OP 2230

SECOND REVISION

WORKMANSHIP

AND DESIGN PRACTICES

FOR

ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
This publication

supersedes OP 2230 (First Revision) dated 22 April 1959.

PUBLISHED
THE CHIEF

BY DIRECTION

OF THE BUREAU

OF

OF NAVAL WEAPONS

DECEMBER

1962

TK

FOREWORD
Ordnance Pamphlet 2230 has been prepared as a guide for the design and

construction of military electrical and electronic equipment.

Information

contained herein should not be construed as a specification, but as a guide in

designing for reliable performance and ease of manufacture, inspection, op
eration, maintenance, and repair of equipments.
This publication is intended primarily for engineers and technicians who
must translate circuit designs or breadboard models into a product design,
and those who must manufacture or inspect the final products in accordance
with the applicable detail performance specifications.
Because of the great variety of electronic equipments and the many factors
which influence individual design considerations, only recommended basic
practices of general application are included.
Comments for the improvement of this publication are invited.
Recom
mended additions, corrections, or deletions should be addressed to the
Bureau of Naval Weapons, RREN-4, Department of the Navy, Washington
25,

D.C.

DEPOSITED BY THE
UNITED 9TATC~ -r *..rr

CONTENTS
1.
1 . 0

1.1

PERSONNEL PROTECTION

GENERAL
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Operating Personnel
1.1.2
Maintenance Personnel

1.1.1

1.2
1 . 3

ELECTRIC SHOCK
PREVENTION OF ELECTRIC SHOCK

1.3.1

1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
1.3.9

1.3.10

1 .

Warnings
Fusing
Grounding
Power Lines
Main Power Switch
Panel- Mounted Parts

Parts Safety

Shields and Guards

Discharging Devices
Interlocks

MECHANICAL AND OTHER HAZARDS

2.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

2.0

GENERAL

2.1

OPERATIONAL FEATURES
2.1.1
Visual Indicators
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4

2.2

Controls
Console Design and Panel Layout
Lighting Applications

MAINTENANCE FEATURES
2.2.1

2.2.2
2.2.3

2.2.4

Testing
Assembly Slides
Replacing Subassemblies
Replacing Parts

in

OP

2230

3.
3.0

GENERAL

3.1

HEAT TRANSFER
3.1.1
Parts

3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2

3.2.10
3 .3

Cases and Cabinets

Liquid Filling and Potting

SHOCK, VIBRATION, AND INCLINATION

3 .2.1
Shock Loads

3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.8
3.2.9

Vibration

Inclination
General Practice
General Design

Resilient Mountings

Resilient Structures

Component Mounting
Modes of Vibration

Workmanship

SUB ASSE MB LIES

3.3.1
Types
3.3.2
Connectors
3.3.3
Clamping and Supporting

3.4

ENCLOSURES

3.5

CLIMATIC PROTECTION

3.4.1
3.5.1

3.5.2
3.5.3

Types

Humidity
Temperature
Wind, Ice, and Dust

3.6

RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE

Radiated Noise
3.6.1
Conducted Noise
3.6.2
Types of Shields
3.6.3

3.7

AUTOMATIC PROCESSES
3.7.1

3.7.2
3.8

Prefabricated Circuits
Automatic Assembly

MINIATURIZATION

3.8.1

3.8.2
3.8.3
3.8.4
3.8.5

iv

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

Dense Packaging

Micromodules

Microelectronics

Related Devices

Utilization

CONTENTS

3.9

BIBLIOGRAPHY

4.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.0

GENERAL

4.1

FABRICATING PROCESSES
4.1.1

4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.2

4.2.1

4.3.10
4.3.11

4.3.12

FASTENING

4.4.1

4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6
4.4.7
4.5

Bracing
Gusseting
Ribbing
Laminates
Rigidizing

MECHANICAL PARTS

4.3.1

4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6
4.3.7
4.3.8
4.3.9

4.4

Machining
Forging
Casting
Extruding
Plastic Molding

STRUCTURAL TECHNIQUES
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5

4.3

Sheet Metal Working

Handles

Bails
Lifting Devices

Mechanical Safety Devices

Gears
Bearings
Shafts

Doors
Slides
Latches
Gaskets
Springs

TECHNIQUES

Welding
Soldering and Brazing
Riveting
Threaded Fasteners
Stapling
Miscellaneous Fasteners
Cementing

BIBLIOGRAPHY

OP

2230

5.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS

5.0

NEED FOR COATINGS

5.1

SURFACE PREPARATION
5.1.1

5.1.2
5.2

COATINGS
5.2.1

5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.3

Metallic Coatings
Conversion Coatings
Painted Coatings
Metalizing Nonmetallic Materials
Other Coatings

IMPREGNATION, ENCAPSULATION,
AND EMBEDDING
5.3.1

5.3.2
5.3.3

PRESERVATIVES

5.5

SELECTION OF COATINGS
DISSIMILAR METALS IN CONTACT
Galvanic Corrosion
Similar and Dissimilar Metals
5.6.2

5.6.1

5.6.3

5.7

POTTING

Impregnation
Encapsulation
Potting and Embedding

5.4

5.6

VI

Cleaning Methods
Hydrogen Embr ittlement

Protection of Faying Surfaces

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

6.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

6.0

GENERAL

6.1

SELECTION CRITERIA
Standard Parts
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5

6.2
6.3

6.4

Repairability of Components
Nuclear Radiation Effects

LOCATION OF PARTS
Heat Transfer
6.3.2
Circuit Considerations
6.3.3
Clearances
Accessibility
6.3.4
6.3.1

MOUNTING OF PARTS
Lead-Supported Parts
6.4.1
6.4.2
Body-Supported Parts

Plug-In Mountings
Standoff Mountings

MARKING OF PARTS

6.5.1

6.5.2
6.5.3
6 . 6

Reliability

USE OF ADVANCED- DESIGN ITEMS

6.4.3
6.4.4
6.5

Interchangeability

Reference Designations and

Part Identification
Location of Markings
Marking Processes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

vii

OP

2230

7.

WIRING AND CABLING

7.0

GENERAL

7.1

SELECTION OF CONDUCTORS
Types and Uses
Size
Insulation

7.1.1

7.1.2
7.1.3

7.2

CODING OF CONDUCTORS
Color Codes
7.2.1
7.2.2
Identification Tags
7.2.3
Coding of Noninsulated Leads

7.3

WIRING PROCEDURE
7.3.1
Routing and Dressing
Harnessing and Cabling
7.3.2
Preparing Connections
7.3.3
Permanent Wire Connections
7.3.4
7.3.5
Solders and Fluxes
Soldering Methods
7.3.6
Hand Soldering
7.3.7
7.3.8
Wiring Protection
Separable Connectors
7.3.9

8 .

MATERIALS

8.0

GENERAL

8.1

PROPERTIES AND USES

8.1.1

8.1.2
8.2

SELECTION OF MATERIALS
8.2.1

8.2.2

8.3

Metals
Nonmetals

General
Moisture, Fungus, and Corrosion
Resistance

SPECIFYING MATERIALS

INDEX

viii

Chapter

PERSONNEL PROTECTION
1.0

GENERAL

Design of any equipment must

embody features to protect personnel
from electrical and mechanical
hazards; also, from those dangers
which may arise from fire, elevated
operating temperatures, and toxic
fumes

There are various methods of

incorporating adequate safeguards for
personnel, many of these methods
being implicit in routine design
procedures. However, certain
procedures, design practices, and
related information are of such
importance as to warrant special
attention.
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
In the design, attention must be
given to the protection of both
operating and maintenance personnel.
Personnel aboard ship are frequently
required to operate and maintain
equipment on an inherently unstable

1.1

deck

Operating personnel must not be

exposed to any mechanical or
electrical hazards, nor should
operation of the equipment necessitate
any unusual precautions; in particular,
all parts accessible during normal
operations should be reliably grounded.
Maximum safeguards must be
provided inside the equipment to
protect maintenance personnel
working on energized circuits .
1.1.1 Operating Personnel
Operating personnel must be safe
guarded from dangerous voltages,

excessive temperatures, and

mechanical hazards which may cause
physical injury during either normal
operation or malfunctioning of the
equipment

Design must minimize the

possibility of operator's clothing

becoming caught or entangled in

the equipment.
Handles and knobs
should be so arranged that clothing
will not catch; corners should be
rounded; and potentials greater
than 70 volts must be physically
shielded or removed by the action
of interlock switches .
Some of these precautions are

particularly important.

In military
service it may become necessary
for the operator to rapidly manipu
late or abandon the equipment.
There is also the ever-present

possibility that despite safety

regulations,

operating personnel
may attempt to service equipment
in a non- approved manner.

1.1.2 Maintenance Personnel

Safeguarding the maintenance
man is more difficult; tests and
repairs must often be made with
much of the apparatus exposed.
It may be necessary to short out
interlock switches and to remove
covers which shield high voltages
or moving machinery .
Every effort should be made in
the design to protect maintenance
personnel against contact with
dangerous voltages in unexpected
places. Controls for adjustment and
points of access for lubrication should
be located away from high voltage
and moving parts. Danger signs
imprinted next to dangerous parts
or on protective covers should be
used to alert maintenance personnel.

ELECTRIC SHOCK
Potentials exceeding 70 volts are
considered to be possible electric
shock hazards , Research reveals

1.2

OP

2230

that most deaths result from contact

with the relatively low potentials
ranging from 70 to 500 volts, although
under extraordinary circumstances,
even lower potentials can cause injury.
Many severe injuries are caused
not by electric shock directly, but by
the reflex action and consequent body
impact with nearby objects.
Some contact with electric potentials
can be expected where maintenance
personnel are by the very nature of
their duties exposed to live terminals.
Both shocks and burns, however, can
be minimized by greater care in
design, and by a better understanding
of electrical characteristics .
Three factors determine the
severity of electric shock: (1) Quantity
of current flowing through the body:
(2) Path of current through the body,
and (3)

Duration of time current flows

through the body.

The most important variable is
current. Amperage depends not only
on voltage, but also on resistance of
the circuit through the body, which in
turn depends on whether points of
contact are wet or dry. In cases on
record, potentials below 10 volts
have proved fatal when points of
contact have pierced the skin.
Sufficient current passing through
any part of the body will cause severe
burns and hemorrhages . However,

Current Values (Milliamperes)

0
1

4-21
21

40

40
up

relatively small currents can

cause death if the path includes
the heart or lungs . Electric
burns are usually of two types,
those produced by heat of the arc
which occurs when the body touches
a high-voltage circuit, and those
caused by passage of electric current
through skin and tissue.
1.3

PREVENTION OF ELECTRIC

SHOCK

Warnings
Warning signs marked "CAUTIONHIGH VOLTAGE," or "CAUTION
VOLTS," should be placed in promlnent positions on safety covers,
access doors, and inside equipment
wherever danger may be encount
ered. These signs should be so
durable, easily read and so placed
that dust or other foreign deposits
will not in time obscure the warnings.
However, since signs are not physical
1.3.1

barriers, they should be relied upon

only if no other method of protection
is feasible

1.3.2 Fusing
All leads from the primary
service lines should be protected
by fuses. Fusing of circuits
should be such that rupture or
removal of a fuse will not cause

Effects
Perception
Surprise
Reflex action
Muscular inhibition
Respiratory block

PROBABLE EFFECTS OF SHOCK

PERSONNEL PROTECTION
malfunction or damage to other
elements in the circuit.
Fuses should be connected to the
load side of the main power switch.
Holders for branch-line fuses should
be such that when correctly wired,
fuses can be changed without the
hazard of accidental shock. At least
one of the fuse-holder connections
should be normally inaccessible to
bodily contact, and this terminal
should be connected to the supply;
the accessible terminal should be
connected to the load. The following
illustration shows the correct
manner of wiring the instrument
type of fuse holder to prevent
accidental contact with the

and chassis should be maintained at

ground potential.
Specifications for the reduction
of electrical noise interference
should be consulted to determine the
maximum permissible resistance of
a grounding system. Reliable grounding
systems should be incorporated in all
electronic equipment. Enclosures
and chassis should not be used as
electric conductors to complete a
circuit because of possible inter-

circuit interference

energized terminal.

BOLTED LUG

SPOT WELDED LUG

LOAD

FUZE HOLDER WIRING

Provisions for storage of spare
fuses should be made at an
accessible location.
1.3.3 Grounding
Various grounding techniques are
used to protect personnel from
dangerous voltages in equipment.
All enclosures, exposed parts,

A terminal spot welded to the

chassis provides a reliable ground
connector. For aluminum chassis
where welding is not feasible, a
terminal properly secured by a
machine screw, lockwasher, and nut
is satisfactory.
A grounding lug should not

be

included as part of a "pile-up" that

includes any material subject to
cold-flow. The machine screw used
1

OP

2230

should be of sufficient size so that

eventual relaxation will not result

in a poor connection. A lockwasher

is necessary to maintain a secure
connection. All nonconductive
finishes of the contacting surfaces
should be removed prior to inserting
the screw. In no event should
riveted elements be used for
grounding since these cannot be

depended upon for reliable electrical

connections .
The common ground of each
chassis should connect to a throughbolt, mounted on the enclosure and

clearly marked "ENCLOSURE

GROUND," which in turn should
connect to an external, safety
ground strap.

CABINET GROUNDING SYSTEM

For best design, the external
ground conductor should be

fabricated from suitably plated,

flexible copper strap, capable of
carrying at least twice the current
required for the equipment.
Electronic test equipment must be
furnished with a grounding pigtail at
the end of the line cord. Signal
generators, vacuum tube voltmeters,
amplifiers, oscilloscopes, and tube
1

testers are among the devices so

These leads are to be
equipped.
used for safety grounding purposes.
Thus , in the event that a fault
inside the portable instrument should

connect a dangerous voltage to the

metal housing, the dangerous current
is bypassed to ground without endangering

operator .
The power supply lines aboard
For such
ship are not grounded.
purposes as reducing of interference,

the

these leads may be bypassed

through capacitors to ground, but

total current, including leakage,

which the capacitor is likely to
the

permit, must not exceed

amperes

milli-

1.3.4 Power Lines

Designers are often inclined to
confine their safety considerations
to high- voltage apparatus. However,
it is important that considerable
attention be devoted to the hazards
of power lines. Fires, severe
shocks, and serious burns are known
to result from personnel contacting,
short-circuiting, or grounding the
incoming lines .
1.3.5 Main Power Switch
Each equipment should be furnished
with a clearly labeled main power
switch which will remove all
power from the equipment by
opening all leads from the primary
power service connections.
Main power switches should be
equipped with safety devices that
afford protection against possible
heavy arcing . Barriers which shield
fuses and conducting metal parts, and
devices that prevent opening the
switch box with the switch closed,
should be provided as protection for
personnel. Switches incorporating
such safeguards are standardized,
commercially obtainable equipment.

PERSONNEL,
1.3.6 Panel-Mounted Parts
Panel- mounted parts , especially
jacks, are occasionally employed
in power circuits for the insertion
of meters, output lines, test

VOLTAGE RANGE
70

350

350
500
500

volts
volts
volts

PROTECTION

apparatus, and other supplementary

Such items should be
equipment.

connected to the grounded leg of

the monitored circuit, rather than
in the ungrounded, high-voltage line.

SUITABLE PROTECTIVE MEASURES

Interlocks alone
Barriers and interlocks
Enclosures, warnings, and interlocks

and up

Parts Safety
Electric parts and circuits should

1.3.7

minimize arcing in
switches, relays, and other make-orbreak apparatus . Fast-action
switches are usually employed.
Switches used in dc circuits employ
magnetic arc blowouts and capa
citors across the contacts.
Only explosion- proof switching
devices should be employed where
there is any possibility that
equipment will be operated in an
atmosphere of explosive gas or vapor.
The design of explosion- proof
equipment is covered by military
specifications .
Protective devices should be
incorporated in the design for all
parts carrying hazardous voltages.
Wherever possible, such components
be designed to

away from the direction of easy

contact. These expedients lessen
the possibility of accidental
shock and arcing.

1.3.8 Shields and Guards

Safety enclosure covers should
be anchored by means of screws
or screwdriver-operated locks
and should be plainly marked by
warnings .
Hinged covers, doors, and
withdrawable chassis should be
counter-balanced or provided with
other means to retain them in
their open position, thus preventing
accidental closing due to ship
movement.

Terminal boards carrying

hazardous voltages above 500
volts should be protected by
should be mounted beneath the chassis. means of a cover provided with
Ventilation requirements must always
holes for the insertion of test
be considered.
probes. Terminal numbers
When it is impracticable to mount
should be plainly marked on the
parts below the chassis and thus
external side of the cover . With
reduce the hazard to maintenance
this arrangement, it is possible
personnel when replacing aboveto check circuits that are
chassis parts, protective housings
energized.
having ventilating holes or louvers
High-voltage meters should
should be provided. If housings
be recessed and two shatter
cannot be used, exposed terminals
proof windows used.
of the parts should be oriented

OP

2230

WINDOWS

METER

of capacitors and associated

circuitry exceeds 5 seconds; they
should be positive acting, reliable,
and should be automatically actuated
whenever the enclosure is opened.

SHORTING

BAR

*//

HIGH VOLTAGE PANEL METER

'/DOOR

Housings, cabinets, or covers

may require perforations to provide

air circulation. The area of a
perforation should be limited to
that of a 1/2-inch square or round
hole. High-voltage components
within should be set back far
enough to prevent accidental
contact. If this cannot be done,
the size of the openings should

reduced.
Where access to rotating or
oscillating parts is required for
servicing, it may be desirable to
equip the protective covers or
housings with safety switches or
interlocks .

be

1.3.9 Discharging Devices

Since high-grade filter capacitors
can store lethal charges over
relatively long periods of time,
adequate discharging devices must
be incorporated in all mediumand high-voltage power supplies .

Such devices should be used

wherever the time constant

SHORTING BAR ACTUATION

Shorting bars should be actuated
either by mechanical release or
by an electrical solenoid when the
cover is opened.
Good insurance is provided by
the automatic charge- draining
action of a bleeder resistor,
permanently connected across the
output terminals of a dc power
supply. Although bleeder current
is an added load on the power supply,
the system should be designed to
carry this slightly additional load.
Bleeder resistance should be the
lowest value, without presenting
excessive loading, through which
the capacitors can discharge quickly
after the power is switched off.
However, in circuits where
large high-voltage capacitors
must be Operated without adequate

PERSONNEL PROTECTION
bleeding; as in high-voltage radar
apparatus, capacitors must be
discharged by automatic devices
as described previously . For
high-voltage capacitors, discharg
ing devices

DOOR OPEN
JDOOR

CLOSED

should be equipped

with large resistors rated at 200

watts, 10,000 ohms, to limit
discharge current and the

possibility of damage.

Interlocks
Interlock switches are used to
remove power during maintenance
and repair operations . Each cover
and door providing access to
potentials greater than 70 volts
should be equipped with interlocks .
Some interlock systems function
also to ground capacitors, as
described in 1.3.9, when the
enclosure is opened.
An interlock switch is
ordinarily wired in series with one
of the primary service leads to the
power supply unit. It is usually
actuated by the movable access
cover; thus breaking the circuit
when the enclosure is entered.
Where more than one inter
lock switch is used, they are
wired in series. Thus, one
switch may be installed on the
access door of an operating
subassembly; another, on the
dust cover of the power supply.
The selection of a type of
interlock switch must be based
upon its reliable operation. The
so-called self-aligning switch
appears most reliable, but in
actual usage the type shown,
although it contains moving
parts, has proven most
satisfactory .
1.3.10

DOOR INTERLOCK SWITCH

Since electronic equipment must
often be serviced with the power on,
a switch enabling maintenance
personnel to bypass the interlock
system should be mounted inside
the equipment.
The switch should
be so located that reclosing of the
access door or cover automatically

restores interlock protection.

Also

to be provided are a panel- mounted

visual indicator, such as a neon
lamp, and a suitable name plate
to warn personnel when interlock

protection is removed.

