TPG 4140 Natural Gas 2011

LNG Fundamental Principles

Jostein Pettersen

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2010-09-26

Outline
Why LNG?
What is LNG ?
Applications of LNG
LNG trade and LNG chain
Gas pre-treatment
Gas liquefaction
LNG storage and loading
LNG transport
LNG receiving terminals

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2010-09-26

Why produce LNG?

LNG is mainly produced for transportation purposes
In situations where the gas market is far from the source of the natural gas it
is more economical to transport the gas as LNG instead of in a natural gas
pipeline.
LNG also offers greater flexibility than pipeline gas

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2010-09-26

What is LNG ?

LNG = Liquefied Natural Gas

LNG is a cryogenic liquid

A cryogenic liquid is the liquid form of any element or compound
that liquefies at a temperature below 73 C (-100 F) at atmospheric
pressure. Common cryogenic liquids are: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Helium,
Hydrogen and LNG
LNG is natural gas that has been cooled and condensed
to a liquid
At atmospheric pressure LNG has a temperature of about
162 C or -260 F
LNG contains about 85-95 % methane
LNG is colorless, odorless, non-corrosive and non-toxic
Evaporated LNG can displace oxygen and cause human
suffocation
Flammability range, 5-15 vol % concentration in air
Autoignition temperature, 540C
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LNG Density
1 m3 LNG corresponds
to 600 Sm3 natural gas
S = Standard state, 15C, 1 atm

At temperatures above -110 C

LNG vapour is lighter than air
LNG is lighter than water
LNG Density: 450 kg/m3
Water density: 1000 kg/m3

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Main components in LNG

Component

Formula

MW (kg/kmol)

NBP (C) NFP (C)

Nitrogen

N2

28.013

- 195.5

- 209.9

Methane

CH4

16.043

- 161.6

-182.5

Ethane

C2H6

30.07

-88.6

-183.3

Propane

C3H8

44.097

-42.0

-187.7

nButane

nC4H10

58.124

-0.5

-138.4

iButane

iC4H10

58.124

-11.8

-159.6

nPentane

C5H12

72.151

36.06

-129.8

MW=Molecular weight
NBP=Normal Boiling Point
NFP= Normal Freezing Point

One mol is defined as 6.0221023 atoms/molecules of a substance

The volume of one mol is 23.644 liters at standard conditions (15C, 1 atm.)

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Types of LNG plants

Base-load plants
Large plants which are directly based on a specific gas field development and are the main
plants for handling the gas. A base-load plant has typically a production capacity of above 3
Mtpa (million tons per annum) of LNG. The main world-wide LNG production capacity come
from this type of plants

Peak-shaving plants
Smaller plants that are connected to a gas network. During the period of the year when gas
demand is low, natural gas is liquefied and LNG is stored. LNG is vaporized during short
periods when gas demand is high. These plants have a relatively small liquefaction capacity
(as 200 tons/day) and large storage and vaporization capacity (as 6000 tons/day). Especially
in the US many such plants exist

Small-scale plants
Small-scale plants are plants that are connected to a gas network for continuous LNG
production in a smaller scale. The LNG is distributed by LNG trucks or small LNG carriers to
various customers with a small to moderate need of energy or fuel. This type of LNG plants
typically has a production capacity below 500 000 tpa. In Norway and China several plants
within this category is in operation.

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LNG Chain
LNG Cold Utilization
Cold Energy
Power
Recover
y

Gas
Production

Remote
Cooling

Pipelin
e

15-20 %

Super Freeze/
Cryogenic
Storag
e

LNG
Plant

30-45 %

Air
Nitrogen,
Oxygen,
Liquefaction:
Argon

LNG
Shipping

2010-09-26

Electricit
Transmissio
y
n

En
Use
d
r

Gas
Distributio
n

Gas
Marketing

En
Use
d
r

LNG
Receiving
Terminal

10-30 % 15-25 %

Cost Distribution in the LNG value Chain (numbers are indicative)

8-

Power
Generatio
n

Heating value and Wobbe Index

The final LNG product has requirements for heating value and wobbe index
UHV=Upper Heating Value, LHV=Lower heating value
Substance
Nitrogen
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane

