

o ( 1 - To/Tc)

o ( To/Tc)

Substitution into the equation above and rearrangement yields:

1/2

2g. d . .T -2 T c .T o . p w

M = Av .C v . 0 . 2 b c 0
2

T c + ( Av .C v / Ai .C i ) .T 0 .T c
Note that, in the absence of wind effects, this simplifies to
1/2

2g. d b . c .T 0

M = Av .C v . 0 . 2
2

T c + (Av .C v / Ai .C i ) .T 0 .T c

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MSc Building Services Fire Safety

(f)

Simplification when Ai >> Av

Further simplification is possible, if the lower level openings may be assumed

to be much greater than those of the vent i.e Ai >> Av
(i)

With wind effect:

1/2

2g. o d b . c .T 0-2 T c .T o . p w

M = Av .C v . 0 .

o.T c2

(ii)

Without wind effect

1/2

2g. d b . c .T 0
M = Av .C v . 0 .

2
Tc

(g)

Change in required area due to wind effect

For the simple case given in (i) and (ii) above we may readily compare the
areas required when and the effect of wind needs to be taken into account and
where not.
If the values of db and, in consequence, M, are to remain the same then the
ratio of the area with wind ( Av[wind] ) to that with no wind ( Av[no wind] ) is
given by:
1/2

g. o. d b . c
Av [wind]

Av [no wind] g. o. d b . c - T c.p w

As expected, if the wind pressure at the smoke vent increases, relative to that
at the lower openings, a larger area of smoke vent is required to keep the depth
of the layer of gases at a prescribed level.
Note that this can be rearranged as follows;
1/2

Av [wind] .g. d b .

[no
wind]

.g.

p
d
A
b
v

w

Note that, in this simple case, the net pressure difference with wind is that due
to the buoyancy of the hot gas layer reduced by the pressure difference due to
the wind.

A2-5