A"Battle-Short" switch or
terminals for connection of an
external switch should also be
provided to render all interlocks
inoperative. It differs from the
switch used to bypass the interlock
system for maintenance purposes
in that the panel-mounted or
remotely controlled "Battle-Short"
switch is designated for emergency

OP

2230

The circuit consists of

single switch, wired in parallel
with the interlock system. Closing
the "Battle-Short" switch places a
short circuit across all interlock
switches, thus assuring incoming
power regardless of accidental
opening of interlock switches .
use only.
a

MECHANICAL AND OTHER

1.4

HAZARDS

To minimize the possibility of

physical injury, all enclosure
edges and corners should be
rounded to maximum practical
radii. This is especially important
for front-top edges, front-side
edges, and enclosure, door, and
panel corners .
Thin edges should be avoided and
chassis construction should be
such that the chassis may be

RECESSED CONTROLS
Care should be taken

designing

carried without danger of cutting

the hands on the edges .

To prevent hazardous protrusions
on panel surfaces, flathead screws
should be used wherever sufficient
panel thickness is available;
otherwise, panhead screws should

used.
All accessible surfaces should
be smooth. Surfaces that cannot
be reasonably machined to a
smooth finish should be covered
or coated to prevent the possibility
of skin abrasion. Small projections
in areas where the rapid removal
of plug-in units may cause injury
to the hands , must not be left
uncovered.
Recessed mountings are
recommended for small projecting
parts such as toggle switches and
small knobs located on front panels.
be

when
equipment to prevent

personnel from accidentally

contacting rotating or oscillating
parts such as gears, couplings,
levers, cams, latches, or heavy
solenoid equipment.
Moving parts
should be enclosed or shielded
by protective guards wherever
possible. Where such protection
is not possible, warning signs
must be furnished.
The cathode-ray tube is a
special hazard in view of the high
voltages that must be applied and
the physical

damage that may

result from implosion. If the

tube is accidentally nicked or
scratched, resultant implosion
may not occur until days later.
The face of such a tube must
be safeguarded by a shatterproof
glass or heavy plastic shield
firmly attached to the panel.
Signs warning personnel that the

PERSONNEL PROTECTION
neck of the tube is easily broken
and must be handled with caution
should be posted inside the
equipment .

In their normal installed

positions, chassis should be
securely retained in enclosures .
Stops should be provided on
chassis slides to prevent
inadvertent removal. Provision for
firmly holding the chassis handles
while releasing the equipment
from the cabinet should also be
incorporated. In the tilt-up
position, a secure latch should
support the equipment firmly
despite conditions of shock,
vibration, or inclination.
Suitable handles or similar
provisions should be furnished
for removing chassis from enclo
sures. Bails or other suitable
means should be provided to
protect parts when the chassis
is removed and inverted for
servicing. These serve also to
protect the hands as the chassis
is placed on the service bench.

Where access is provided

to rotating, oscillating, or any

other hazardous mechanisms,
the cover or apparatus should
bear a warning such as:

CAUTION - KEEP CLEAR OF

ROTATING PARTS

All reasonable precautions

fire,

should be taken to minimize

high temperature, and toxic

hazards. In particular , any

capacitors, inductors, or motors
involving fire hazards should be
enclosed by a noncombustible
material having minimum openings
As stated previously, elevated
operating temperatures, and
ventilation requirements are
primary considerations in
personnel protection. Since
many equipments are installed
in confined spaces, materials
that may produce toxic fumes
must not be employed. Finished
equipment should be carefully
checked for verification of protec
tive features in the design.

Chapter

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

2.0 GENERAL
Equipment for military use must
be designed to facilitate operation
and thus decrease
and maintenance,
"down-time" and minimize over-all
manpower and training costs.

Realistically designed operating

features simplify control of the

equipment, and well-planned
maintenance features permit faults
to be rapidly located and defective
parts to be easily repaired orreplaced.

2.1

information, use a counter. A

scale indicator, however, is
more efficient when such values
are to be "set into" the
equipment.

For numerical value plus

orientation (check reading) in
time, space, magnitude, or
rate, use a scalar type of
indicator . Avoid multiple
pointers on a single pivot when
possible. One pointer plus
and adjacent counter is best
when scale expansion is
necessary.

OPERATIONAL FEATURES

The following general recom

mendations are presented as an
aid in the selection of operational
devices. Specific applications
sometimes require exceptions to
these rules, however, and it
may be wise to consult the
human- engineer ing specialist
when in doubt .

2.1.1

For

OFF

Visual Indicators

a few discrete conditions

(qualitative), use an indicator
.which presents large differences
in position, brightness or color.
The use of two or more variables
is recommended, such as color
and position, as in the traffic

light.
For precise numerical values
(quantitative) with no need for
interpolation between numbers
or for rate or directional

VISUAL INDICATORS

OP

2230

Once the type of indicator has

been chosen, and the amount and
accuracy of the information to be
displayed have been determined,
then it is necessary to consider
the factors which contribute to the

legibility of the indicator. The

size of detail, form of numerals

pointers, and illumination
all affect the efficiency with
which an operator uses the visual
display .
and

CHECKLIST FOR A GOOD INDICTTOR

CAN THE INSTRUMENT BE READ QUICKLY IN THE MANNER
REQUIRED (THAT IS, QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, OR CHECK
READING) ?
CAN THE INSTRUMENT BE READ ACCURATELY WITHIN THE
NEEDS OF THE OPERATOR (PREFERABLY NO MORE ACCURATELY)?

THE INSTRUMENT DESIGN FREE OF FEATURES WHICH MIGHT

PRODUCE AMBIGUITY OR INVITE GROSS READING ERRORS?

IS

ARE THE CHANGES IN INDICATION EASY TO CHECK?

IS THE INFORMATION PRESENTED IN THE MOST MEANINGFUL
FORM REQUIRING THE MINIMUM OF MENTAL TRANSLATION
TO OTHER UNITS?
IS

THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE REQUIRED CONTROL MOVEMENTS

IS

THE INFORMATION PERTINENT WITH RELATION TO THE NEED?

NATURAL TO THE EXPECTED INSTRUMENT MOVEMENT?

IS THE INSTRUMENT DISTINGUISHABLE FROM OTHER

INSTRUMENTS?

WILL THE OPERATOR BE AWARE OF AN INOPERATIVE CONDITION?

IS

ILLUMINATION

SATISFACTORY UNDER ALL CONDITIONS

OF EXPECTED OPERATION?

2-2

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Scalar Indicators. Dials and
scales provide qualitative as well as
quantitative information. Dials
provide greater scale length in less
space than straight-line scales. The
straight-line scale, however, is not
as apt to confuse the observer as to
the direction of numerical increase.
Moving pointers with fixed scales
are generally preferred to fixedpointer and moving-scale design for
both dial and straight-line scales.
The fixed-pointer type, however, may
be used satisfactorily for setting-in
operations such as match the pointer
operations .
An open window with fixed pointer
is slightly better than an entirely
exposed scale when reading accuracy
alone is the criterion of choice.
2.1.1.1

15

SCALAR INDICATORS

2.1.1.2 Design of Numerals , Letters,

and Graduations . In general, the
larger the size of letters and numerals
the less we have to worry about back
ground and

illumination.

Capital letters are recommended

for most panel labels although upperand lower-case letters are suggested
for extended instructional material.
All labels should be normally
oriented so that they can be read
from left to right. Special cases of
vertical orientation are permissible
when the label is generally ignored
and confusion might arise if it were
adjacent to more critical labels .
For panel use, the design of
letters and numerals should be without
flourishes. Such details are confusing,
especially under threshold
illumination conditions . The critical
details of the figures should be simple
but prominent.
Diagonal portions of
the characters should be as near 45
degrees as possible and such
characteristic features as openings
and breaks should be readily
apparent.

20

PREFFERED

M5
POOR

PANEL LABEL DESIGN

2-3

OP

2230

The stroke width of black charac

ters on white background should be
about one- sixth of the character
height. Stroke width of white figures
on black background should be about
one- seventh to one- eighth of the
character height; the narrower
stroke is necessary since the
light figure tends to spread or

irradiate.

LETTERING TECHNIQUES

The height-to-width ratio of the

normal character should be about
three to two. Although there are
exceptions to this rule, a close
approximation to this ratio is
recommended, especially for
panel and scale design.

CHARACTER HEIGHT FOR GENERAL DIAL

AND PANEL DESIGN

VIEWING

DISTANCE

CHARACTER HEIGHT

()

(MM)

2/3 or l.u

0.09

2/3 to 3

0.17

Minimum space between character!, one strata width; betwMn words, one character width.

MAJOR
INTERMEDIATE
MINOR

SCALE GRADUATIONS

2-4

Scale graduations should be

limited in number by the accuracy
required. Furthermore the
smallest readable division should
never be finer than the probable
error in the metering apparatus .
A minimum of 0.5 inch is
recommended for the distance

between

"major" graduations

These figures are for the normal

reading distances, 13 to 28 inches.
The minimum graduation dimen
sion shown in the illustration is for
28-inch viewing distance.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The number of graduation marks
between numbered points should
not exceed nine. Optimum
dimensions on a dial are shown.

.035-

-p-

I i i i

-OZ5030,". -HK- I
i 1 11

MI
V

.07wcenterto center

SCALE MARK DIMENSIONS

For ease in reading, figures
should be oriented according to the
type of scale or dial used.
Orient figures vertically on
dials which have a fixed scale and
moving pointer .
When the scale is of finite length,
there should be a scale break
between the end and the beginning
of the scale. The break should be
equal to a major scale division.

Orient figures radially on dials

which have a fixed pointer and
moving scale. When possible,
orient the index at the 12-o'clock
position.
When the figures of a dial move
past an open window, they should be
oriented so that they appear
vertically at the window opening.
Two or more figures should appear
in the window simultaneously.

20

S 93
I I

Numbers should appear to

increase in a clockwise direction,
left to right, or bottom to top.
Avoid the use of irregular scales
whenever possible. Some machine
and slide-rule type scales are
considered as exceptions to this rule,
When two or more similar scales
appear on the same panel, they
should have compatible numerical
progression and scale organization.

POO*

root

INDICATOR SCALE DESIGN

2-5

OP

2230

RECOMMENDED NUMERICAL PROGRESSION

FAIR

GOOD
1
S
10

I
10
20

15

25

20

40

10

40

50

60

POOR

10

12-

80

100

12

16

til

7.5

* Except for bearing dials where cardinal directions ore standard orienting points
or wher* operating doctrine specifies conditions of time scales, or turn rates.

RECOMMENDED SCALE BREAKDOWN

0
1 .

20*

10
I

1 .

of thii de.ign shawed lej. variability In MM whm Mtting-in than did inual
dial marking,.

40

SCALE ORIENTATION

Whenever possible, orient a

dial scale so that the critical
range to be read will appear as
left to right or bottom to top, to
avoid confusion as to direction of
increase. This is especially
important for check-reading
instruments. For multir evolution
dials, orient zero at the 12-o'clock
position.

40

MOVING

70

80

FIXED

Pointers and scale graduations

should be oriented so that the
pointer, either moving or fixed, is
close to the index and yet does not
cover the number .

POINTER AND SCALE

RELATIONSHIP

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

When the dial diameter must be
too small for adequate pointer and

graduation design, it is possible to

utilize bezel or panel space for
engraving the numbers. (This
method should be used only when

gross pointer position is all that

is needed). The pointer tip should
be the same width as the smallest
graduation.
The pointer should be designed
so that there is a minimum distance
between tip and graduation - 1/16
inch maximum.
The pointer should be mounted
so that visual parallax is minimized.
This can generally be achieved by
placing the pointer close to the dial
scale. The pointer should be
painted the same color as numbers
and graduations when possible.
When reciprocal readings are
necessary, the two ends of the
pointer must be identifiable.
Simplicity in pointer-tip design
is important for reading speed
and accuracy.

PREFERRED

POOR

lit!

DIAL AND POINTER DESIGN

CHECKLIST FOR DIAL AND SCALE DESIGN

MAXIMUM SIMPLICITY COMMENSURATE WITH INFORMA
TIONAL REQUIREMENTS BEEN MAINTAINED?

HAS

CAN THE DIAL OR SCALE BE INTERPRETED (NO SPECIAL

COMPUTATIONS OR MULTIPLIERS REQUIRED)?
HAS MAXIMUM CONTRAST BETWEEN FIGURES AND BACKGROUND
RELATED TO EXPECTED ILLUMINATION BEEN PROVIDED?

AS

HAS OPTIMAL DIAL SIZE BASED ON BEST FIGURE AND GRADUATION

SIZE AND SPACING BEEN USED?
HAS AN APPROPRIATE NUMERICAL PROGRESSION (OPTIMUM
NUMBER PROGRESSION; SCALE BREAKDOWN; RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN NUMERICAL INCREASE, POINTER MOVEMENT,
AND RELATED CONTROL MANIPULATION BEEN USED)?

2-7

OP

2230

2.1.1.3 Design of Counters . In

designing or selecting a counter,
strive to provide a device which is
easy to read. The style, size, and
figure-to-background contrasts of
the numerals on the counter drum
must be chosen with care. In
general, the design rules for
numbers and letters given in 2.1.1.2
are good. In addition, however,
counter displays present several
specific problems of their own.

The height-to-width ratio of

numerals for counter displays should
be one to one, rather than three to
two as recommended for dials and
scales. This factor is important
since the curved surface of the
counter drum plus the movement
of the display make it difficult to
recognize the critical portions of
the numeral, the top and bottom.

Whenever practicable, the

numbers should "snap" into place
to eliminate blurring.

Numbers should not follow each

other faster than about, two per
second if the observer is expected

to read the numbers consecutively .

An upward movement of the counter
drum should indicate a numerical
increase. Although this is not
critical in reading the number out,
it is quite important when a manual
control is used to set the numerical
value into the device.

41(31(6

COUNTER DESIGN

2-8

Avoid large horizontal spacing

between number drums . Large
spaces between counter drums make
it especially difficult to read large
numbers

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

When last digits have little value,
in large values of range or altitude,
they should be replaced with stationary

rooe

as

zeros. Similar treatment is

recommended for preceding digits
which are seldom used; in this case,
however, the space should be blanked
out completely during the time when
no numerical value is to appear .
Counters should be mounted as
close to the panel surface as possible
to provide maximum viewing angle
and minimum shadow effects from
ambient lighting. Counters should be
oriented so that they may be read
from left to right.

2.1.1.4 Indicator and Warning Lights.

Brightness factors are of utmost
concern in light displays. Lights
which must attract immediate
attention should be at least twice as
bright as the immediate background.
The background should be dark in
contrast to the light and should be in
a dull finish. When the major panel
area is light in color, it is possible
to improve the effectiveness of the
light display by painting the immediate
area a dark matte finish. The
addition of a matte-black panel
around a signal light improves the
effectiveness of even an outdoor
signal. Control of indicator-light
brightness should be provided when
the range of ambient illumination
varies . This control is especially
important when dark adaptation is
necessary.
Printed information on pilot and
warning lights should be designed to
fit the job at hand. Black printing
on the bright background of the pilot
light allows a maximum of brightness
and is ideal for a warning signal,
whereas a perforated mask between
the bulb and the filter emits less
glare for the dark-adapted eye.

2900

2924

425 00425

NUMERAL PLACEMENT

LIGHT TO BACKGROUND CONTRAST

SAFE

WARNING AND PILOT LIGHT

IDENTIFICATION

OP

2230

Pilot lights need not be large

to be effective since the brightness
and color are more important

variables . Colors for pilot or

warning lights should be chosen
with care. For general usage,
colors to be used on the same
panel should be widely separated
in spectral wave length. The
color red should be preserved
for danger signals when possible .
Avoid using similar colors, such
as red with orange or purple
with blue. Approved red, blue, and
green are recommended for panel
displays when erroneous
interpretation, by an observer
deficient in the ability to distinguish
colors, might be dangerous.

Lights of varying size, color,

brightness, and grouping provide
an effective means for presenting
simple, discrete information.
Critical lights should be
isolated from less important
lights whenever possible. Simpli
city is important in using light
displays . Too many lights or too
many colors tend to confuse a
panel layout.

Mounting of warning lights and

other visual displays within 30
degrees of the normal visual
axis is recommended when the
operator must attend to other

tasks

A central warning light

may be used to direct an

operator's attention to another

panel. Flashing lights are useful

in getting attention when they
provide flash rates of 3 to 10 per
second and each flash duration
is of the order of at least
0.05 second.
2.1.1.5 Cathode-Ray Tube
Displays . Electronic displays
are usually presented on
cathode-ray tubes in rectangular
or polar co-ordinate form.
Display considerations that affect
operator performance are
presented as follows:
Size - When plotting or
simultaneous viewing by several
operators is not important,
there is no significant advantage
between large or small tubes .
More time is required to scan
the whole scope of an extremely
large tube, but such a tube will
allow use of a more adequate
grid overlay and thus improve
accuracy. Scopes of 5- to 7-inch
diameter are quite adequate
when plotting is not required.
Shape
around a

- The bezel or frame

CRT display should

conform to the general
configuration of the type of
presentation - round for a
Plan- Position Indicator (PPI)
or rectangular for an A- scan.

2-10

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Mounting Position - CRT's
should be mounted so that the
visual axis of the operator is
perpendicular to the face of the
tube at its center .
Recom menda-

tions for various operator

positions and tube mounting
angles may be found in 2.1.3
Normal viewing distance is
14 to 18 inches.

Cursors - Electronic cursors

which are continuously printed are

superior to mechanical cursors
from the operators point of view,
since parallax can be eliminated
and accuracy improved.
The
addition of a scale is essential for
bearing accuracy; the addition of
a counter which presents the exact
numerical values found by the
cursor manipulation improves
accuracy still more . When bearing
accuracies of 5 degeres or more
may be tolerated, there is no
real need for the cursor since
the operator can interpolate
bearing position to that degree of
accuracy .

Grids - Accuracy of interpolating

PPI BEARING SCALE

10

target position is improved by adding

grid markings. The more accurate
the reading requirements, the
more elaborate the grid structure
should be. To minimize the
confusion caused by many fine
grid lines, it is important to
increase scope size. The size
compromise cannot be predicted,
but certain design suggestions
can be made.

Range Rings - The minimum

spacing between range rings on a
polar display should be of the order
of 1 degree 36 minutes visual angle
subtended at the eye, or about

PPI GRID SYSTEM

2-11

OP

2230

1/2 inch at 18- inch viewing

00

distance. For bearing, a solid

line for each 30 degrees and
dotted lines for each 10 degrees
are recommended for maximum
accuracy. If more than four
range rings are necessary to
cover the scale it is wise to
divide the rings into subgroups
by making half of them dotted and
half solid lines. Use of separate
colors per subgroups is also
satisfactory.
Range rings may
also be designed to act as
unnumbered bearing aids on
very large grid systems (30-inch
diameter or larger) .

Illumination - Brightness
contrasts between signal and
background and between target
and "noise" vary to such a
degree that exact optimum

0 O0

e|

levels cannot be stated. Contrast

ratios may be improved by mini
mizing background brightness
and surface reflections. By
proper filtering, the trace to
background ratio can be
maximized. A cross- polariza
tion filter technique has proven
quite adequate . The technique
utilizes a polarized light over
the scope face. With this
technique it is not necessary to
work in completely darkened
rooms . Scope hoods are
recommended for a single
operator when ambient
illumination cannot be
adequately controlled.
sotncE ol
AMKEN!ILLUMINATION

CRT CONTRAST RATIOS

REDUCTION OF BACKGROUND
BRIGHTNESS

BY USE OF CROSS-

POLARIZED FILTERS

2-12

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

2.1.1.6 Combined Indicators . The
combination of different types of
visual displays within one
instrument or of several
instruments into an array or
group should be governed by the

following principles:

Combine only those forms of

information which bear a common
relationship.
Keep the common factor of
interpretation (fixed and moving
parts, scale values, etc.) the same.
SYMBOLIC
IN FORMAT,ON

Do not confuse the operator with

unnecessary information.

PICTORIAL

Combining on one dial more

than one item of information saves
the operator time which would be
taken in locating parts of a
total picture.

INFORMATION

Scale range may be increased

by combining pointers and counters.
The total range may be increased
by extension (pointer plus counter)
or the range may be given with more
precision (pointer plus sub- dial
and pointer) .