UHV
kJ/kg
0
55496
51875
50345
49500
49011

UHV
kWh/kg
0
15,42
14,41
13,98
13,75
13,61

GHV
WobbeIndex =
=
spgr

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2010-09-26

UHV
MJ/Sm3
0
37,66
65,97
93,90
121,69
149,56

GHV
MW
28.964

LHV
kJ/kg
0
50010
47484
46353
45714
45351

GHV:
spgr:
MW:

LHV
kWh/kg
0
13,89
13,19
12,88
12,70
12,60

LHV
MJ/Sm3
0
33,93
60,39
86,45
112,38
138,39

Gross Heating Value (MJ/Sm3)

(same as Upper Heating Value)
specific gravity (-)
Molecular weight (kg/kmol)

Gross Calorific Value range for various pipeline

networks

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Applications of LNG
Pipeline gas for household and industry
Gas fired power production
Maritime fuel
Fuel for cars and buses

LNG cold utilization

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Natural gas liquefaction plants

Shtokman
Snhvit
Kenai

Mariscal
Sucre
Deltana

Angola LNG

Brass
LNG

Source: CERA

RasGas 1-5
RasGas 6/7

Persian LNG
Abu Dhabi
LNG

Oman LNG

Sakhalin

Damietta

Gassi
Touil

Skikda
Atlantic
Idku
LNG Mauritania

Bolivia LNG

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Yamal

Marsa el Brega

Peru LNG

NLNG
1-6
NLNG 7/8/9

Pars LNG
QG IV (Iran)
QG III
QG II
QG I

Baltic LNG

Arzew

OK
LNG

NIOC LNG

Bintulu
Arun
Yemen
LNG

Brunei
Central Salawesi
Tangguh
Ichthys
Sunrise
Darwin LNG

Bontang
Pilbara
Gorgon
Pluto

Browse Basin

Australia
NWS 1-5

Akwa Ibom

Liquefaction Plant Existing/

Under Construction
Equatorial
Guinea

Liquefaction Plant Proposed

Gas processing and

liquefaction

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Simplified LNG plant block diagram

Fuel
gas
(CO2 and H2S)
CH4/N2

End
flash
HHC
Extraction

(C5+)
Power
&
heat
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(C4 and C3)

Jetty

Plant example: Atlantic LNG

Trinidad (Air cooled)
Jetty

Compressors

Air cooled
condensers

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Cold boxes
(Heat exchangers)

Gas conditioning (pre-treatment)

Acid Gas (CO2 and H2S) removal
Acid gas causes corrosion, reduces heating value, and may freeze and create solids
in cryogenic process
Typical requirements for LNG: Max 50 ppmv CO2, Max 4 ppmv H2S
(ppmv - parts per million by volume)

Dehydration (water removal)

Water will freeze in cryogenic process
Typical requirement: Max 1 ppmw (weight) H2O

Mercury removal
Mercury can cause corrosion problems, especially in aluminium heat exchangers
Requirement: Max 0.01 g/Nm3

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MDEA process for CO2 removal

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Water removal by adsorption

Adsorption in to a solid material
Used in deep gas processing like Krst, Snhvit with cold process systems
Removal of smaller amounts of water
Extreme dryness, down to 0.1 ppm
Porous structure that contains very large internal surface area
200 800 m2/g
Strong affinity for water
5 15 % by weight
Solids like
Molecular sieve (3A or 4A type)
Silica gel
Regenerative process

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Water removal by adsorption

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Natural gas path through liquefaction

pressure-enthalpy diagram (C1:89.7% C2:5,5% C3:1.8% N2:2.8%)
100

-200oC

-100oC

-150oC

-50oC

0oC

Precooling

Liquefaction

Subcooling

50oC

Pressure [bara]

Expansion

10

JT Throttling

1
-900
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End
-800 flash -700

-600

-500LNG

-400

-300

Enthalpy [kJ/kg]

-200

-100

100

200

Liquefaction process

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Vapour pressure of pure fluids relevant for LNG

Refrigerant Vapour Pressure
processes
100

CO2
C1

Pressura(Bara)

N2

Ethylene
C2
C3

10

n-C4
LNG Range

1
-200

-150

-100

-50
Temp(C)