CADAS 22.211FT

Note that this type of scale

expansion is to be used only when
some qualitative information
relative to rate or normal
operating range is needed. The
counter is best when only
quantitative information is needed.
Do not use multiple-pointer
displays with more than two pointers

With
two pointers on the same
dial face proper orientation will
make check reading easier, however,
avoid unrelated information
combinations such as azimuth and
grid current.

POOR

COMBINED DISPLAY ON
A SINGLE DIAL

2-13

OP

2230

When the number of sources of

information becomes too great and
are apt to complicate one
instrument, it is wise to combine
several simple instruments into
an array. Such arrays of
instruments will allow the rapid
check-reading of a large number
of instruments in a minimum of
time if the pointer positions for
the normal operating conditions
are arranged at the 9- or
12-o'clock position. The slight
deviation of any one of the
instrument pointers from this
symmetrical pattern of pointers
is easily and quickly located
during even a cursory scan.

CHECKLIST FOR SINGLE OR MULTIPLE

INSTRUMENTS COMBINED ON ONE DISPLAY
HAS

THE BEST SCALE AND DIAL FACE DESIGN BEEN USED?

ARE ALL THE SCALE VALUES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE

GRADUATION CONSISTENT IN THE DIRECTION OF INCREASE
OR DECREASE?
THE SAME NUMERICAL SCALE PROGRESSION PRINCIPLE
BEEN USED ON ALL SCALES OF THE COMBINED DISPLAY ?

HAS

HAS THE SAME PICTORIAL RELATIONSHIP

ALL INSTRUMENTS
HAS

ON

THE SAME PANEL?

BEEN USED FOR

THE NORMAL VISUAL AXIS OF THE OPERATOR BEEN

SO THAT PARALLAX WILL NOT BE A PROBLEM?

CONSIDERED

ARE ALL PARTS OF THE INSTRUMENT OR INSTRUMENTS

ILLUMINATED EQUALLY WELL AND ARE DIMMERS PROVIDED
FOR COMBINED DISPLAYS WHERE DARK ADAPTATION
REQUIREMENTS CALL FOR SELECTIVELY LOWERING THE
ILLUMINATION OF SPECIFIC PORTIONS OF A DISPLAY ?

2-14

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

2.1.2 Controls
In the design or selection of
control devices it is important to
consider two basic factors: (1) the
compatibility between the movement
and location of the control device
and of the elements to be controlled;
and (2) the physiological and
anatomical efficiency with which
the operator can utilize the
control and display.
There are
2.1.2.1 Compatibility.
certain accepted relationships
between control and display that
should be provided so that
movement

minimum.

errors will

to

IMC

FOR POINTER
MOVEMENT
UP

be at a

Whenever possible, control

movements and location should be
parallel to the axis of the display
motion they affect. Various
control motions for a given

display are illustrated.

Controls should be oriented to

fit normal habit-pattern reflexes

An operator will normally move

his control so as to center

deviations or reduce errors
presented by the visual display.

DIRECTIONAL COMPATIBILITY
2.1.2.2 Physiological Efficiency

(Location of Controls) . To reduce

fatigue controls which must be
used most often should be placed
somewhere between elbow and
shoulder height. Locations
forward and slightly below
shoulder height are found most
easily when "blind" reaching
is required.

CONTROL PLACEMENT

2-15

OP

2230

Mounting eigher side of center is

superior to mounting in the center
of the operator's position.

Cranks which require extreme

torque should be mounted so that
the turning axis is parallel to
the frontal plane of the body.
Crank-type controls which are
turned rapidly should be
mounted so that the turning axis
lies within a range from perpen
dicular to about 60 degrees
off the frontal plane of the body .

to be

Controls which must be

operated from a fixed operator's
position, such as that of an
aircraft pilot secured by means
of shoulder harness, should be
within an arc of 28 inches
measured from the individuals
shoulder position.

2.1.2.3 Size of Controls.

Control dimensions should take
into consideration the normal
hand-grasp limitations.
Adjustment knobs for
instrument-type equipments
should, when possible, be
limited in diameter to 2 inches
or less for most convenient
hand grasp.
Handles

for cranks should

inches in length by
for operations
requiring fast wrist and finger
movements, 3-3/4 inches in length
by 1 inch in diameter for operations
requiring arm movement of heavy
be about 1-1/2

1/2 inch in diameter

OPTIMUM CRANK HANDLE SHAPt

loads

For high-speed cranking, the

diameter can vary from 3 to 9
inches, with 4-1/2 inches
recommended for general use.
2

16

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Wheel and crank diameters
depend upon the mounting position
and torque to be expected as well
as the speed of turning required.

The table below shows the

optimum diameters for several
mounting conditions and torque

conditions

OPTIMUM CONTROL DIAMETERS *

fff

POSITION
0

w
c

114-414

414-7'A

414-714

90

3-10

10-16

16

90

214-414

414-714

414-714

45

OF
in. Ib

40 in. Ib

90 in. Ib

34

10

16

3-8

10-16

16

34

10

10

6-16

10-16

414-714

414-714

34

45

45

i-

-45

214-414

414

34

8-16

10-16

214414

414

414-714

48

AT

fOHM

42

40

I
39

IU

36

Handwhe.l (W). Diom.Ur in Inch'i,

Crank (C). lodius In Indws

24

2
x

SIZE

(d.a.)

**

214-714
34
214-414

10-16

10

These data were based on setting the control device in only one
revolution. The author infers that for less than 90-degree turn,
handwheels would be more effective than cranks
** Angle in degrees from horizontal
- Crank
*** Code: W - Handwheel,

2-17

OP

2230

2.1.2.4 Force Limitations,

The

human operator should not be

expected to perform at maximum
capacity for any great length of
time, so it is wise to leave a
safety factor in force required.

A maximum force of
ounces is recommended
small toggle switches.

to

for

16

A maximum torque of 2 inchis suggested for rotating

pounds
knobs .

A load of 2 to 5 pounds is
suggested for smooth operation
of small, high-speed cranks.
Hand levers of the gearshift
type should not require more
than 30 pounds of applied

force

Coding. Coding techniques

location, shape, size and
color are useful in the layout
of control panels from the
standpoint of reducing operator
error in the selection of the
correct control.
2.1.2.5
such

as

Location or position coding

provides spacing or positioning
of controls in groups far enough
apart to establish a position
habit pattern. An operator soon
establishes a code for himself;
the more definite spacings we
give him, the sooner he
establishes accurate habit
patterns .

2-18

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Shape coding is useful to augment
location coding under black-out
conditions. It is more useful with
lever-type controls such as toggle
switches, rotary detented switches,
and

joysticks, because the shape

.will not interfere with the

manipulation of this type of
control. Shape coding is not
generally recommended, however,
for electronic types of control
knobs since manipulation is often
hampered and recognition is
difficult when the knob is inverted.

Some shape variability may be

had from selected commercial designs,

Size coding provides tactual cues

of size which may be used to identify
gross categories of control functions
and enhance location habits acquired
initially through position coding.

Color coding establishes

relationships from one equipment
to another. Since all colors are
not equally distinguishable and
are variously affected by lower
light levels , it is important to
select colors that are recognizable
under the expected illumination
conditions .
2.1.2.6 Selection and Use of
Standard Devices. Select toggle
switches which provide a visual
cue as to the switch position;
30 degrees either side of the
center position is satisfactory.

Mount toggle switches so that

the ON position is always forward,
up, or to the right as the operator
looks at the switch.
Use small knobs (approximately
inch in length) for non-critical
adjustments such as volume,
focus, and dimmers. Use
larger knobs (approximately 2
inches in diameter) for more

USE ROUND KNOBS FOR

CONTINUOUS TURN

BAR KNOB FOR

STEPWISE TURN

critical adjustments such as

tuning or frequency selection.

2-19

OP

2230

Use bar or pointer- shaped

controls exclusively for switching
functions which have mechanical
detents to aid positioning. Size
is not important as long as there
is sufficient gripping surface.
When using two controls on a
concentric shaft arrangement, use
the larger for vernier adjustment
so that the scale spread will be
maximized.

Knobs which are less than 3/4

inch in depth should be knurled
rather than serrated to provide
adequate gripping surface. For
knobs with a depth greater than
3/4 inch, serrations are adequate
but should be chosen with care.
Serrations should be chosen
which give the best gripping

characteristics, that is, point

contacts rather than round ones,

and evenly spaced serration rather
than uneven or widely spaced ones.

Select skirt designs which allow

index to be seen in
fingers. Special
skirts should be fabricated for
edge-lighted panels used under
blackout conditions. A trans
parent pointer which allows light
to come through should be used
with a back-lighted panel.
an engraved
spite of the

Push buttons should not

require extreme pressure for
actuation (maximum, 31 pounds).
The contact should be definite,
that is, the finger should feel a
"click." There should be
sufficient finger contact area so
that the pressure is not irritating.
The push button or buttons should
be mounted, possibly by recessing,
as shown,

so that they cannot be

accidentally tripped. Proper

illumination should be provided
when there is a possibility of
pressing the wrong button.

2-20

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

2.1.3

Console Design and Panel

Layout
The layout and design of instru
ment panels with suitable
packaging into a well humanengineered unit are, at best,
a compromise.
It is important
to approach each design in such
a manner that the best compro
mises are made. As in the design
of any piece of hardware, it is of
utmost improtance to have answers
to certain technical aspects of

problem in hand before

starting to work on the actual
layout. The engineer must
the

know the answers to the

following questions if he wishes
to incorporate good humanengineering principles into
his finished panel or console.
Armed with answers to
these questions, the engineer is
ready to acquaint himself with
the human- engineering rules
for panels and consoles.

CHECKLIST FOR CONSOLE DESIGN

AND PANEL LAYOUT
WHAT LIMITATIONS ARE FDCED BY SPECIFICATION OR BY

ULTIMATE SPACE FACTORS IN THE INSTALLATION AREA?

WHAT VISUAL DISPLAYS ARE NECESSARY? WHAT SIZE

MUST THEY BE? WHICH OF THESE MUST BE ACCESSIBLE
TO THE OPERATOR DURING OPERATION AND WHICH
ACCESSIBLE ONLY TO THE MAINTENANCE MAN?

WHAT CONTROLS ARE NECESSARY ? WHAT SIZE? WHICH

MUST BE ACCESSIBLE TO THE OPERATOR; TO THE
MAINTENANCE MAN?
WHAT AUDITORY DISPLAYS AND WHAT MEANS OF

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN OPERATORS ARE NECESSARY?

WHAT OPERATING CONDITIONS ARE EXPECTED - ILLUMINATION,

NOISE ENVIRONMENT, TEMPERATURE, VIBRATION, PITCH
AND ROLL?
WHAT OPERATOR CONDITIONS ARE EXPECTED - ONE OR
MORE OPERATORS, CONTINUOUS OR INTERMITTENT
OPERATION, OPERATOR'S POSITION, STATIC OR DYNAMIC?
WHAT MAINTENANCE FACILITIES ARE REQUIRED DURING
OR BETWEEN OPERATIONS ?

2-21

OP

2230

At this point it is suggested

that a mock-up be constructed.
The mock-up need not be elaborate
but it should be accurately scaled.

A miniature mock-up is recommended

I/'

because it is easier to handle and

may be all that is required to solve
the problem, thus saving the
expense and time consumed in the
construction of a full-scale
mock-up. The sheet following
provides a 1/8 scale layout for
use with mock-ups. The scale
model may be made from
materials such as cardboard,
solid wood pieces , or erectortype building blocks . This
model will be found to be quite
helpful even when used in
connection with engineering
drawings. It is suggested that
these manikins be reproduced
8- inch thick clear plastic
in
and that the joints be flush- riveted.
Stiff cardboard may be used in
lieu of plastic .

2-22

UNASSEMBLED

1/8

INCH

INCH
2

23

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The illustrations show recom

mendations for angular mounting
of visual displays such as plan-

position indicators (PPI)

Dimensions are approximate.

They do, however, represent
usable standards for 90 percent
of the male population.

2-25

OP

2230

The size of an instrument panel

depends primarily upon the normal
arm reach of the human operator.
In general, convenient arm reach
is about 28 inches from the
respective shoulder pivot point.
This rule cannot be hard and fast
for the obvious reason that in most
situations the operator has freedom
to bend his body and thus extend
the useful reaching distance. A
word of caution, however, is that
he cannot be expected to bend
two directions at once, so do not
take advantage of his flexibility

unless it is clearly necessary.

Further, he will tire quickly if
his arm is in the extended position
for a prolonged time period as
shown. Controls in this position
should be either switches or
controls requiring infrequent
adjustment.

win

ALLOW THE OPERATOR

TO REACH THE CORNERS

Convenience limits for place

ment of controls on horizontal

60-degree, and 30-degree console

panels are shown in the illustrations

on the preceeding page. A visual
display may limit the flexibility
of the operator's position or special

2-26

apparatus may restrict his

flexibility for reasons of safety,
Convenience limits may be
established to restrict

necessary arm reach when the

operator is restricted to a
more or less static position.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Arm reach from static sitting

positions are shown,

when the operator is at a normal
and standing

viewing

distance

(18

to

28

inches)

from the control panel. These

are not maximum reaches, but
do take into consideration some
normal bending of the operator's body

2-27

OP

2230

Once a rough idea of the form

size factors of the panel or
console have been decided upon,
it is then necessary to organize
the components that are to be
placed on the panels . The compo
nents will undoubtedly vie for
optimum positions and compromises
will have to be made. A suggested
method for arriving at the best
and

PPI

Scope

Speaker

PPI Controls
Focus
Intensity
Range

Audio control

Output meter

Freq. selector

Cursor

Video gain

compromise and organizations,

first, itemize all

related groups

Communications Receiver
Tuning dial
gain control
Audio gain control

RF

Selectivity control

Intercom. Cont
Phone jacks
Station selector
Volume control

Navigation Instr
Compass

Course indicator

Next prepare cardboard

"cutouts" of each separate item.
These "cutouts" should be drawn
to scale and should represent the
interior dimension of such items
as dial face or control knob, and
the interior dimension of the
physical structure of the control
mechanism that will limit the
proximity of adjacent items .
These cutouts can now be placed
in the proposed panel area and
moved about until you have arrived
at the best organization and fit.
It is much more economical to
find out that you do not have
room in this manner than to
build a finished package that
must be modified later . The
following group procedures should
be used as a guide in organizing
panel components

0OOO o
o

GOO

O0O
2-28

components by

2.1.3.1 Grouping Procedures For

Panel Layout (Check-Reading
Dials). For a single group of
five or fewer check-reading dials
in a horizontal row, normal
operating position of the pointers
should be located at the
9-o'clock position; for the
vertical groups, orient the
pointers to the 12-o'clock
position.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

For groups of six or more, use
rows or columns rather than
extending a single row; long rows

ooo

or columns impose undesirable

scanning movements

operator.

upon the

For several groups on the same

panel, use a consistent pointer
position regardless of the above
recommendations .
Linear gauges or meters should
follow the same general rules as
specified for dials .
The positions of specific dials
which are grouped together should
be determined by the sequence in
which they are to be read, that
is, the operator should be able
to read in order of sequence from
left to right or from the top of the
panel to the bottom.

Controls should be placed:

Close to the display which they
affect, when possible.
Below or to the left for left-hand
operation; below or to the right
for right-hand operation.
Sequentially with respect to the

expected order of operation.

STEP 1

STEP 2

At the optimum position for

manipulation of the control which
is to be used most frequently.

POWER

SELECT

STEP 3

0
TRACK

So that there is an equitable

distribution of work load between

right and left hands; right hand
operation should be reserved for
operations requiring the finest
adjustment

t- o
.

2-29

OP

2230

Control-display

organization

should be such that visual displays

occupy central areas and controls
occupy peripheral areas so that
hand movements do not obstruct
the view of visual indicators.

Area or group identification

is quite important in complex
layouts. It may be accomplished
satisfactorily in several ways
as follows:

o 444

Adequate spacing of display

or control groups; horizontal
separations are preferred to
vertical separations.

Marked outlines around

each group.

0oo

oo

o00

Area color patterning.

Symmetry.

Differential place of mounting.

REMOTE COURSE

INDICATORS

Label consistently either above

or below for a specific category,
that is, group title above, as
shown; individual labels below
or centered. Lable in terms of
what is measured (rpm), not
by the name of the instrument
(tachometer). Company trade
names should not appear on the
face of a dial .

/
2-30

Space saving may be accom

plished by overlapping partially

hidden dials .

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

2.1.4 Lighting Applications
Certain human-operator tasks
involve the need for maintaining
the eye at an optimum dark- adaptation
level and yet allowing for adequate
visibility of instrument markings on
a panel or console.
Unfortunately,
the optimum level of dark adaptation
is not possible with even the
minimum amount of instrument
illumination, but is possible to
reach a satisfactory compromise
with a minimum amount of "red
light" of the proper wavelengths .

Other special tasks require

reduced ambient illumination for
optimum visibility, but the
required level of dark adaptation
is not so stringent. The sonar or
radar operator, for instance, needs
a rather low level of ambient
illumination in order to operate
his scope satisfactorily, while
other operators in the same area
may need to write or move about and
must have sufficient light to
accomplish their own tasks .
This condition we have chosen to
call "dimout" since actual blackout is
not necessary even for the scope
operators .

DIRECT

INDIRECT

DIFFUSED

GENERAL ILLUMINATION

For blackout conditions

(night lookouts, ship's bridge) use

illumination at wavelengths above

600 millicrons . Incandescent light

passing through filters conforming

to

Federal Standard No. 3,

Identification Red, meets this

r equir e m ent .

BACKLIGHTING

2-31

OP

2230

RED- LIGHTING LEVELS FOR DARK ADAPTATION

LEVEL
AREA
Control Roomi

(fool candl.)

LIGHT
Illumination on working oreoi
Illumination on block and white dial., Agures,

0.01-0.4
0.030.10

noliM plotel
Brightness of in>lrumenlfacei (white portion)
Brightn.si of indicator lights (not to e<eed 1
quarc Inch area)
Roody Areoi; crow's
esS. wardroonu

Illumination at tabU-top height

Brightneii of any area in the visual fwld

foot candles

0.502.00
2.00

not to exceed

For dim-out conditions

(communications rooms employing
radar, sonar, or other scope
reading tasks; aircraft control
towers) use red illumination
and/ or very low-level white
illumination.
The upper limit
for reflected ambient light
should be no more than two

0.02-0.08
0.10-1.00

The use of optimum materials

has progressed
quite rapidly in recent years
and is, of course, still under
The following
development.
suggestions are, therefore,
not to be construed as the
ultimate, but rather the best
that can be recommended to
date.
and techniques

Red or
Floodlighting.
for floodlighting may
be furnished by small fixtures
on approximately 8-inch centers
above the panel to throw an even
illumination over the whole
area. The operator can change
the light from white to filtered
red as needed, by rotating the
sleeve of the lamp housing.
Experiments have shown that
such floodlighting at control
centers in conjunction with
individual instrument lighting
is superior to either type of
lighting alone .

2.1.4.1

white light

2-32

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Individual ring lighting may be
provided satisfactorily by housing
two miniature lamps under a hinged
shield which protects the operator
from direct glare.

A stand-out fixture provides

maximum compactness for individual
instrument illumination .

The following precaution should

be exercised. Floodlighting casts

shadows. Keep instrument faces

flush with the panel; orient sources
so that shadows do not interfere
with other instruments ; diffuse the
light with appropriate filter
materials .

2.1. 4. 2 Transillumination. Transillumination is an indirect type of

illumination utilizing edge and
backlighting techniques on clear,
fluorescent, or sandwich-type
plastic materials .

Clear plastics such as Plexiglas

or Lucite possess excellent lighttransmitting characteristics which
can be used to advantage in
instrument lighting problems .

Figures may

FILTER

be engraved on the

reverse side of clear plastic and

edgelighted for dials, pointers,
and nameplates. Maximum contrast
for reading may be achieved by
backing up the display with a back
panel. Illumination may be in any
desired color by dyeing the edges
of the plastic .

ENGRAVINGS
ON
SIDE

BLACK BACKING

PLATE'

LAMP

2-33

REVERSE

OP

2230

Excellent blackout displays may

with a sandwiched fabrica
tion of clear plastic plus a white
layer of translucent paint or vinyl
topped with an opaque black paint
or vinyl. Illuminated with red
light, this type of display, when
engraved properly, will serve
for daytime use (the figure will
appear white on a black back
ground) as well as for nightime
use (the figures will appear red
on a black background) . Similar
results may be accomplished
with a silk-screen process .
be made

BUCK

FRONT OF DIAL

Light piping may be accomplished

by bending clear Lucite . Such
devices may serve to pipe light
to hard-to-reach pilot indicators
or may be used to illuminate a
lubber line or index in front of
a moving-scale dial. In the
latter use, a single light
illuminates the translucent dial
as well as the inscribed index.

Counter illumination is possible

with clear-plastic edgelighting
techniques . The plastic panel
edges should be roughened to
diffuse the light.

REFLECTOR

2-34

Translucent plastics in various

colors may be used for back
lighting purposes. Figures should
be engraved on the front surfaces
and filled with an opaque paint,
preferably black, for best results.
Even illumination requires that
the lamp be placed very close to the
surface of the plastic for best results;
a reflector behind the lamp helps.
The brightness drops off rapidly
within a very short distance from
the light source. This type of
material is not recommended
for large displays but rather for
individual nameplates with a
minimum number of figures.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Laminated sandwich-type plastics

combine translucent with opaque

characteristics and are treated
somewhat the same as the clear

sandwich.

The major difference

CLACK
OPAQUE

is that backlighting rather than

The
edgelighting is necessary.
same problems of even
illumination are found here as
were mentioned in the foregoing

WHITE
TRANSLUCENT

COLORED
TRANSLUCENT

paragraph. These displays are

more satisfactory for small
nameplates than for large area
displays . Engravings appear
white in daylight and red at
night

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES FOR ILLUMINATION

OF PANEL CONTROLS

CUT-OUT SKIRT WITH

RftNEL

TRANSILLUMINATED
PANEL AND KNOB

TRANSILLUMINATED

ENGRAVING
(Either bock or (dp-lighting)

(Either bock or edge-lighting)

TRANSLUCENT LIGHT RING

2-35

OP

2230

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INSTRUMENT

AND CONSOLE LIGHTING

BRIGHTNESS
RECOMMENDED
CONDITION

OF USE

SYSTEM

dark adaptation

Red flood, indirect, or

both, with operator

critical

choice

Instrument lighting,

Red or low color temper

ature white; flood,
indirectt or both, with

Instrument lighting,

dark adaptation not

critical

OF MARKINGS

BRIGHTNESS

(foot Lamberts)

ADJUSTMENT

0.02 to 0.1

Continuous
through range

0.02 to 1.0

Continuous
through range

operator choice

Instrument lighting,
no dark adaptation

White flood

1 to 20

May be fixed

Red edgelighting, addi

tional optional red or
white flood desirable,

0.02 to 1.0

Continuous

required

Control console
lighting, dark
adaptation required

through range

with operator choice

White flood

1 to 20

May be fixed

Possible exposure
to bright flashes

White flood

10 ta 20

Fixed

Chart reading, dark

Flood, operatori! choke

of red or white

0.1 to 1.0 on

Continuous

white portions

through range

Control console
lighting, dark adap
tation not required

adaptation required

of chart

Chart reading, dark

White flood

3 or above

May >1efixed

adaptation not
required

Acknowledgement
The foregoing material on Operational Features was obtained from
Human Engineering Guide by Wesley Woodson, University of

California Press

2-36

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

MAINTENANCE FEATURES

2.2

Good design can greatly reduce

the time and skill required for
maintenance. Provision must be
made for testing, adjusting, and
repairing of equipment, in keeping
with its size and complexity.

2.2.1

Testing

2.2.1.1 Test Points. The selection

of test points must be carefully
made based upon circuit functions
and conditions . A critical
examination of the equipment
block diagram and schematic is
necessary.
Major test points
should be provided with suitable
terminals, readily accessible.
A turrett terminal, properly
designed is satisfactory.

Terminals

on tube sockets

and

other inaccessible points are

not satisfactory.
Where critical
circuits, or high voltages are
involved a simple isolating
arrangement may be used.
HIGH
VOLTAGE

HIGH
RESISTANCE

TEST POINT

2. 2.1. 2 Failure Indicators . Fuses

should be supplied with neon
indicators to indicate failure.
In complex equipment where
functions are sectionalized, all
sections, where applicable,
should be provided with
additional fuses.
Panel meters are an excellent
means of indicating failure. A
sufficient but minimum number
to monitor all critical functions
should be provided. In some
applications, meter scales
may be colored to indicate the
normal operating range. Where
equipment is to be automatically
protected, high and low limit
alarm contacts on the meter
are useful. "Push-to-read"
buttons or rotary multiple
contact switches enable several
points to be monitored with a
single meter .
Monitoring dscilloscopes
and similar apparatus may be
used where waveform, in
addition to magnitude, must

be critically monitored.
Suitable switching arrangement
can extend the usefulness of
a single oscilloscope. In many
cases, where a cathode-ray
tube is provided for operation,
switching arrangements can
be made to adapt the tube for
maintenance purposes.

2.2.1.3

Built-In Testers

Built-in test facilities are more

desirable than portable test
equipment in achieving rapid

ISOLATION OF TEST POINTS

A terminal board containing key
test points and located above-chassis
is desirable. No disassembly
should be required to use test
points. A multipoint selector
switch is practical in some
applications .

servicing.

These facilities

should provide for over- all

performance checks and circuit

isolation. For example, in a

radar apparatus, means should
be provided to continuously
monitor the power into the
antenna; a built-in noise generator
coupled to the receiver imput would
quickly check its performance.

2-37

OP

2230

2.2.1.4 Test Equipment. There

are many standard test equipments
available for maintenance
purposes. The design of systems
should be such that special test
This
equipment is not required.
can sometimes be accomplished

during circuit development by

making proper provisions to
adapt the circuit to be measured
to the test equipment character
istics. Use of built-in adapters

is a simple solution.

2.2.2 Assembly Slides

2.2.2.1 Types. Where equipment
is complex and of unitized
construction, chassis slides,
runners, and tilting mechanisms
are usually required.

Continuous operation of such

equipment under severe environ
mental conditions requires that

rapid servicing be possible. With

drawal must be toward the front of
the equipment, and provisions should
be incorporated to prevent damage
to any rear-connected cabling.
Position locking of the chassis
in operating position is required.
A stop must be provided to limit
the extent of withdrawal. Additional
provisions for positioning during
maintenance, such as devices for
tilting and turning must be made
accident proof.

ROLLER SLIDE
FLEXIBLE
CABLE

TERMINALS

AN APPROVED ARRANGEMENT

SLIDE

2-38

Some expedients which can be

used in conjunction with these
arrangements are counter
balancing springs, adequate detents,
and over-center locking linkages.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Complete release and removal
of the chassis must require another
manual releasing operation.

Replacement of any part should

possible from the front of

be

the equipment

2.2.2.2 Permanent Links . Where

interconnecting cables are
permanently wired at one end to
a terminal board, adequate
preparation and location of the
cable must be considered.
Cables should be suitably
sheathed with flexible plastic
sleeving and anchored to the
chassis. Storage space
obstruction-free

and an

path prevent

chafing when the chassis is

moved. The cable must be long
enough to permit disconnection
with the chassis withdrawn.
Strain on individual wires must
be avoided by proper lacing, and

strain-relieving clips or
clamping devices.
2.2.2.3 Auxiliary Links

DIFFICULT TO DISASSEMBLE
SCREW

Where

SPLIT COLLET

the chassis is of the "plug-in"

type, similar to a module, an

auxiliary "link-connecting"

cable with mating plugs may

be supplied for maintenance
purposes. This method allows
rapid removal of equipment

for testing

SCHEMATIC ASSEMBLY AT "A"

TO FACILITATE DISASSEMBLY

2.2.3 Replacing Subassemblies

All essential subassemblies

should be mounted, when

practicable, so that they may
be removed as a unit. This

applies to mechanical as well

as to electrical and electronic
units. Riveting, welding, and
other permanent methods of
fastening must be avoided.
"Pile-ups" of assemblies that
necessitate a chain of removals
should be avoided. The need
for special tools should be
minimized, but, if necessary,
such tools must be supplied
with the equipment.
Free access to parts in large
equipment requires adequate
doors, covers, and openings .

2.2.4 Replacing Parts

2.2.4.1 Accessibility. Any
feature that leads to better
accessibility should be a prime
consideration of design.
BRACE

PARTS ACCESSIBLE

2-39

OP

2230

Ease of replacement and mainten

ance should take precedence over
manufacturing simplif action. The
type of enclosure required to meet
the environmental conditions
imposed should be constantly kept
in mind when designing for

accessibility.

All component mounting areas

should be utilized uniformly to
prevent the crowding that may
result from the inefficient use
of space .

APPROVED MOUNTING

This provides increased accessibility

fastenings and leads . Ample
clearance must be provided for
installation and the securing of
screws and nuts.
Component fasteners should not
be located under cabling and
apparatus. Permanently secured
bolts and fasteners should be
used wherever possible.
Finger room for starting nuts
and screws must be provided.
Nuts must not be located close to
a barrier such that a spinner or
socket wrench cannot be used to
properly engage them.
Clearance holes for screws
must be large enough and located
suitably to allow for variations
in component mounting holes .
Small screws, nuts, washers,
pins, clamps, springs, and
similar hardware are difficult to
handle. For facility in assembly,
the largest practical size of
screws, nuts, washers, and
clamps should be employed.
Inaccessible fasteners should
be avoided.
to

2.2.4.2 Removal Method. A

single chassis panel and cabinet
combination usually requires captive
screws or quick-locking fasteners
as the panel attachment element.

\ M
INACCESSIBLE FASTENERS

2-40

QUICK LOCKING FASTENER

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Where the chassis is provided
with a bottom plate, quick-locking
fasteners permit rapid access. It
is desirable to supply sturdy
mechanical devices on the chassis
such that the unit may be placed
in any position for servicing without
damage to components

Hinged doors

should be

provided with position retainers

to prevent accidental closing
when equipment is installed
aboard ship or in a moving
vehicle.

2.2.4.3

Tools.

Equipment

Sectionalized construction
offers considerable advantages in
ease of maintenance. Minor
repairs can be made with the
equipment in position or single
units can be removed and
carried to the service bench for

should be designed to minimize

the need for special maintenance
tools . Tools not ordinarily
commercially available should

limited. Cables, terminals,

receptacles, and similar connec

may be mounted in the equip

ment or located in a separate

repairs. For easy maintenance,

the depth of equipment is usually

tions should be easily accessible.

Large and heavy parts must
be located so that their replacement
is possible. Heavy power
transformers or rotating
equipment should be located
in the lower sections.
Accessibility of cabinet-rack
enclosures and consoles made
of sheet metal is usually somewhat
reduced because size of the access
opening is limited in area by the
bracing requirements. The rear
surface of many equipments,
particularly where depth is
considerable, is located against
walls. The use of slides and
drawers is especially important
in this type of equipment.
Where waterproofing and
splashproofing are required,
access plates are held against
gasket seals by means of
captive screws or the
equivalent. Removable doors
with suitable clamp- lock
handles, offset hinges , gaskets,
and similar attachments are
required to provide ready
access for minor servicing.

considered "special."
It is good practice to forward
a list of special tools to the
agency concerned for approval.
Those items deemed necessary

be

container

2.2.4.4 Wiring and Slack .

Cabling technique in the
vicinity of terminals should
be planned carefully for ease
of parts replacement. Enough
slack should be provided
for each lead to permit at
least one replacement. Cable
ends well "fanned out" are
required to prevent errors
in connections and permit
rapid installation.

2-41

Chapter

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
3.0 GENERAL
The following material is intended
for use by the designer when
formulating a general plan and layout
for an assembly and should aid in
solving specific problems relating to
assembly design. A plan and layout
involve the arrangement of all the
parts and a preliminary conception
of the structural form which will
include a consideration of all factors
The final design is usually a
compromise in which these factors
are satisfactorily adjusted to meet
performance requirements.

HEAT TRANSFER

3.1

The table of contents of this

publication is helpful as a checklist
for the design of an assembly.
Before attempting a layout, a review
of all subjects would be of assistance,
As the layout and general plan
progress, and as problems arise,
reference to specific subjects can
be made through the index.

The reliable performance of

electronic equipment is greatly
influenced by operating and
ambient temperatures . Military
equipment is subjected to tempera
ture conditions which vary widely,
Individual equipment specifications
may call out one of several
operating and nonoperating
temperature ranges . High
temperature operating limits
vary from 50C to 65C . Low
temperature operating limits
vary from 0 to -55C .
Nonoperating limits are usually
-62Cto85C. Nonoperating
limits are significant in that
equipment shall not be damaged
nor shall the operational
performance be degraded when
restored to operating temperatures
Each-h 75C source of heat
should be carefully examined in

order to eliminate excesses.

For example, high efficiency

rectifiers and inductors should

be utilized and power supplies

should not be overdesigned or

overloaded. Heat- sensitive

parts should be separated from
heat-generating elements.

A tabulation of all the requirements

stated in the equipment specification

is helpful. In addition, a study of
all other referenced specifications
should be made.

Often these

specifications yield enough

information to establish a plan
for an assembly design.

Insulation life is materially

.
Chemical
reaction rate, plasticizer
migration, and softening
increase in direct proportion
to the temperature, resulting
in a degradation of materials
and decreased operating
affected by temperature

life

OP

2230

Heat removal may be divided

into three phases: removal of heat
from the source, transfer of heat
along a thermal bus to a sink, and

TOTAL
HEAT

_~

dissipation at the ultimate sink.

The heat transferred in each phase
is a combination of conduction,
radiation, and convection.

CASE
CONVECTION

CASE
RADIATION

CONVECTION

TOTAL
HEAT

_"

CASE
CONVECTION

CASE
RADIATION

COMPONENT
CONVECTION

CONVECTION

3-2

AIR INTAKE

AT AMBIENT

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
As illustrated, all three types of
heat transfer may occur at the same
time, and it is recommended that each
type be considered in any particular
case

A discussion of each of

the

fundamental types of heat transfer is

given as follows .
Heat Transfer by Radiation. Radiation is a surface phenomenom ,
Surfaces emit and absorb radiant
energy in various degrees, depending
on the nature of the surface.

The rate of heat transfer is

expressed as follows:

Hr

10-11

3 . 7

where Hr is the heat radiated in

watts per square inch, is the
absorption coefficient of the
receiving surface; To the absolute
temperature of the emitting
surface in degrees Kelvin; and
Ta the absolute temperature of
the absorbing surface in degrees

Kelvin

Average values of radiation

(and absorption) coefficients
are presented in the table
below .

*Average Values of
Radiation (and Absorption) Coefficients

Material

Radiant-Energy

Black body
Lampblack
Asbestos board
Steel, oxidized
Copper, oxidized

1,0

Lead, oxidized
iron, oxidized
iron, bright
Brass, oxidized
Brass, polished

0.63

Nickel, oxidized

0.42
0.11
0.03
0.04
0.11

Cast
Cast

Zinc, oxidized
Silver , polished
Aluminum, polished
Aluminum, oxidized

Coefficient

0.95

0.93
0.79
0.72
0.62
0.22
0.60
0.10

*Data obtained from Standard Handbook for Electrical

Engineers, Eight Edition, McGraw-Hill Company .

As illustrated, radiation coefficients

vary from 1.0 for a black body to 0.03
for a polished silver. Surface finish is
quite significant.
Low emissivity is
synonymous with high reflectivity
The rate of heat transfer by
radiation, Hr in watts/inch can

also be determined graphically

from the curves which follow.
All curves have been plotted for
equal one

If the value of

is less than one, multiply the

radiated heat obtained from the
curves by

3-3

30

40

50

60

7080

100

200

300

400 500

Radiating Body Temperature TR C

Radiated Heal (hr),Watts /in2

3-5

700

OP

2230

Heat Transfer by Conduction.

Heat transfer by conduction can
take place in all three states of

matter,

gases

various materials. Gases have

low conductivities . Liquids also
are generally poor conductors .
The conductivities of solids vary
over a wide range, from the
very low values for asbestos
fiber or brick to the relatively
high values for most metals.

i.e., solids, liquids, and

The amount of heat that

flows through any body by

conduction depends upon the time

of flow, the area through which
it flows, the temperature
gradient, and the type of material.
The rate of heat transfer by
conduction is expressed by the

An illustration of the

range of thermal conductivity

of various metals is presented
in the plot of Temperature
Drop vs. Heat Transfer by

following relation:
Hc

Conduction.

At

The rate of heat transfer by

can also be obtained
graphically from these curves.
All curves are plotted for
Al in2, t=l sec, Ll in. For
other values of A and t,
multiply Hc obtained from
the curve by the desired value.
For other values of L, divide
Hc obtained from the curve by

where Hc is the rate of heat

transfer by conduction in watts/
square inch; k is the thermal

conduction

conductivity in watts/(in2-sec .HC is measured in

watts /square inch; A the area of
the cross section of the path of
heat measured at right angles to
the direction of flow of heat in
square inches; t the time the
flow continues in seconds; and
AT/L. the temperature gradient.
The symbol AT is the difference
in temperature in degrees
Centigrade between two parallel
surfaces a distance L, in inches,
apart .

C/in) when

the new value of

To determine the rate of heat

transfer by conduction of a
material not illustrated by these
curves, multiply the ratio of
thermal conductivity of the
desired material to the thermal
conductivity of any material

illustrated by the amount of

There is a noticeable difference

in the thermal conductivities of
Example:

heat transfer by conduction.

Find the rate of heat transfer of silver

for a temperature differential of 150C.
k
k

Ratio of

L.

for silver - 10.3 watts/(in2-sec . - C/in)

for copper 9.75 watt s/(in2- sec . - oC/in)

"Ag
kCu

10.3

1.054

From the plot:

Hc for copper for AT
Hc for silver for AT
1085 watts /in2
3

150C is

15QOC

is

1030
1030

watts /in2
x 1.054 or

o
o
o
o

si

1331S

m
h.
*-

X
CM

I
110

MIV

8
ro

00

8
PJ
Temperalure

ID

Drop

AT

in

o
ID

3-7

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Heat Transfer by Convection. Natural convection is the transfer
of heat to or from a surface by
the movement of a fluid when
this movement is caused solely

by a difference in fluid density

Heat transfer by natural

convection in free air is

expressed by the following
equations:

Hcv =11.70 (AT) 1.25 x 10-4 from a vertical surface*

HCU

15.80 (AT) 1.25 x

10~4

from a horizontal surface facing upward*

Hcd

8.20 (AT) 1.25 x

10~4

from a horizontal surface facing downward*

In all cases Hc is in watts /square

inch and AT is the temperature
differential in degrees Centigrade.
The first equation listed above
applies to a vertical plane more

than 12 inches in height.

height less than 12 inches

For

multiply the coefficients by

the appropriate constant listed
below:

Height in Inches*

Constant

1.35

1.53

1.76
2.70

Electrical
McGraw-Hill Book "Co .

*Obtained from Standard Handbook for

Engineers

Eighth Edition,

Heat transfer by natural convec

tion is presented graphically in the
following curves. As illustrated by
these curves, the rate of heat transfer
by natural convection from a
horizontal surface facing upward is
about 35 percent greater, and the
rate from a horizontal surface facing
downward is about 30 percent less
than from a vertical surface.