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50

Liquefaction process licensors

Base load LNG plants (3+ Mtpa)
Air Products and Chemicals Inc (APCI)
World leader since since the 1970s ca 80 operating trains
C3MR process ( ca 70 trains)
AP-XTM Hybrid (QatarGas II, III and IV, RasGas III: Six trains of 7.8 Mtpa each, Start up 2008)

ConocoPhillips (Optimised) Cascade

Shell

Trinidad: Atlantic LNG - 4 trains

Egypt: Idku
Alaska: Kenai (Operating since 1969!)
Australia: Darwin LNG
Equatorial Guinea
DMR Double Mixed Refrigerant (Sakhalin, 2 x 4.8 Mtpa start-up 2007)
PMR (same as C3MR but parallel MR circuits) no references

Linde/Statoil MFC Mixed Fluid Cascade Process (Snhvit, 4.3 Mtpa start up 2007)
Axens Liquefin (No references)

Mtpa = Million tonnes per year

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Simplified cascade process for natural gas

liquefaction
1.4 bar

45 bar

1.4 bar

19 bar

1.4 bar

LNG -155 C

-96 C

Methane
Ethylene
Propane

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-32 C

7 bar

12 C

NG

Cascade Process (ConocoPhillips)

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Temperature stages in cascade process

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Example of single-mix refrigerant cycle for

natural gas liquefaction (Prico cycle)
Composition:

NG
12 C

30 bar

NG

6,5 C

12 C

99,8 C
-155 C
LNG

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5 bar
-155 C

-155,5 C

Refrig

C1

0.897 0.360

C2

0.055 0.280

C3

0.018 0.110

nC4

0.001 0.150

N2

0.028 0.100

Temperature enthalpy diagram of Prico example

150

Mixed refrigerant dew point line

Mixed refrigerant 30 bar
Mixed refrigerant bubble point line

100
NG
12 C

30 bar

50

NG 60 bar
6,5 C

Temperature, C

12 C

99,8 C

0
-155 C
LNG

5 bar
-155 C

NG dew point line

-155,5 C

-50

Mixed refrigerant 5 bar

NG bubble point
line

-100

-150

-200
-1500

-1000

-500

0
Enthalpy, x 10^6 kJ/hr

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500

1000

1500

Hot/Cold Composite Curves for

Single Mixed Refrigerant Cycle
40
20
0
-20

Temperature, C

-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
0

200

400

600

800

1000
Duty, x 10^6 kJ/hr

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1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

C3MR Process

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Heat exchangers

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Kettle type heat exchanger

Refrigerant vapour to
compressor suction

Shell and tube exchanger with

separator function
Hot stream
inlet

Refrigerant liquid
supply (if needed)

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Refrigerant liquid feed

Hot stream
outlet

Flooded
Tube bundle submerged in boiling
liquid

Cryogenic Heat Exchangers

Spiral-Wound Heat Exchangers

Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

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Spiral Wound Heat Exchanger (SWHE)

Picture showing Snhvit subcooler (25-HX102)
Specialized proprietary type of heat
exchanger
Large capacity in one unit
Reasonably robust, and well proven in gas
liquefaction
Issues
Complexity of thermal/hydraulic
analysis
Flow distribution on shell side
Exclusive knowledge
Leakage but tubes can be plugged

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Spiral Wound LNG Heat Exchanger

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Plate fin (PFHE)

Stack of plain and folded plates
Brazed in vacuum furnace
Compact, multi stream capability
Pressures up to ca 120 bar
Issues
Thermal stress
Flow distribution and flow
instability
For clean service only!
Limited size (brazing process)
Cannot be repaired or plugged

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Fin height 5-10 mm

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

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Block or Core
Header
Nozzle
Width
Stacking height
Length
Passage outlet
Cover sheet
Parting sheet
Heat transfer fin
Distribution fin
Side bar
End bar

Production of plate-fin
heat exchangers (Linde)

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LNG storage and

loading

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LNG tank containment principles

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Above-ground full-containment LNG tank design

Pre-stressed concrete outer walls
constructed by slipforming, sheathed
internally with a gas-tight layer of
nickel-alloyed steel.
Inner tank in nickel-alloyed steel,
separated from the outer walls by a
layer of perlite - a variety of volcanic
obsidian highly suitable for insulation
Extra layer of steel and insulation at
the transition between outer wall and
tank bottom to protect it against
strong local stresses should the
inner tank begin to leak.
Heating cables under the tanks will
ensure that the ground remains
above 0C in order to prevent frost
heaving.