The amount of heat transfer

by convection can be increased
by inducing a draft over the
surface. This is known as heat
transfer by forced convection.
In summary

transfer of

the total heat

is the sum of

a body

conduction, radiation, and

convection in watts /square inch,

3-9

IO

8
6

4
3
2

I.O

.8

A
3
,2

.1

08
oe

IT

.04

O3
O2

.01

.008
.006
.004
.003
.002

001

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

Differential AT C
Transfer By Convection

225

250

275

300

Temperature

Rate Of

Heat

In

Free Air(Hv)
3

-n

OP

2230

Parts
For parts using Class A insulation
(magnet wire insulation rated at

3.1.1

105C) the maximum temperature

should not appreciably exceed 105C
At 130C, service life expectancy is
reduced from 10 years to as little
as 6 months . High quality solid

impregnation, oil sealing, and Class

B insulation permit higher
temperature operation. Class H
insulation provides long life at
200C. All classes are described
in the specifications for insulation.
Oriented grain or tape wound
core materials are desirable to
reduce core losses. Enclosed,
potted transformers provide a
larger heat-dissipating surface
area and improved thermal
conductivity between the windings
and case .
When such cases are bolted to
a good thermal sink, substantial
amounts of heat can be dissipated.

Inductors should, if possible,

located near a cabinet corner or
other metallic thermal sink.
Composition resistors operating
at full rating are materially affected
at 105C ambient. Their resistance
values may change appreciably.
A 2-watt size resistor may
permanently increase in resistance
be

by 40%; a 1-watt

size,

7%; and a

1/2-watt size, 5%. If environmental

temperatures are high, resistors
should be derated in accordance
with tables established in the
A
applicable specifications.
minimum derating of 50% is normal.
Composition resistors used in
bridge-balancing networks, feed
back loops , and similar circuits
must be located in comparatively
cool areas .
Wire-wound, deposited-carbon,
boro-carbon, palladium, and other
resistors are designed for high

3-12

temperature applications . Since

most heat lost by resistors
operated at full ratings is by
radiation, they should not be
located adjacent to heat sensitive
apparatus

Bleeder resistors should be

located adjacent to cabinet or
chassis surfaces that provide
good thermal sinks . Wire-wound,
metal-encased types can be
attached directly to outer chassis
walls. Leakage resistance of
paper capacitors decreases
approximately 50% for each 10C
rise in temperature. This is of
especial significance in coupling
applications .
Paper filter capacitors are
often incorrectly located near
heat-producing elements . If
properly derated and selected,
they may be operated at
comparatively high temperatures
up to approximately 125C . Direct
radiation from electron tubes
must be avoided.

Mica and glass dielectrics

are reasonably stable at 105C

However, the plastic cases,
when used, are subject to

deterioration at temperatures
above 120C

At temperatures exceeding
85C, barium titanate capacitors
are subject to appreciable
capacitance and resistance
variations. If used as frequencycontrolling elements or calibrated
reactances, they must be
mounted in a protected location
of minimum temperature variations .
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors
of the foil type are satisfactory at
temperatures up to 85C; the
sintered- anode type with some
voltage derating up to 200C .
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors
of the better grades are subject to

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
reduced life and decreased capacitance
if temperatures are in excess of 85C .
Such capacitors , when used, should be
bolted to a suitable thermal sink or
otherwise protected.
Electron tubes are the chief source
of heat in equipment.
Seventy-five
to 85 percent is due to plate dissipa
tion. As glass envelopes have been
progressively reduced in size, heat
dissipation has increased from
roughly 1 watt per square inch to
more than

watts per square inch

for some subminiature electron

tubes. Glass temperatures in high
ambients (70 to 100C) can easily
exceed manufacturers ratings and
thereby decrease tube life and
reliability. Most tubes are rated
by the manufacturer for a maximum
bulb temperature of 2OOC .
In subminiature applications,
bulb temperatures above 200C may
reduce tube life to less than 1000
hours. Causes are: vaporization of
cathode materials; evolution of
gas from "getters" and glass, result
ing in increased positive ion
bombardment

of the cathode; and

electrolytic
deterioration of glass at the
seals. Grid current is affected
by the foregoing factors, and
this tends to circuit instability .
There are many methods for
heat control; some of these
considerations are given below .
Loosely fitted tube shields
increase bulb temperatures.
Where electrostatic shielding is
unnecessary, shields may be
replaced with a "top-hat" retainer .
Shields should be made highly
emissive and thermally conductive
to the chassis.
Highly polished
shields are poor radiators .
Heavy, rough, oxidized-copper
shields with vent holes should
be used for best heat conduction,
convection, and radiation.
A high temperature source of
heat, such as a tube, may dissipate
energy by conduction into a large
surface area-lower temperature
sink. Large cross-sectional
area and short paths are
necessary for effective heat
transfer .
aggravated

RADIATION AND CONDUCTION

-HEAT SINK OR
COOLING PLATE

HIGHLY
EMISSIVE
SURFACE

COOLING

CONDUCTED

CONDUCTIVE
METAL

PLATE

HEAT

feMAX.

RADIANT
HEAT
MINIATURE

TUBE
SUB MINIATURE
TUBE

3-13

OP

2230

Mechanical joints should be close

fitting to provide a maximum of
metal- to- metal contact. In some
instances, silicone greases have
been effectively utilized to
improve joint conductivity.
Cooling by means of convection
normally accounts for half of the

LHOTTEST

CROSS-FLOW COOLING

heat losses . It has been found that

for free convection, the coefficient
of transfer increases directly with
the temperature differential. Thus,

for high ambients where the

temperature differential is rela

tively small, free convection will
afford relatively little cooling.

-PERFORATIONS

TUBE

INDUCED AIRFLOW

GOOD

FAIR

-PRESSURIZED

AIR

TURBULENT AIR FLOW

FOR EXTREME "HOT SPOTS"
GOOD

To provide sufficient cooling in

high ambients, forced convection

must be used. In the transfer of
heat by forced convection the velocity
of the fluid is the main factor to
consider. This effect of velocity and
the flexibility of its control together
with the penetrating property of
gases provide an effective means of
heat transfer in many cases. Three
methods of an effective means of
heat control can be achieved by
means of forced convection. Each
of these methods are discussed
individually in the paragraphs
that follow .
High transfer coefficients can
be attained by forcing cool air over
the hottest part of the heat sink.
Where the characteristics of the
air flow change from laminar to

turbulent, the transfer coefficients

increase sharply. Such air flow

3-14

should be directed through slits

or orifices to the desired areas
for efficient cooling .
Radiation plays an important role
in cooling tubes at high tempera
tures . The type of glass used for
electron tubes has a coefficient of
emissivity approaching a value of
1.0. With a glass temperature of
200C, the coefficient of radiation
is almost independent of ambients
up to 75C . Under these conditions,
radiation dissipation losses materi
ally exceed free convection losses .
To most efficiently utilize radia
tion, the heat sink should be highly
emissive. Oxidized, blackened,
roughened, or wrinkle finishes
provide good emissivity. Practically
all oxide paints, irrespective of
color, have an emissivity of 0.05 to
0.2 and may be used to shield a com
ponent if temperatures are not high.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
HEAVY
-CONDUCTING METAL
-EMISSIVE

Liquid or vaporization cooling,

however, is restricted to circuits
which can function satisfactorily
despite the increased stray capaci
tance and electrical losses resulting
from the use of liquids . The liquid
coolant selected must be chemically
and electrically compatible with
the electronic parts and the case.

SURWCES

The first chart on the following

page gives a comparison between
the amount of heat which may be

-LARGE TIGHT
MECHANICAL JOINT

effectively removed from a

sealed unit by vaporization cooling,
direct liquid cooling, forced-air
cooling, metallic conduction,
and free- air cooling.

UTILIZING EMISSIVITY
AND CONDUCTIVITY

Cooling of electronic parts and

equipment which must operate with
high heat concentrations may be very

effectively accomplished by liquid or

vaporization cooling . Vaporization
cooling, shown in the accompanying
illustration, is the most effective of
the various methods in current use .

The second chart on the follow

ing page gives a comparison between
the amount of heat which may be

removed from an external surface

by vaporization cooling, direct

liquid cooling, free convection

and natural cooling.

plus radiation,

CONDENSING

HEAT EXCHANGER
COOLANT
VAPOR

CENTRIFUGAL
BLOWER

ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
TO BE COOLED

SPRAY NOZZLES
FORCED

AIR

COOLANT

RECIRCULATION PUMP

CONTROL

RECEIVER

VALVE

COOLANT

VAPORIZATION

COOLANT LIQUID

(SPRAY) COOLING

3-15

OP

Z230

u
0

J*
O

W
-M
4-*
td

oo

^
O
4J

00

. ^t

o
o

-a

Q0
*3

I"

td
+J

<u

16

O
O

d
H

00
^

o
O

n
i-i

o
u

^
O
H
iH

cu

a
rt

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
3.1.2 Cases and Cabinets
Cases and cabinets enclosing
apparatus must dissipate all
internally generated heat except
where convection or forced-air
cooling is utilized.
3.1.2.1

Convection Cooling

A. Natural Convection Cooling.

Illustrated here is a curve showing
experimentally measured, com
bined convection and radiation
losses from a typical cabinet.

130

120
100

J>

Multiplying Factc 1rs _

For Finishes
.ol
Etched

90

\\

*>

Blk.Anod...
E5lk.PI atP aint
Eilk.Cr ockl e Lacquer

\\

|S

'

1.6

IJ80_

K,
^

50
d.'

Walts

Per.
JS

Sq- In.

.53

.15

ssipglion
.16

.143

than 1/16 inch .

There are instances where a
combination of cooling devices is

desirable for a temperatureAs an example, a

part heated only by an 80C cabinet
internal temperature can be
effectively cooled toward a 50C
external ambient by installing
radiation shielding and circulating
50C air about the part.

critical part.

^~~. *
I

-M*

.fl) ZO
*""
10

Z O

1.3

Openings such as louvers do not

significantly improve cabinet
cooling unless quite large and so
designed that they present little or
no resistance to air flow.
Parts
raised to a temperature of 105C
in a 50C ambient (complete air
circulation) tend to be cooled for
the greater part by radiation and
tend to nullify casual circulatory
cooling .
Localized overheating should
be avoided in the layout of
components. Heat generating
elements are usually located
near cabinet walls, which when
properly treated, serve as good
sinks. Components are cooled
appreciably by conduction if
surfaces are separated by less

MEASURED HEAT TRANSFER

OF ETCHED ALUMINUM CASE

TRANSFORMER

.TUBE
CONDENSER

TUBE AND TRANSFORMER

HEAT IS CONFINED
MARGINAL LAYOUT
CONDENSER

TRANSFORMER

- EMISSIVE
SHIELD
MASSIS

CABINET
RECTIFIER
TUBE

CONDUCTING^
RADIATING

UTILIZING CABINET TO
DIRECTLY DISSIPATE HEAT
GOOD

For design purposes, basic

transfer coefficients can be used to
estimate the amount of heat transferred
from a case containing heat dissipating
components. This lengthy procedure
for evaluating reasonably compact
assemblies is to assume that internal
air will be heated directly or indirectly
by heat dissipating components to a
temperature approximately 20% above
that of the cabinet. Cabinet tempera
ture rise can then be approximated
from the preceding curve. Internal
heat-generating components will
be found to rise in temperature
as indicated by curves for radiation,
convection and conduction.

17

OP

2230

Electron tubes are usually

operated at temperatures below
maximum ratings permitted for the
glass, and should be located near
cabinet walls if possible.
Adjacent apparatus may be
protected by reflective shields to
project heat into cabinet walls
providing a rise in bulb tempera
ture is permissible. A highly
conductive material should be
used as a shield to increase its
effectiveness. It is good practice
to make all internal cabinet, chassis,
and component parts both emissive
and conductive except those which
require isolation from heat.
B. Internal Convection. Since
heat dissipation within a case is not
generally uniform, forced internalair cooling may be required to
eliminate "hot spots" . The average
temperature of case walls thus
becomes somewhat lower, and more
uniform. This type of cooling is
recommended where moisture and
dust conditions are severe.

o!2

<

"
=

5.

=>

i"J<
CCg;
Q

SC7.

UUl

*l2
oLU

\\

C. Internal-External Forced

Convection. Forced air cooling

provides two benefits: lowered
cabinet temperature serves as a
more efficient radiation sink, and
internal air temperature is
reduced to nearly equipment
ambient. Since it is moving at
a greater velocity, it effects a
higher temperature differential,
thereby increasing convection
transfer coefficients. Forced-air
cooling is particularly desirable
where normal radiation and
convection paths are unavoidably

restricted.

Fo reed

Ad ding

tlnle rnol

approximately 120C , For general

circulatory cooling, clear lines of
air flow at large volume and low
velocity are desirable .

Circulat

ion To

Th srmal Convec :tion_

.
^^^

x^

25%

"\ ^^_

"'N^^^

tr

LU Li.
O. O

.l

WATTS

PERSQ.

TEMP. RISE IMPROVEMENT

.5

IN.

MM773 OOStfWKW
SOUMU *CH Of CXTOHIM

TEST

Blower motor heat losses should

less than 25% of the total heat
losses and can be as low as 10% in
an efficient system.
To be effective, air velocities
should be high at hot spots; otherwise,
radiation transfer will predominate
when temperatures exceed

be

3-18

Forced-air cooling will extract

approximately 1 watt for each 1-1/2
cubic feet of air flow per minute
per C difference between input
and output air temperatures . This
should be considered as the
minimum air flow necessary.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Baffles,

channels, and similar

air-control devices should

be designed

to cool hot spots without unduly

impeding air flow. Free air-flow
design results in more temperature
reduction for a given blower. The
air flow around unheated objects
is wasted and therefore the flow
should be concentrated across

surfaces to be cooled.
Dust, water, and overcooling
require attention. Air entrances

should be fitted with dust filters

which can be easily replaced.
When louvers or other openings
are used, precautions must be
exercised to maintain the degree
of enclosure required by specifi
cations . The degree of overcooling
relative to environmental
conditions may be controlled by

installing thermostatically
controlled blowers or other
devices

Segmented Sections

Capacitors

Thick, Conductive and

Emissive Mounting Plate
Emissive

Firm Metallic

Surfaces

Contact

Transformers
and Chokes

Electron

Conductively Cooled
Components in this
Section

Tubes

Blower

Dust

&

Air Temp. Low

Filter

50, 65C

Transfer

Enough

For Good

FORCED IN-OUT AIR COOLING OF POWER SUPPLY

3.1.3

Liquid Filling and Potting.

Oils used in liquid-filled cases

are excellent distributors

of heat,

and reduce hot spots to a minimum.

Good thermal contact is provided
by the fluid at all points , The
thermal conductivity of such oils is
about four times that of air . Oils
should be temperature stable and
must be compatible with the other
materials with which they come
in contact.

Miniaturized

assemblies,

enclosed in silicone

oil-filled,

hermetically sealed cases have

found application . Difficulty of
servicing such units is more than
compensated for by added life
and dependability

Solid potting compounds or encase

ments are good thermal conductors.
The number of possible applications
is limited by the loss of convection
cooling and problems of surface
contact

19

OP

2230

However, if the thermal buss is

made short, and a good sink is
available, solid-potting methods

range as high as 1000 g's while

at the upper deck, the shock may
be attenuated through the ship's
structure to a value of 100 g's.
Gun blast loads in the area
adjacent to guns is appreciable.
Shock loads are lower in the
superstructure where most
antennas are located. However,
displacements may be very high.
For a given shock load, the
displacement of equipment is
inversely proportional to its mass.
In addition to extreme service
conditions, shock and vibration
imposed upon equipment while
being transported can be severe.
Equipment may be accidentally
dropped 5 feet from a truck to a
concrete floor, or to a ship's
deck. Equipment is usually packed
and crated to absorb the shock of
handling, but if uncrated, it may
be subjected to shock loads as
great at 1000 g's, momentary peak.
In some cases the equipment
housing should be designed to
absorb some of this shock.
If dropped by parachute, apparatus
will experience a shock equivalent
to a free fall of 12 to 15 feet.

can be used to advantage.

For a more complete treatment
on the subject of heat transfer, it
is recommended that Bureau of
Ships publication, A GUIDE MANUAL

OF COOLING METHODS FOR

ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
(Contract No. NObsr-49228) ,
consulted .

be

3.2 SHOCK, VIBRATION AND

INCLINATION
Military equipment must

be

designed for reliable operation in

normal service and under combat
conditions despite conditions of

shock, vibration, and inclination.

Reliable operation is most vital
during combat when the environment
may be most severe. Shock forces
from gunfire and other sources then
becomes a normal operating
condition. Ideally, Naval equipment
should be designed to withstand any
action which a floating ship can
endure short of complete destruction.
A ship should be able to fight as
long as it floats. To this end,
tests which simulate shipboard
conditions are conducted.

3.2.2 Vibration

3.2.1 Shock Loads

The duration and magnitude of

shock at the point of attachment of

the equipment depend on a number of
factors, such as equipment location,
size, shape, rigidity, and flexibility
Shock loads can vary from
approximately 15 to 1000 g's for

durations varying from approximately

0.0002 to 0.005 seconds. The

maximum shock load to be withstood
by the equipment is usually stated
in the equipment specifications ,
Shock loads from an underwater
explosion at the hull of a ship may

3-20

Vibration aboard ship is

relatively not severe and is of low
amplitude in the frequency range
of 5 to 23 cycles per second.
Ship vibrations can be continuous
for long periods, and hence,
equipment must be isolated to
prevent damage due to mechanical
fatigue . Shipborne equipment is
tested through the 5 to 23 cycle per
second range for response to
vibration. If an assembly has a
natural resonant frequency of less
than 5 cycles per second, it is
also tested at this lower frequency.
The amplitude for this test is

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
0.036 inches.

The normal
maximum force due to vibration
aboard ship is approximately 5 g's.
The design must be sufficiently
reliable to provide equipment
which will not fail when subjected
to vibration without vibration
isolators. This is a reasonable
assumption, because within the
frequency range of vibration,
amplification of vibration by a
factor of two or even three will
generally appear . Should the
mounting system have resonance
at low frequencies, the amplitude
of displacement during shock may
be unacceptable. If resonance
occurs at high frequencies, the
mounting system must necessarily
be relatively rigid, and vibration
isolation is sacrificed.

3.2.3 Inclination

Equipment should not shift,

twist, or malfunction when inclined.

Equipment for naval use is usually

required to operate when tilted to
an angle as great as 45 from the
vertical. Pendulous or shifting
masses are therefore unacceptable.
During testing, equipment may be
held stationary at any intermediate
angle or may be caused to oscillate
at a frequency of 5 to 7 cycles per
minute up to 45 from normal in
any plane

3.2.4 General Practice

Present design practice for

shipborne equipment is to provide
shock-resilent mounting systems
having a natural frequency in the
range of 25 to 30 cycles per second.
In this range, properly designed
systems provide absorption for the
major portion of the shock energy.
They also maintain their resonant
frequency above the highest
principal frequency of vibration
encountered aboard ship.
A mounting system having a
natural frequency of less than 25

cycles per second can be

employed if damping devices

are used to limit deflection.
However, there must be no
discontinuity in the rate of
damping, since this would give
rise to increments of decelera-

tive shock. Although a

self-damping type system
greatly attenuates shock and
vibration, a more complicated
and larger mechanism is
required.
Components, such as motors and
generators, which can produce
vibration, should be isolated

from other equipment,

but
only when the frequency and
amplitude of their vibration are
harmful to other components.
Some items are sufficiently
rugged or flexible enough to
withstand shock loads without
shock mounts. These items
should be rigidly secured.
The application of resilient
mounts in these cases can
prove harmful, should they

introduce resonant frequencies

of vibration in the operating

range, or fail to provide

sufficient clearance for

deflection.
Metal supports which deform
under high shock loads are
sometimes used in place of
conventional resilient mounts .
These are flexible enough to
attenuate ordinary shock
loads, but under severe loads,
absorb the shock energy by
bending. The disadvantage of
this type of mount is that it
becomes permanently deformed
and must be straightened. Due
to this feature, they are not
frequently used for electronic
The advantages
equipment.
are the small size for heavy
equipment and very low
amplification, if any, of
vibration. Protection of

3-21

OP

2230

during transit and

storage is provided by proper

equipment

packaging and by the mounts of

assembly. Exterior caution
signs cannot be relied upon to
protect equipment from rough
handling .

the

3.2.5 General Design

To avoid amplification of
vibratory motion, the natural
frequency of an assembly should
be either higher or lower than any
exciting frequency. To avoid
excessive sensitivity to vibration,
natural frequencies of any element
of the completed structure should
be at least twice the frequency of
the completed structure or of
the exciting frequency, whichever
is higher. For this reason, resiliently mounted elements within an

equipment should be avoided when

the equipment as a whole is mounted
on resilient mounts; otherwise,
the danger of cascaded amplification

exists

Shock absorbers and dampers

are employed to absorb a certain
proportion, (at least 50%) of the
energy in a shock load. Shock
mounts are usually made stiff er
than vibration mounts in order to
absorb the energy of shock loads
without undue deflection, and do
not usually aid in damping highor low-frequency vibrations.
Vibration mounts are more

flexible and permit considerable

deflection under static load. A
shock absorber may be combined
with a vibration damper if
sufficient flexibility and space for
deflection are included.
Ideally, for transient shock
loads, the force of a shock should
be absorbed (damped) without
oscillation when the equipment is

3-22

displaced from its equilibrium

position. This is known as critical
For steady- state
damping.
vibration, maximum isolation
and minimum damping are
desirable unless the frequency
of vibration is near the natural
frequency of the mounted unit.
In such cases, some damping is
necessary to limit amplification
of the vibration amplitude at
resonance and to reduce trans
mission of energy at all other
frequencies to a practical value.
For unknown conditions where
the natural frequency of the
apparatus and the vibratory
frequency may at times coincide,
and where shock loads may also be
encountered, the damping factor
is usually 19% of the critical
value. This value has produced
good results for shipboard
installations ,
There are two types of dampers
used, namely, viscous dampers
and friction dampers.
Upon application of a shock
load, the viscous damper
expends shock energy in the
form of work performed to
displace fluid or air . Viscous
damping is inherent in the
vibration of solid panels because of
air resistance, and may take many
forms. Of these, the hydraulic
shock absorber is the most
common. Viscous dampers are
most effective for absorbing
shocks of large amplitudes at
low to medium frequencies .
Friction damping is used
effectively for all types of
shock loads and low- to mediumfrequency vibrations . Such
dampers usually attenuate the
shock transmitted to the
equipment more effectively than

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
do

viscous dampers.

Internal

friction damping is a fundamental

property of all substances, being

especially high for rubber and other

non- metallic materials.
The common rubber shock mount,

or vibration isolator, is extensively

used since it offers some inherent
damping due to the internal friction
of the rubber. Other types of
commercially available mounts
are enhanced by added viscous or
friction damping in addition to the
natural damping characteristics
of the rubber.
Resilient mounts must be
designed to absorb forces in any
plane of disturbance. For best
design, shock, vibration, and
combination mounts should suspend
equipment at or near the center of
gravity, so that the lines of all

forces pass through the plane of

the mounting . Many equipments

are supported at the bottom and at
or near the top. Mounts at or
near the top are usually known as
stabilizers. The height of an
assembly supported only at the
base should not exceed the
shortest base dimension.
Heavy parts should be mounted
on or near the base; more
fragile parts toward the
interior of the assembly where
the shock is attenuated.
Space
about an equipment assembly
must be adequate for maximum

Failure

anticipated deflection.

of the resilient element's

mounts should not permit any
element to become free to
move sufficiently to immobilize
the equipment .

MOUNTING STUD
STUD

RESILIENT
MATERIAL

SHELL RETAINS MOUNTING STUD

IF RESILIENT ELEMENT FAILS
3.2.6 Resilient Mountings
The following figures illustrate
various designs of resilient
mounts used for protection of
A brief
electronic equipment.

description is given opposite

each figure along with advantages
and disadvantages associated
with specific applications .

3-23

OP

2230

Assembly suspended by springs.

Provides maximum isolation.
Space factor high. Requires
minimum damping .

Assembly supported by springs.

Well-isolated. Good vibration
damping and shock absorption
with separate damping devices .

Assembly supported by rubber

mounts near center of gravity.
Well-isolated. Good vibration
damping

W
Rubber mounts combine vibration,
damping, shock resistance;
limit deflection.

Flexible beam permits only one

or two angular degrees of freedom,

Flexible beam support with

gradually stiffening rubber

snubber which limits vertical
deflection resulting from shock
force .

3-24

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Assembly protected by surrounding
soft, resilient material. Depending
on thickness of material, absorbs
sound, high-frequency vibration
and shock loads

Resilient pad furnishes character

istics of resilient mount.

above

Similar to

Assembly mounted on flat spring,

suspended partially by loose friction
spring to dampen vibration and
dissipate shock loads.

Deforming support will bend under

high shock loads. Isolated from
vibrations due to low, natural
frequency. Used for special
applications

Rigidly mounted outer case protects

and holds resiliently mounted

interior framework; reduces shock

mounted weight to minimum; affords

good handling protection.

3-25

OP

2230

3.2.7 Resilient Structures

Structures should be able to

absorb energy which is not absorbed
by mounts. Rolled, forged, and
extruded metal is extensively used
for structural purposes since this
material is comparatively tough,
yet ductile enough to yield
under load without rupture.
The use of cast metals or other
brittle metals should be avoided.
Stress concentrations should also
be avoided, particularly between
rigid and flexible members .

Fasteners are especially vulnerable

because of concentrated stresses,

and should, therefore, be designed
with care. A structure whose

members are stressed in flexture

is capable of absorbing higher
shock loads than one in which
members are loaded in tension
and compression only.

Several resilient structures

are shown in the figures which
follow. A brief description,

and advantages and disadvantages

of application are also presented.

All-welded frame . Flexibility

or rigidity depends on width of
flanges . Strength is equal in all
directions.

High cost.

Frame with non-rigid braces.

Bending stresses distributed
throughout welded or riveted
members. Resilient base absorbs
some shock and vibration.

Rigid frame enclosed in sheet

metal box. Box absorbs much of
shock and vibration, also protects
frame from atmosphere and handling,
3

26

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
3.2.8

Component Mounting
The location and method of
mounting components must be
considered in designing equipment
to withstand shock and vibration.

Design techniques that may

reduce the
possibility of damage resulting
from shock and vibration
are illustrated below .
be employed to

Heavy assemblies mounted near

Light, weaker units mounted
at top and interior where shock
loads are least severe.

base.

resiliently mounted
rigid framework . Adequate
space between components for

Component
on

deflection.

Bolt with undercut shank used for

mounting components and assemblies
More resilience. Less stress
concentration at threads .

3-27

OP

2230

3.2.9 Modes of Vibration

There are six principal modes

As
of vibration for every structure.
illustrated below, three of these are
translational and three are rotational,
A well-designed, shock-mounted
assembly is free to vibrate in all
modes at nearly equal frequencies.

MODES OF VIBRATION
3.2.10 Workmanship
Many well-designed electronic
assemblies for military use have
failed when subjected to shock,
vibration, and inclination simply
because of poor workmanship
or inadequate control of
production processes .
Hand operations require
considerable care. Since fastening
operations are frequently performed
by unskilled workers using hand
tools, there is apt to be a great
variance in the quality of work.
An improperly tightened screw
cannot properly perform its function.
Rivets, improperly driven and
seated, often work loose when
subjected to vibration and shock.
Welded joints , characterized by
burned, weakened metal adjacent
to the joint, lack of fusion, or
improper amounts of weld metal,
tend to cause stress concentrations
or weakness at the joint.
Machine operations can also
cause mechanical defects. Metal
may be over-stressed or ruptured
in the process of forming. Machine
tool marks or notches may cause
stress concentrations and consequent

3-28

failure of

highly stressed part.

and especially sand
castings, are subject to innumer
able variables .
Conversely, automatic production
processes, when coupled with
adequate visual and mechanical
inspection, tend to result in
products of more uniform quality
than hand-working operations .
Manufacturing processes in which
an element of automatic control is
involved, include sheet- metal die
stamping, automatic screw machine
operations, machine riveting, use
of torque wrenches, and automatic
welding .

All

cast parts,

3.3 SUB ASSEMBLIES

Experience shows that so-called
"scrambled" parts and wiring lay
outs are unsatisfactory for ease of
maintenance required in Military
It is often desirable to
equipment.
sectionalize assemblies into a
number of easily replaceable units,
with parts and wiring arranged to
permit maximum accessibility.
Examples of types of circuits
readily susceptible to unitization
are power supplies, i-f strips,
oscillators, tuners, relay assemb
lies, and servo and gyro units. Each
unit should include all components
required to perform a definite
function such as amplifying, recti
fying, pulse shaping, frequency
controlling, or frequency generating.
The additional manufacturing
cost that may be introduced as a
consequence of unitization, when
weighed against the added servicing
facility, is justified when it is
considered that maintenance costs
often greatly exceed the original
cost of the equipment.
The size of
the

over-all equipment can

be

reduced because of the increase

in permissible density with ease
of maintenance afforded by
unitization techniques .

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
3.3.1 Types
The folded sheet metal type of
chassis is most widely used, since
it provides excellent rigidity with
a minimum of metal and is readily
fabricated. Large parts are
usually mounted on top of the chassis,

while wiring and small parts are

mounted underneath . The depth

size of chassis may be easily
specified to meet particular
Two typical
space requirements.
subassemblies are shown below .

and

TYPICAL SUBASSEMBLIES
Rack-panel arrangements, similar
below, offer a proven
means of sectionalizing equipment.
Subassemblies and parts are
to those shown

fastened directly to the front

panel or to a framework which
extends to the depth of the

rack

RACK PANEL
SUBASSEMBLIES APPLIED IN MILITARY EQUIPMENT

3-29

OP

2230

The accompanying illustration

shows the use of the drawer-type
construction for mounting subassem-

blies . In this case, the individual

subassemblies are component
mounting boards. Printed wiring
boards can be installed in the same
way. This method makes efficient
use of available space and at the

same time permits ready accessibility

of subassemblies.
If this method
is used, however, a lock- in
arrangement must be provided
to prevent "pop-out" of the
subassemblies under vibration or
shock. Locking bars over each
row of boards may be used for

this purpose

DRAWER-TYPE CONSTRUCTION
-

30

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Mounting boards and strips are
widely used in small subassemblies .
Of particular value are metal plastic
laminates used as a mounting for
subminiature tubes and small
components in very high-frequency
units. The metal backing provides
effective shielding when grounded
Circuitry is laid out in segments,
and small areas of metal removed
for insertion of terminals into the
plastic .

I-F AMPLIFIER UTILIZING

METAL-PLASTIC
LAMINATE BASE

TERMINAL
METAL

PLASTIC

Larger subassemblies are

usually mounted on metallic or
thick laminated plates, and are
generally used where a vertical
mounting of the unit is required.
Typical applications include
control, fuse, relay, indicator,
and terminal assemblies.

MOUNTING LARGE SUBASSEMBLIES

A sectionalized unit may

consist of a subassembly
encased by a small shell and
fitted with plug-in connectors .
Miniaturized units are adaptable
to a wide variety of applications
such as multivibrators, cathode
followers, af, rf, servo
amplifiers, filters and
transistorized circuits .

BACKING

METAL

BACKING
REMOVED
SUBASSEMBLY UTILIZING
MINIATURE COMPONENTS

MINIATURIZED,

PLUG-IN UNITS

Enclosures may be either

enclosed or ventilated. If heat
dissipation is critical, a readily
removed, perforated- metal
enclosure can be used.

3-31

OP

2230

Sealed units can be filled with oil

or resin. In some applications,
casting resin has been used without
a case and results have proved
Resins having proper
satisfactory.
ties suitable for casting are
commeri ially available . Desirable
properties are complete poly
merization, good adhesion, limited
shrinkage, low water absorption,
and a degree of

two excess terminals, whichever

number is the larger , should be

provided as spares .
e. Extreme care must be
exercised when soldering the
smaller multiwire connectors,
since the tubular pins are not fitted
with means for making a mechanic
ally secure joint prior to soldering.

flexibility.

CAPTIVE HOLD -DOWN

Consideration must be given to the

provision of adequate heat transfer
through the

SCREW

resin.

Hermetically sealed units filled

with an inert gas or dry air are
adaptable to some parts and modules

MULTICONTACT

USED IN

HERMETICALLY SEALED UNIT

3.3.2 Connector s

The following items merit special

consideration in plug-in design:

a. A single multiterminal
connector simplifies alignment and
mating problems.
b. Exposed pins located in the
extractable unit should be recessed
to prevent physical or electrical
damage that might otherwise result
from possible misalignment.
c. Piloting devices and holddown clamps should be designed to
avoid undue stressing of the
connector body. Some "floating" of
contacts is desirable.
d. A minimum of 10 percent or

CONNECTOR

PLUG-IN ARRANGEMENT

Rack and panel construction is

usually characterized by the location
of connectors and terminals at the
rear of each subassembly. Where
accessibility is limited, it is
desirable to employ quick release
connectors and doors that are
clearly large enough to permit
easy

accessibility.

PILOT

,PINS

DRAWER

CONSTRUCTION

UTILIZING PLUG-IN

3-32

ARRANGEMENT

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Terminal strips of the barrier
if sufficient access
room is provided for making

type can be used,

connections and for the additional

cable length required for easy

withdrawal

BARRIER TYPE
TERMINAL STRIP

3-33

OP

2230

3.3.3 Clamping

and Supporting

Techniques for clamping and

supporting units on flat, sheet-metal
chassis vary, according to
particular circumstances .
Mounting projections such as
lugs, brackets, and folds are used
where space permits . Material for
projections must not be brittle or
of low impact strength. If threaded
fasteners cannot be easily or quickly
disassembled, bolted tie rods , slide
fasteners, knurled nuts, and latches
Captive types of
may be employed.
fasteners are recommended.

CAPTIVE TYPE FASTENER

Through-holes in the body can be
if the subassembly is
comparatively light and close grouping
Members strong
is desired.
enough to withstand full tension of
the mounting bolt should be used.
used

are used where structural strength

or the profile of the unit is of
such shape that customary
fastening methods are not

applicable. Considerable care

must be exercised in designing
straps and clamps to avoid
localized stresses which can
cause loosening under shock. A
locating recess or projection
will prevent lateral slippage.
RECESSED FOR
COMPONENT

STRAP MOUNTING
Where one end of a unit is
inaccessible, a piloting-pin type
of retainer may be used at that
end. The pin should be tapered
to fit snugly in its socket, to
prevent any motion during

vibration

SPRING- LOADED
TAPER PIN

ill
RIGHT

WRONG

For heavy loads or accurate

alignment, through- studs attached to

unit and projecting through the
chassis form a satisfactory mounting.
Straps, clamps, retaining rings,
framebrackets , and similar items

the

3-34

11 ONE SPRING RETAINS UNIT

3.4

ENCLOSURES

The primary purpose of

enclosures is to protect internal
apparatus from external elements

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Enclosures vary widely in their
shape and construction according to
the type of service desired.
A proposed design of the
enclosure, based upon a detailed
study of the equipment specification,
should be submitted to the bureau or
agency concerned.
The type, or degree, of enclosure
may be specified as "protected,"
"

"fogproof,"
"watertight," "submersible," or

"splashproof

"gunblastproof" . Accordingly, one

or more of the following tests to
verify conformance must be
conducted on the final design.
Military standards are available
which specify testing procedures for
enclosures and define degrees of
enclosure .
a. Hose test; water or spray is
directed toward the equipment from
a hose adjusted at various angles for
prescribed periods of time .
b. Submergence test; water
pressure and duration of test are
specified according to the required
degree of enclosure .
c. Gunblast test; the enclosure
is located near a test gun when fired.
d. Shock, vibration, and
inclination tests .
Enclosures must be designed to
withstand severe temperature, and
corrosion conditions . For belowdeck use, enclosures are usually
lighter and more compact, but must
be "fogproof." More open, or
"protected," construction may be
used for fire-control equipment,
and carefully designed to be
"watertight," and structurally
rugged. Submersible equipment, in
particular, should be corrosion proof
and obviously pressure tight.
Enclosures should not show any
light from within; dial and indicator
lights are excepted. The design of
these should be in accordance with
practices recommended in 2.1.

Limiting dimensions are

specified by the design activity
to insure that limits of available
military installation space are
not exceeded.

3.4.1

Types

Sheet metal'enclosur es are

preferable to cast enclosures
because of advantages in weight
and size. The height rather than
the depth or width should be
extended because of limited deck
or floor space. Good practice
for many applications is to mount
apparatus on a framework-panel
structure which can be inserted
into the enclosure.
If gasketing
is required, the front of the
enclosure should be flanged to
provide strength and a seating area

for the gaskets. Chassis runners

should be securely fastened to
enclosure inner walls. Corners
and edges must be rounded for
personnel protection.

SHEET METAL ENCLOSURE

Internal framing is omitted in

small welded consoles where loads
are well distributed. Sheet material
of reasonable thickness usually can
provide sufficient rigidity for

3-35

OP

2230

mounting doors, slides, and covers.

Slides and other retractable devices
assure accessibility.

This applies also to mountings,

doors, hinges, windows, cable
entries, gaskets, seals, protective
finishes, and similar considerations.
High- strength aluminum alloys of
certain classes are preferred
construction materials; other
materials being employed when
greater strength is required.
Sectionalizing is necessary where
the size of a single-unit enclosure
precludes passage through access
doors and openings as a single unit.
3.5 CLIMATIC PROTECTION

WELDED CONSOLE
enclosures
are readily
Cast
Materials
sealing.
to
adaptable
such as cast iron and ordinary die
castings that are weak and brittle
cannot be used. Cast steel and
certain specified aluminum alloys
may be

utilized.

CAST ENCLOSURE

Large enclosures,

designed to

carry heavy loads, are made of

an

all-welded, heavy sheet construction.

Sufficient framing and bracing are
incorporated to support internal
apparatus, and to improve over-all
structural rigidity. Where the
enclosure is located above deck,
adequate safety factors for protection
against the elements must be provided,
3

- 36

Equipment must be protected

from severe climatic conditions,
such as extremes of temperature
and humidity, direct water damage,
ice, wind, and dust. Ability of
equipment to withstand these
conditions is a basic design
consideration. Experience
demonstrates that a high percentage
of equipment failures in the field
are directly attributable to one
or more of these climatic conditions.
3.5.1 Humidity
Equipment is usually required
to be able to withstand relative
humidities up to 95% during
periods of continuous or inter
mittent operation . Simultaneous
temperature variations can
result in the condensation of
moisture throughout the equipment.
Enclosures, housings, castings,
and welds capable of functioning
under external hydrostatic pressures
of 600 pounds per square inch are
frequently required. If enclosures
are required to dissipate less than
1/10 of a watt per square inch
of external surface, ventilating
louvers and fan openings are
not effective and should be
omitted.

Particular attention should

be paid to the

application of gaskets,

rubber-like covers, O-rings, and

similar seals. In a gasket, the

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
hydrostatic pressure must be built
up along a continuous

line.

If

exposed to pressure, gaskets should

constrained to prevent any
lateral flow of material.

be

GASKET

RECESSED
FOR
GASKET

///////////////S7/
The seepage of humid air into
equipment enclosures, and
condensation caused by subsequent

temperature drops, will result in

unreliable equipment operation. This
is especially likely to occur in a
tropical atmosphere . This action can
be minimized only by incorporating
effective sealing. Where such sealing
is impractical, consideration should
be given to standby heaters that may
be used to prevent moisture
condensation on vital parts .

Failures caused by condensation

classified as:
Electrical leakage
Arc -over
Electrolytic corrosion

can be

Swelling of nonmetallic
material .

The effects of leakage can be

minimized by employing lowimpedance circuits wherever possible.