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Rollover - principles

evaporation

heat

T2> T1
2< 1
T1
1

Light components evaporates

Density increases

2 becomes larger than 1 due to

heat

composition change
Rollover of the liquid phases
may then occur
This gives a sudden pressure
increase due to flash vaporization

T = Temperature (C)
= Density (kg/m3)

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Typical storage and loading system

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LNG ships

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LNG transportation technical aspects

LNG is transported at 163 deg. C and at atmospheric pressure
This extreme low temperature require that the LNG is transported and handled with special
consideration, i.e.
Completely separated from the ships hull
LNG temperature must be maintained during the voyage requiring efficient insulation
of the cargo tanks
All cargo handling equipment must be able to operate at the extreme low temperature
of -163 degr. C
Two basically different cargo containment systems are used:
Self supported independent tanks (Moss Rosenberg spherical tanks, IHI SPB,
cylindrical tanks)
Membrane tanks (Gaz Transport and Technigaz (GTT))
Market share between the two concepts has been about. 50/50 - but the membrane concept
has been increasingly selected for recent newbuilding orders.

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Spherical tank cargo containment systems

(Moss Rosenberg )

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Spherical LNG cargo tanks pros & cons

Advantages
Independent from the ships hull hull stresses not transferred into the cargo tanks
Very robust design
No sloshing problems
Can operate with partly filled tanks
Allow simultaneous building of hull and cargo tanks
Easy to inspect
Easy to detect and repair leakages
Disadvantages
Low volumetric utilisation of the hull
Larger physical dimensions for same capacity compared with prismatic tanks
Visibility from bridge reduced compared with ships with prismatic tanks
Require return cargo (heel) on ballast voyage to keep cargo tanks cooled

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LNGC Membrane cargo containment system

(GT No. 96, MK I and MK III, and CS1)

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Mark III (Technigaz) Membrane system

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Inside membrane tank

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Membrane cargo containment system (GTT) pros &

cons
Advantages
High volumetric utilisation of ships hull
Less sensitive to temperature changes as inner membrane (invar steel) has very low
thermal contraction coefficient
Limited need for heel on ballast voyage
Disadvantages
Cargo tanks are an integrated part of the ships hull - hull stresses transferred to cargo
tanks
Does not allow simultaneous construction of hull and cargo tanks
Difficult to detect and costly to repair leakages
Restricted filling ratio

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LNG Carriers
Growth in the average capacity

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LNG Receiving
Terminals

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Gas quality parameters N2 injection

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Sabine Pass LNG Terminal

Artists Rendition

Source: Cheniere Energy, Inc.

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LNG receiving terminal - principles

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Vaporizer options
Need a heat source
Basically the following options are available (or a combination of them):
Heat from seawater
Open Rack Vaporizers ORV
Heat of combustion, by burning a portion of the natural gas
Submerged Combustion Vaporizers SCV
Heat from waste heat recovery or by direct burning of natural gas
Direct Fired Heaters DFH
Heat from ambient air
Ambient Air Vaporizers - AAV

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New technology entering the market

Offshore LNG terminals has been an issue since the early 1990s
In general floating storage and re-gasification unit (FSRU) can be divided into two
groups
Near-shore terminals. Gravity based structures (GBS) sited at 15 to 25
meters water depth. Normally constructed in concrete, due to its durability
and track record in offshore oil and gas operations in general. Concrete is
also the preferred choice for secondary containment in the LNG storage
system.
Offshore terminals. For the far shore options several different designs have
been proposed based on vessel design, barge design or partly submerged
structures. As an alternative to traditional low temperature storage sub sea
caverns have also been proposed.

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Example of offshore solution: Hegh SRV

Dedicated ships
Required modifications:
Connection for submerged
turret buoy and flexible export
riser
Regasification plant onboard
Send out capacity 400 t/h, i.e.
about 7 days discharge time
Weather limit for continous
sendout: Hs = 11 m

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Thank you

64 - 2010-09-26