High-impedance circuits such as grid,
automatic sensitivity control, and
automatic frequency control, must be

well-isolated from other voltages

To maintain a high impedance,

considered here to be greater than

megohm, nonhygroscopic
materials such as silicone-glass
laminates are used. Other
materials, ranging from Teflon to
the best grades of phenolic are
applicable for somewhat lower
impedances . Linen, cotton, and
wood flour are specifically
unsatisfactory for use as plastic
fillers. Glass, mica, and similar
fillers are satisfactory; however,
an additional water-repellent
coating should be applied to
the surfaces .
Water repellent varnishes can be
used where suited to the particular
design; as for example, on connectors
and tube sockets where spacings
are marginal.
Encapsulation with
repellent greases or their
equivalent may be used for sealing
out water if this will not unduly
interfere with servicing operations
or accumulate foreign material.
Barriers are also useful to
minimize leakage or to increase
critical spacings.
Arc -over resulting from
condensation
or surface leakage
can result in permanent damage
should material become carbonized
in the-process . Materials selected
for insulation should , therefore,
be particularly resistant to
carbonization. Glazed ceramics ,
Teflon, glass-filled silicone, and
glass-bonded mica are suitable.
Unglazed ceramics should not
be used. Arc-through can be
avoided by using materials that
are not water absorbent and are
sufficiently thick to maintain
adequately low voltage gradients .
Under certain circumstances,
condensation may activate strong
chemicals present to a varying
extent in insulating materials,
waxes, paints, fluxes, and
platings. This will result in
electrical leakage or, in the case
of metals, produce electrolytic
corrosion. Inductors, transformers,
1

3-37

OP

2230

relay coils, meters and other

solenoid-controlled devices , when
exposed to corrosion products will
deteriorate rapidly. All such items
should be hermetically sealed or
encapsulated. Mechanical connections
are particularly liable to corrosion
and failure since recesses may
serve as pockets for fluids .
Lubricants containing rust-inhibiting
additives should be used to retard
corrosion of mechanisms .
Moisture absorbed by organic
materials can cause harmful swelling
and warping and, therefore, should not
be used where accurate mechanical
positioning is required. Where
vacuum impregnation of rraterial is
required, varnish rather than wax
should be used as the impregnant .

3.5.2 Temperature

Care must be taken in locating

temperature-critical materials .
Many plastics , varnishes, oils,

adhesives, and other materials

deteriorate at high temperatures .
Loss of the plasticizf . r is accompanied
by brittleness and shrinkage and
oils tend to oxidize and form
varnishes. Consequently, these
materials must have life-temperature
ratings at least equal to that
anticipated for the equipment.
Sunlight causes organic materials,
sensitive to heat and ultra violet
light, to deteriorate. Vinyl- jacketed
rf cables having polyethylene
dielectrics are unsatisfactory for
continuous outdoor exposure because
of temperature-plasticity
effects
that cause the inner conductor to
move off center . Corrosion of the
outer braid may also occur because
of humidity .
Where equipments may be
exposed to or operated in intense
sunlight, the 65C ambient
temperature stipulated in some

3-38

specifications may be exceeded on

the exposed surface. Also,
equipment may be stored in
areas at very high ambient

temperatures . This requires

particular care in choosing
impregnants, waxes, encapsu
lating compounds, and plastics .
Manually operated controls
should be fitted with nonmetallic
knobs which have a low heat
transfer coefficient.
Mechanical failures are often
directly attributable to temperature
changes . Bearings and shafts
may seize at high temperatures
because of thermal expansion and
lack of effective lubrication.
Large aluminum or magnesium
sections are particularly
susceptible to dimensional changes,
since their thermal coefficient of
expansion is relatively high,
twice that of steel. Where
aluminim is used in a hydraulic
seal, its size should be limited
if O-rings of small cross section
are used.
The starting torque of small
induction motors is often marginal,
and at low temperatures, reduced
starting torque coupled with
increased bearing friction may
prevent the motor from starting
under load.
Cold test failures are caused
principally by frost formation,
jelling of oils and greases, and
brittleness in rmterials .
Improper test methods also
result in failures . Where severe
internal frost is encountered,
covers, doors, windows, or heat
insulating devices may be used
to control condensation and
freezing. Excessive internal
moisture can be minimized by
improving enclosure sealing
or heat insulation. Water-repellent

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
coatings are useful on some
insulators .
Oils and greases of the ordinary
petroleum types become extremely
viscous at low temperatures and
their lubrication effectiveness is
materially reduced. A congealed
lubricant impedes proper flow into
bearing surfaces and may greatly
increase the starting torque.
Lubricants having special coldtest properties are described in
specifications and other publications .
Wherever a lubricated bearing
is clearly necessary, suitable
impregnated, sintered bearings should
be considered.
Solid lubricants may
be applicable. Best practice is to
avoid lubrication provisions unless

clearly needed to prevent corrosion

or premature wear. Instruction

plates affixed to the equipment
should note any special lubrication
requirements .
Many plastic materials become
brittle at extremely low temperatures
and break easily when subjected to
undue stresses. This occurs also
to an appreciable extent in various
types of metal. Polyethylene
dielectrics, widely used in coaxial
cable, crack readily at -60C if
appreciable flexure is encountered.

3.5.3 Wind, Ice,

and Dust

Equipment such as antennas ,

towers, and beacons, which must be
exposed to weather, should be
designed to withstand wind velocities'
up to 100 miles per hour , keeping
in mind that effective surface areas
and weight may be increased by ice.
Resilient structures may be driven
at natural frequencies by gusts of
wind and thus be subjected to
appreciably magnified loads . Under
certain steady-wind conditions,
continuous vibratory motion is
induced on horizontally oriented
center-supported rods . These
factors, together with aiy inclination
considerations, suggest that ample

design safety factors must be

employed. Screens, grids, or

perforated surfaces having a
small projected area are
helpful in reducing wind loads.
Attention should be given in
the design to permit ice removal
without damage to the equipment
De-icing by means of electrical
heating has proved successful
for antennas and feed lines.
Dust filters should be used
in equipment utilizing forced-air
cooling. They should be readily

replaceable, easily cleaned, and

flush mounted. With a maximum
air velocity of approximately
600 feet per minute, the pressure
drop across the filter should
not exceed 0.105 inch water
gage where the filter is loaded
with 0.021 pounds of dirt per
square foot of face area. Dirt
used for testing consists of 48%
lint, 43% fly ash, and 9%
lampblack. Impregnated glass
wool, 1 inch thick, is usually
a satisfactory element.
3.6 RADIO FREQUENCY

INTERFERENCE

Because simultaneous operation

at one location of many types of
equipment is necessary, it is
imperat ive that undesired
electrical radiations or electrical
noise conduction of each unit be
an absolute minimum to prevent
interference .
Since the range of frequencies
involved is wide (.014 mc to
1000 mc), the reduction of
interference is often complex and
difficult. Following is a brief
discussion of the problems which
are encountered and their
possible solutions.
By proper design, the generation
and propagation of interference can
be greatly reduced. Experience
has shown that the noise intensity
which can be tolerated is dependent

3-39

OP

2230

upon the operating frequency

of equipment.
These limits,
and the methods for their
measurement, are described

in pertinent specifications .
Interference can be classified
as either radiated or conducted.
In many cases, it is found that a
combination of both exists.
Suppression of undesired radiations
requires:
a. Elimination of favorable
conditions for generation.
b. Dissipation of generated
noise .

Two requirements are basic:

lead lengths must be kept as short
as possible and the best possible
grounding system must be uitlized.
These requirements can often be
met concurrently.
When the physical
location of parts requires leads
of appreciable length, they should be

large as practical. If shielded,

the shielding should be grounded;
the number of grounding points or
location of the single optimum
ground location will depend upon the
circuit involved and is usually
determined by trial and error.
as

be no larger than required by capacity,

to ground considerations . Whenever
practical, interconnection of rf
units should be made by lowimpedance coaxial cable, which
can be 100% shielded. In addition
to the harmonics of the desired

frequency, spurious frequencies

may be generated at any point in
the frequency spectrum by rectifying
action of poor connections .

Supply leads entering shielded

enclosures must be well-filtered
and the filter itself enclosed in
a compartment which is essentially
a part of the main enclosure .

All

ground leads should be

returned to a common point.

Double- shielded enclosures should

be connected together at one

point only, and additional
filtering placed in the supply

leads between enclosures

3.6.2 Conducted Noise

3.6.1 Radiated Noise

Shielding of radiating circuits is
accomplished with copper or
aluminum enclosures . A rule- of thumb, which experience has
shown to be surprisingly accurate,
is that joints of rf shielding must
be virtually watertight . Double
walls of shielding are sometimes
used. Necessary apertures should

3-40

This term is usually applied to

interference which is generated
within equipment and conducted
along interconnecting cables . When
only the power lines are involved,
filters are required in each side of
the line . Their configuration will
depend upon the frequency range
over which suppression is desired.
A simple filter may be adequate
if proper suppression has been
provided within the equipment.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
A typical two- section filter
is illustrated.

Outer Shield
Clearance All Six Sides

1"

Inner Shield
Standoff Insulators

Shielded Compartments
for Chokes
Shields Connected
at One Point Only

Feed-Thru Capacitors
Metal Tubing Joined
to Outer Shield Only

Insulated
Bushing

Nonmetallic Shaft

Some of the most

listed below:

prolific sources of noise

and

their remedies are

Cure

Cause
1.

Arcing of contacts,

a.

b.

R-C fitter across contacts.

Copper oxide rectifiers across

contacts where circuit

function permits

2.

Commutator /Brush arcing

a.

b.

R-C circuits across contacts.

Use of capacity only, but in

form of highly effective
feed-through configuration.
L-C filters in output leads
in IR drop can be tolerated.
the

c.
3.

Gas-discharge
vapor

tubes

rectifiers

mercury-

a.
b.
c.

Rf chokes in plate and grid leads

Close-fitting shield.
Electrostatically shielded

power transformer , center

tapped to ground on the
equipment side .

3-41

OP

2230

of the interfering source; the higher

the frequency, the finer the mesh
required. The contact between
the mesh and its mounting must
not permit leakage of energy.

3.6.3 Types of Shields

Shielding of cathode-ray tubes

from interference presents a
special problem . Sometimes
multiple shields are required to
provide adequate protection.
Laminates of magnetic and highconductivity materials may be
used for the multiple shielding.

3.6.3.2

3.6.3.1 Wire Meshes. When

design requirements, such as
forced-air cooling, preclude the
use of a solid shield, a wire mesh is
permissible and is fairly effective.
The mesh size is determined by the
attenuation desired and the frequency

ESI

WIRE MESH GASKETS

- 42

Metal

sealing material . Various

applications of wire mesh gaskets
are illustrated below.

Metal Gaskets

gaskets of special design are

effective around doors and other
apertures . Typical gaskets are
made of knotted wire mesh. Where
both shielding and sealing are
required, the wire mesh gasket
is combined with a suitable

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
3.6.3.3 Reduction of Conducted RF
Observance of the
Interference.
following rules will help to minimize
conducted rf interference:
a. Assure that soldered
connections are sound .
b. Do not lay out conductors
carrying interfering currents
and conductors sensitive to
interference pickup in
parallel unless they are
shielded. If it is necessary
for unshielded wires to cross,
cross them as nearly as
possible at right angles .

3.6.3.4 Shielding of Printed

Harnesses. Printed harnesses may
be shielded by the following methods:

Solid shields . A solid shielding

material may be laminated
to both sides of the insulated
cable, if flexibility is not
important. If the cable can
come in contact with other
parts, the exposed surface of
the shield should be insulated.
Striated shields . Striated
shielding should be used on
both sides of the insulated
cable if flexibility is
desired. The construction
of a cable with striated
shielding is shown below.
Shielding adjacent conductors .
Sufficient shielding may be
obtained in some cases by
grounding conductors
adjacent to the signalcarrying conductor .

TOP SHIELD

CONDUCTORS
1

BOTTOM SHIELD

OZ. COPPER

SHIELD

0.002"
0. 002"
0. 005"

0. 002"

KEL-F

KEL-F

0.005" KEL-F
1 OZ.
COPPER CONDUCTORS
0. 005" KEL-F

KEL-F
KEL-F

OZ.

COPPER SHIELD

FLEXIBLE CABLE

WITH STRIATED SHIELDING

3-43

OP

2230

3.7 AUTOMATIC PROCESSES

Due to the increasing complexity
of electronic equipment, a reduction
in weight and size has become
mandatory. Along with reduction in
weight and size, reliability has also
become a major problem. To improve
reliability, it has become necessary
to develop new fabrication techniques
for producing electronic circuits .
Conventional methods whereby
individual parts are manually assembled
and wired on a chassis no longer
provide the reliability and quantity of
production required. In many cases,
it is difficult for human hands to
handle some of the miniature parts,
components, and assemblies .
Automatic production techniques
are needed for electronic equipments
regardless of size. Important
advantages are greater uniformity
and reliability, smaller weight and
size, and reduced cost . The
ultimate goal is increased reliability
and cost reduction which will make

expendability of small
subassemblies practical. This will
eliminate repairs as well as reduce
costly and time-consuming maintenance.
complete

3.7.1 Prefabricated Circuits

By fabricating the electrical
conductor as an integral part of the
base-plate the need for wiring parts
into the desired circuit is reduced to
a minimum or is completely
eliminated. In certain techniques of
prefabrication, condenser plates,
coil turns, and resistors are made
a part of the conductor . In the
cases where completely automatic
fabrication is possible, the
attachment of tubes and connectors
is all that is necessary to finish the
assembly or subassembly.
Some of the automatic processes
used for printed circuits are:
a. Silver fired conductors
b. Stencil-etched circuits

3-44

c.
d.
e.

Pressed silver powder

Stamped conductors

Sprayed-copper conductors

f. Silver -ink printing

g.

h.

Photo- etched conductors

Silk screening

3.7.1.1 Silver Fired Conductors .

Silver fired printed circuits
usually consist of R-C networks
and find wide application at audio,
video, and vhf frequencies . Some
applications are interstage
coupling, decoupling filters ,
integrating and phase- shifting
networks, multi-vibrator and
slipping circuits, and arc and
audio networks. As an example,

the complete

circuitry and sockets

for a three-stage, subminiature,

audio amplifier have been
fabricated on a ceramic plate
occupying a space of only 1 by
1-1/2 by 1/2 inches.
A widely used printed circuit
consists of a plate on which
combinations of resistive and

capacitive elements, as well as

conductors, are fired on
glass, steatite, or barium
titanate . For high-frequency
applications above 40 mc,
spiraled pancake coils are
readily fabricated.
the

23

45

C-2

R-l

<R-2

">

R-3

SILVER FIRED CONDUCTOR

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
hearing-aid amplifiers , and
various types of control instru
ments

IT

Conventional parts such as

resistors and capacitors are
mounted by soldering directly
into eyelets which are
fabricated to the stencil-etched
conductors . Conductors on
both sides of the baseplates
are closely spaced and
capacitive effects are produced
which must be accounted for
during the design phase. Coils
having a satisfactory Q above 30
mc may be etched in the same
manner as the conductors .

SILVER FIRED CONDUCTOR

A wide range of resistance

values may be obtained but the
maximum power dissipation is
limited to 1/2 watt per resistor
at the present time.
Capacities
up to 0.01 mf d . may be obtained
by the proper selection of the
dielectric material and dimensions ,
One design problem which requires
care is the variation of capacity and
power factor of the dielectric
material with temperature, particu
larly above 55C . Using present
automatic fabrication techniques,
tolerances of component values are
wider than those normally obtained
with conventional components .
Stray coupling and shunting
capacitances may be appreciable but
can be controlled by careful design.
3.7.1.2 Stencil-Etched Circuits .
Stencil-etched conductors on a
plastic backing may be used to an
advantage where ceramic or glass
would be subject to breakage
particularly when large baseplates
are required. Stencil-etched
conductors are widely used in small
broadcast receivers, i-f strips,

STENCIL-ETCHED CIRCUIT
In the stencil- etching process,
the wiring pattern is formed by
applying a chemically resistant
compound through a stencil
onto a metal foil which is
bonded to a suitable plastic
base material. The unprotected
portions of the foil are then
chemically removed leaving the
desired conductor pattern on the
plastic base. The base material
must have a low coefficient of

water absorption and provide

a heat-resistant bond to the
metal foil. Copper foil bonded to
melamine-glass cloth and

subsequently silver plated has

been successfully used. Other
copper-clad materials in use include
Teflon, silicone, epon, and glass-

cloth laminates

3-45

OP

2230

Thus far, phenolic laminates have

been unsatisfactory because of their
poor bonding properties .
Conductor printing may be
produced by stenciling, photographic
processing, or offset printing. A
mixture of microcrystalline wax

and activated rosin has been used in

the stencil-etch process to protect
those portions of the copper -clad
laminate that form the conductor

pattern.
Adhesion of the conductor to
the base material is important because
it is greatly affected by subsequent
soldering . Bonding may be
improved by the use of a large area
and a high- temperature adhesive
which has been properly cured.
Surface leakage between conductors
is minimized by coating the surface
of the base material with a good
insulating varnish or plastic .

3.7.1.3 Pressed Silver Powder .

The pressed silver powder process
consists of a series of mechanical
operations for producing conductors
on thermosetting laminates . Finely
powdered silver is screened on the
base material which has been
prepared with a compatible adhesive
film. The wiring pattern is formed
with a hot-press die using a
predetermined schedule of time,
temperature, and pressure. The
remaining loose silver is then
removed and the pressed pattern
is given further curing cycles to
improve imbedment of the pattern
in the adhesive layer as well as
to insure complete polymerization
of the adhesive

3.7.1.4 Stamped Conductors.

In
stamped-wiring process, a die
fabricated to the desired circuit
layout stamps out a grid in copper
or brass. The grid is removed,
plated with silver or tin, and
the

- 46

pressed into receptacle slots on the

molded chassis. To maintain
rigidity during the stamping
operation and subsequent handling,
several grid links may be left
intact until the final step, after
which they are cut loose. Upon
pressing the grid into the molded
chassis, components, connectors,
and tube socket pins are soldered
to the grid by conventional methods .
This type of fabricated wiring
has been applied satisfactorily
to amplifiers and control circuit
subassemblies . An example of
stamped wiring applied to an
amplifier is shown in the figure
below

STAMPED WIRING

In another technique of
stamped wiring, a preheated
die is used to stamp the grid
from copper foil into a phenolic
baseplate. Prior to stamping,
the foil is prepared with a
thermoplastic adhesive which
softens under heat and pressure
to produce bonding to the
phenolic base. The surface of
the baseplate is usually roughened
to improve bonding.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
The die face is made with a concave
surface which pinches the grid edges
into the phenolic base to secure the
grid mechanically to the base.

3.7.1.5 Sprayed- Copper Conductors.

In the sprayed- copper wiring method
of construction, the components are
placed in a phenolic chassis suitably
molded with grooves for the
conductor paths . The entire unit is
sprayed with a copper- metalizing gun
thus eliminating the need of manual
wiring and soldering . No mask is
required if the grooves are molded with
sharp edges at the outside surface.
The excess copper on the top surface
may be removed by wiping with a
cloth or by light sanding.
The copper spray has shown
optimum adhesion in grooves 0,062
inches wide and 0.040 inches deep.
Adhesion is improved by roughening
the grooves with longitudinal ridges .
The copper conductors may be
protected by a varnish coating . If
desirable, the entire assembly may
be potted into one unit as shown in
the figure below . Extensive
vibration and temperature-cycling
tests have proven the sprayed-copper
wiring method to be very satisfactory.

SPRAYED-COPPER CONDUCTOR
3.7.1.6 Silver-Ink Printing.

Special silver inks are presently

used for printing conductors on
the surfaces of base materials
such as polytetrafluoroethylene

(Teflon), epoxy, melamine,

and phenolic plastics which are
in geometric form of cones,
cylinders, and spheres. Silverink printing simplifies the
manufacture of rotors,
commutators , and wave-guides .

3.7.1.7 Photo-Etched Conductors

The photo-etch process is similar
to the stencil- etching process,
paragraph 3.7.1.2 It is an
accurate method of producing
printed wiring and is used in
applications where precision and
good detail are required. This
method employs a copper-clad
insulating material or laminate,
such as copper

foil bonded to

or phenolic
base material. The copper
surface is thoroughly cleaned
and a photo- emulsion is applied.
A photographic negative made
from a photomaster or original
drawing of the proposed circuit
is used to make a contact print
on the prepared copper. A
high-powered light source such
as a carbon arc, is then used
to harden the photo- emulsion
on the copper in the desired pattern.
Suitable treatment is used to
remove the unharde'ned portions
of the photo- emulsion and the
unwanted copper foil. The
hardened photo- emulsion is
then cleaned off with a solvent,
leaving the finished copper
conductor pattern.
melamine-glass

3.7.1.8 Silk Screen Process .

The silk screen process is
less accurate than the photo- etch
process for the production of
printed wiring, but is more
adaptable to large production
runs . A stencil of the proposed
circuit is prepared on a silk
screen. After the copper
surface is cleaned, an acid

3-

47

OP

2230

resistant ink is screened onto

copper and unwanted copper foil

is etched away. The ink is then

removed with a suitable solvent,

leaving the finished copper
conductor pattern.

3.7.2 Automatic Assembly

Automatic assembly systems of

prefabricated circuits include
ceramic-wafer building blocks and
For large
copper clad laminates.
or complex equipments, the final
assembly is composed of a number
of subassemblies . These
subassemblies are refereed to as
units or modules and the process
as unitized construction or modular
construction .

3.7.2.1 Ceramic Building Block

System.

The ceramic building

WAFER CONSTRUCTION

Basically, there are four

operational phases in this method of
assembly. In the first phase, the
ceramic materials are mixed, cold
pressed to shape, and fired to

3-48

block method of automatic assembly

is based on a standard block,
7/8 inch square, which consists
of a notched ceramic wafer .

Electronic components such as

resistors, capacitors, and tube

sockets are made integral with

the ceramic wafer. The wafers

are assembled in skyscraper

fashion to form a module of one
or more electronic stages. The
ceramic wafers, titanate capacitors,
and adhesive tape resistors are
produced in quantity directly from
the raw materials . The basic raw
materials are fed into a
mechanized assembly line. In
the illustrations which follow,
are examples of individual
wafer construction and
building block assembly.

BUILDING-BLOCK

ASSEMBLY

produce the notched wafers. In

phase two, the silvered conductors,
capacitors, resistors, and
inductors are fired onto the
wafers. The silvered conductors

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
are brought out to the appropriate
notches at the edge of the wafer where

interconnecting leads are soldered

in the third phase. These inter
connecting leads not only produce
interconnection between wafers
but give mechanical support and
rigidity to the wafers as well. Once
the individual decks are stacked,
the interconnecting leads are dip
soldered into place. Tube sockets
are usually mounted on the top
deck. The final and fourth phase
consists of impregnating and
testing.

Soldering is required on only

one side so a single dip
soldering operation suffices .
Tracing of the circuit for
testing and repairing is

simplified.
O

A200

3.7.2.2 Printed Wiring System.

The first step in preparing printed
wiring (copper-clad laminate)
circuits is the formation of a
conductor pattern on the printed
wiring board, as illustrated,
by means of photo-etch, silk screen,
or other techniques discussed in
paragraph 3.7.1.
The second step consists of
drilling holes through the board
at specified locations , inserting
the part leads through these holes,
and soldering the leads to the
circuit side of the board, usually
by dip soldering . Eyelets or
plated-through holes may be used
to mount the components when
specifically approved by the

procuring activity

Parts may be mounted on both

sides and the conductor patterns may

be formed on both sides of the board
where space requirements or
other considerations necessitate it.
However, it is preferable to mount
parts on only one side for the
following reasons:
a. Design time is reduced
because cross-over wiring
is eliminated.
b. Fabrication time is cut as
much as 50 percent because
registration between sides
is not necessary.

CONDUCTOR SIDE OF
PRINTED WIRING BOARD

3-49

OP

2230

The third step consists of a rinsing

wash and drying cycle. This is
followed by impregaation or other
coating, where applicable. The fifth
and final step consists of mounting
the required tubes , transformers,
support members, enclosures, and
other parts or components. The
layout of the component side of a

typical printed wiring board is

shown below. In a complex assembly,
the individual subassemblies are
stacked and interconnected in a
suitable fashion to form the final
equipment assembly.
Some advantages of printed wiring
over conventional point-to-point wiring
are:
a. Labor costs are reduced from
the drafting stage through
final checkout of completed
assemblies .
b. Automatic techniques are
suitable for the production
of printed wiring .
c. Reliability of final assembly
is increased through
elimination of defective solder
joints by use of controlled
dip soldering .
d. Reproducibility of circuits
is simplified and all circuits
are uniform .
e. Space and weight are saved.
Miniaturization is facilitated.

e.

Adequate shielding for

components is difficult to

provide

Suggested methods for over

coming two of these disadvantages
are illustrated on the following

pages.

0
0

Accessibility of components

f.

for servicing is improved.

Some disadvantages of printed
wiring are:
a. Dissipation of heat from
board mounted parts may
be a problem .
b. Transformers, chokes, and
other relatively heavy
components are difficult to
c

d.

3-50

mount .
Copper foil may peel from the
base material .
Improper cleaning of the
conductor pattern may cause
poor solder joints .

-t

mi

H
I

COMPONENT SIDE OF

PRINTED WIRING BOARD

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
heat sink shown below, are

To prevent overheating of the

components on printed wiring boards,
special designs such as the

sometimes required.

TUBE HEAT SINK

c.

OOfl
PRINTED WIRING

TOP

Three alternate methods of

mounting heavy parts on printed
wiring boards are shown on page
3-52. This disadvantage may be
overcome by the use of board
material of adequate thickness;
by the use of a backing plate,
consisting of additional sheets
of board material; or by the
use of stiffener angles or
brackets attached to the board

BOARD

SIDE

at

critical points

3.7.2.2.1 Selection of BoardBase Material. The table on

3-53 which lists electrical
and mechanical properties
of various unclad board-base
materials, may

be used as

in selecting the proper

board-base material for
printed wiring applications .
a guide

3-51

OP

2230

HEAVY PART

EXTRA THICK
BOARD MATERIAL

m\\\m\q

HEAVY PART

REGULAR THICKNESS
BOARD MATERIAL
BACKING PLATE

HEAVY PART

REGULAR THICKNESS
BOARD MATERIAL

STIFFENER ANGLE

METHODS OF MOUNTING HEAVY PARTS

- 52

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

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3-53

OP

2230

3.7.2.2.2 Attaching Leads

Printed Wiring Boards

to

The various

methods unique to the attachment

of leads to printed wiring boards
are discussed in this section and are to
be used as a guide by the designer
when selecting connections for a
specified design. Other type

connections are thoroughly discussed

in a later chapter of this, manual.
Printed wiring connections are
grouped into two broad categories;
permanent and separable.
Permanent wire connections
used in printed wiring are those
unlikely to be disassembled during
the life of equipment in which the
printed wiring board is installed.
Connections of this type are made by
soldering as illustrated in the figures.

This type of connection does

not require an electrical connector
and provides a simple inexpensive
method of attaching printed
cicuit boards with conventional
wiring. It is not a mechanically
strong connection and would be

unsatisfactory for applications

where excessive vibration is
present .
Terminals suitable for
swaging are made of brass, plated
to increase ease of soldering.
Since silver plating tarnishes,
gold plating is frequently
preferred. Terminals made of
steel or ferrous metals are not
desirable for swaging.
Terminals of this type
provide a good mechanical and
electrical connection. Board
layout is simplified by the fact
that termination of leads can be
made from any point on the board.
One disadvantage to this type
connection is that assembly and
maintenance time is increased

because leads must be

individually installed and

removed.
Welding or brazing leads
to printed circuit boards may be
employed to make a permanent

TINNED LEAD SOLDERED IN

OR DRILLED HOLE

EYELET

connection under special

In general,
conditions.

electrical connections made

by

welding or brazing are

employed where structural

TERMINALS SWAGED TO
PRINTED BOARDS
- 54

connection is a factor . A
requirement for electrical
continuity in the assembly of
small structural members may
dictate the choice of welding or
brazing rather than mechanical
fastening devices or solder joints
Connections used in printed
wiring that are intended to be
repeatedly made or broken for
testing, maintenance, or the
replacement of components are
referred to herein as separable
connections . This includes a
wide variety that is further
grouped into individual and

multi- contact connections

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

For good design, both individual

and multi-contact connections must
possess the following character
istics:

Electrically reliable
Mechanically reliable
3. Polarization
4. Easily removable for
1 .

2 .

maintenance

5. Sufficiently plated to insure

good contact after repeated

insertion.
Additional design features will

be discussed with each type of

connection.

Printed circuit board

connections terminated into
individual leads are referred to
as individual connections. Usually,

MINIATURE TUBULAR

PESTS

As shown above, the following

features can be obtained with the
use of miniature tubular pins:
1. Pins can be permanently
soldered in place.
2. Pins are available for
3.

4.
5 .

6.

automatic insertion.
Pins snap into printed

boards .
Pin location is

versatile.
Pins are available in

many sizes .
Jumpers may be attached
between pins

In addition to the tubular pins

previously described, solid

the leads to be connected are

equipped with a crimped or

soldered terminal .
The terminal attaches to the
printed wiring boards by means of
a terminal block, tubular or solid
pins, wedge shaped connections,
or slide- in electrical connectors
located in the terminal area.
In general, connections of this
type are less adaptable to
electronic equipment than
soldered connections because
they are bulky and not applicable
to current assembly practice.
Also, increased assembly and
maintenance time is required
since each lead must be individually
installed and removed.

FOR WIRE TERMINATION

copper pins are available for
printed circuit board connections.
Circuit pins of this type require
only a round hole (1/8 in. dia.)
in the circuit board. Special
assembly equipment is not
required and assembly is from
one side of the board with singlestroke driving action. The base
of the pin is self -locking upon
insertion which makes it fully
torque resistant prior to
soldering. Mechanical,
electrical, and vibration
resistant qualities of the pin
offer the ultimate in satisfactory
performance.
This connection

3-55

OP

2230

Terminal blocks are another inter

is inexpensive to manufacture and

is ideally suited for use in molded
connector blocks. Also, it can be
furnished with or without the square
wire wrap area if a pin or plug type
connector is required.

connecting

link between printed

circuitry and conventional wiring.

There are many design variations

in terminal blocks . One version of
this block is illustrated below .

PLASTIC TERMINAL BLOCK WITH SCREW TERMINALS

Slide-in electrical connectors are

designed to take advantage of the

extreme contact pressures that can
be obtained by forcing a slotted
U-shaped terminal over the edge of
a printed wiring board in the terminal

area.

To insure reliable connections,

mating surfaces are manufactured

to closely controlled dimensional
tolerances and care should be taken
to ensure that these surfaces are not
deformed prior to assembly.
As shown in the inset of the
illustration, the slotted receptacles
in the terminal area of the board assure
that the U-shaped plugs make positive
contact with the board.

Multi-contact printed circuit

connectors provide a positive, space
saving connection between printed
circuitry and conventional wiring,
and permit direct connection to a
printed circuit card, cable, or a
"plug" mounted assembly.
These connectors consist of
two parts: a plug and receptacle .
The plug is that portion of the
connector assembly which is moveable

3-56

!
.

mm

SLIDE-IN ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
It will mate with

a corresponding
receptacle attached to the printed
circuit board. The connector
receptacle is that portion of the
connector assembly which is normally
fixed, that is, rigidly attached to a
It will mate
supporting surface.
.with a corresponding printed wiring
board, mating plug, or contacts
attached to a printed wiring board.
Multi- contact connectors
associated with printed circuit
boards fall into the five classes listed
below:
Bellows Action Type
1.
2. Pin and Socket Type
3. MS Printed Circuit Receptacle
4. Forked Contact Connectors
5. Miscellaneous Printed
Circuit Connectors
Specific design features , advantages

and disadvantages of each of the

above classes are delineated in
sections that follow.
Bellows action type contacts are
designed for board to board connection
or for connection to conventional
.wiring - receptacles only with the
edge of the printed circuit board
serving as the plug. These connectors
have a coil spring action grip that
clasps the printed circuit board
firmly over the contact area. This
design permits the use of undersize
and oversize boards while maintaining
low contact resistance.
Due to the
the
contact
rides
contact resistance
with the printed circuit board under
extreme conditions of vibration arid

misalignment.

Warping of the printed circuit

board is held to a minimum
with the use of the bellow
action type connector since the
pressure of the contacts is
spread evenly over a large
area of the board .

BELLOWS-ACTION CONTACTS
A cross- sectional view of this type
of contact is illustrated below

This bellows action

has a distinct advantage over prong

type contacts. Prong type contacts
grip the printed circuit board at a

single point. Oversize boards

forced into the contact cause
distortion of the spring and possibly
damage to the printed circuit. When
the board is undersize, contact is
not firm, resistance is increased
and intermittent contact can result.

Standard bellow action type

printed circuit connectors are

designed to accomodate 1/16",

3/32", or 1/8" printed circuit
cards . A few companies
manufacture connectors of this

3-57

OP

2230

type that will accept printed circuit

boards up to a maximum of 1/4" .
Both single and double rows of
various contact sizes are standard.
Double row construction allows for
use of both sides of a printed circuit
card, or for redundant circuits. At
present, up to 116 contacts are
available .
Wiring styles available for
the bellows action connector include
eyelet lugs for soldering, taper
tabs for solder less wiring, and
contacts for dip soldering.
Polarization may be incorporated
in bellows action connectors in two
ways; by substituting a polarizing tab
or key for one single or two dual
contacts, or by polarizing between
contact positions without losing
any contacts. The first method
uses a metal key normally installed
at the factory. The second uses a
plastic key that can be unstalled in
the field. These keys fit in the

barrier between the contacts

and

are retained by spring pressure

against the insulator .
Key

METAL KEYS

3-58

PLASTIC KEY

Bellows action contacts are

made of spring temper phosphor
bronze with gold plate over silver
plate or gold plate only . The
ambient temperature range of the
connector is -55 degrees C to
-85 degrees C .
Multi-connectors of this type
are available with electrical and
mechanical ratings which meet
or exceed the requirements of
MIL-C-21097. The ratings that
are of particular concern to
the designer are: breakdown
voltage and recommended test volt
age both at sea level and
altitudes of 60,000 to 70,000
feet; continuous current rating;
millivolt drop across contacts;
center -to-center contact spacing;
minimum air space between
contacts; minimum creepage
between contacts; and type of
terminals .
As a result of miniaturization,
microminiature bellows action
connectors have been designed
for use with 1/32" and 1/64"
printed circuit boards. These
connectors possess features
similar to those outlined for their
larger prototypes, but the
electrical and mechanical ratings
are slightly lower .

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Connectors are normally
supplied with closed circuit contacts.
When the board is inserted, contacts

open and make a complete

circuit

with the board.

Printed circuit connectors of
this type are offered in unique tandem
designs that combine up to four
groups of printed circuit receptacles
in a single molding. An integral
center barrier in the molding
separates each board. Receptacles
accommodating 2 or 3 boards in
tandem or two or four boards in
parallel tandem are available.

Pin and socket type connectors

are designed for board to board
connection or for attaching
external wires to printed circuit
boards . The plug of pin and socket
connectors contain individual right
angle pin or straight pin contacts
for dip soldering to printed
circuit boards .

Guide pins in the plug, and

guide bushings in the socket
provide guided insertion and
prevent bending of contacts.

Positive polarization is achieved

with reverse guide pins and
guide sockets . Where necessary
to meet vibration requirements,
polarizing screwlocks may be
employed. Another method
to assure alignment is the
use of closed entry socket
contacts, free floating contacts,
or floating mounting waahers
in the shells . Brackets or
shields can be provided as
an integral part of the connector
to protect contacts and also
to act as a support for the
printed circuit assembly.
The receptacles have
solder cup, turret, eyelet,
straight pin, or taper pin
contacts for termination.

Recommended circuit patterns

for the .100" x .100" grid
system is shown below for right

RECEPTACLE

PLUG

PLUG

angle plug mounting and straight

style plug or receptacle mounting.
For other than .100" x .100"
systems the dimensions should
be proportioned accordingly.

3-59

OP

2230

.300

RECOMMENDED CIRCUIT PATTERN

FOR RIGHT ANGLE PLUG MOUNTING

Contacts of opposing boards

are mated 90 degrees to each
other to allow the forked members
to mesh with each other for the
entire length of the contact.
Additional contact surface is
provided by a 45 degree bevel
running the full length of the forks .
This resulting large contact area
provides high voltage and current
capacity, and mechanically
produces positive contact at all
time with no possibility of
inter mittents under any
operational condition.

RECOMMENDED CIRCUIT PATTERN

FOR STRAIGHT STYLE PLUG
MOUNTING
Typical socket contacts are
precision machined from phosphor
bronze with gold plate over silver

plate. Contacts have low resistance,

are highly corrosion resistant, and
are easy to solder .
Miniaturized pin and socket
connectors are available with features
similar to connectors of standard size.
As the size of the connector is reduced,
the electrical and mechanical ratings
become

lower.

Forked contacts can be used with

many different circuit board connections
These" contacts have one or two legs
which are fastened to the printed
circuit board by staking. Staking of
the contacts to the printed board
assures a solid low resistance contact
rigidly held in place. Dip soldering the

board automatically provides an

additional connection between contact
and board, thus creating a very
reliable joint .

3-60

45 Bevel

For connecting two boards

in tandem on

a common plane,
both mother board (MB) and module
board (M) use the same contact.
Each contact is bent 45 degrees
with respect to the board surface.
Contacts are thereby mated at
90 degrees to each other .

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
To connect two boards
perpendicular to each other ,
using one row of contacts, a
standoff contact is used. The
plane of the contact is staked at
45 degrees with respect to the
centerline of the connector .
Contacts for three mother board
thicknesses are available:
1/16", 3/32", and 1/8".
When the closest recommended
contact spacing of .125" is used,
the minimum air gap between
adjacent contacts when mated

Board thickness of 1/16" or 3/32"

may be selected for either board.

A standoff contact is used

on both

board and the module

board for connecting two boards

the mother

parallel to each other

.
They are
staked to each board with the plane
of the contact at 45 degrees with
respect to the centerline of the

is .031" . The closest

recommended spacing of module
boards is .250" plus desired
air gap between the contact
at one board and the contact
tail at the adjacent board. To
increase the air gap, contacts of
adjacent boards can be offset
1/2 contact spacing.

Four board thicknesses;

1/8", or 3/16", may
selected for either board.
This standoff connector is not

connector.

1/16", 3/32",
be

restricted

to edge mounting .
Connection can be established at
any point between both printed
circuit boards, thereby eliminating
the necessity of carrying the printed
circuit lines to the edge of the board.

MB
*A.

To connect two boards

perpendicular to each other ,
using two rows of contacts,
two rows of standoff contacts
are used. Contact spacing for
each row is .200". The two
rows are spaced .125" apart.
On the module board, lower
and upper tier straight contacts

3-61

OP

2230

are used. Each tier has contacts

spaced .200" apart with the upper

tier contacts mounted between

adjacent lower tier contacts
resulting in a final .100 contact
spacing for this connector - lower
tier and upper tier contacts on
separate strips, standoff contacts
on one common strip in two rows .

For quick insertion, brackets

and guides are used to align the

contacts. The different types of
brackets and guides that are
available are shown with their

associated board applications .

Board size is an important
factor in selecting the proper
bracket or guide. These guides
and brackets are also discussed
later in the section covering
Mounting of Printed Wiring Boards.
These four methods of connecting
printed circuit boards with forked
contacts give the designer
complete flexibility in creating
his equipment .
A further application of the
forked contact with printed circuit
boards is found in the two part
connector consisting of a plug

3-62

and receptacle.
The plug is
composed of contacts which
are staked to the board. The
receptacle consists of another
set of contacts mounted in a
molded housing .
The outstanding feature of
this type of connector is that
each pair of contacts is selfaligning thereby eliminating the

tolerance problems in connector

registration. In addition, each
contact has four chamfered
surfaces which are wiped clean
when the contacts are joined,
thereby preserving low contact
resistance. This connection
also exhibits superior

characteristics when exposed

to shock and vibration environments.
Polarization of any type forked
contact is accomplished simply
by insertion of a plastic
polarization tab into recesses
provided in the center section
of the contact without loss of
any contacts. Standard contact
material is phosphor bronze
silver plated or gold flashed.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Contacts are also available with
nickel plating and gold flash. The
type of plating has a significant
influence on the insertion and
withdrawal force but not on
contact

resistance.

The high packaging density

achieved with miniaturized
components requires smaller
connectors with closer contact
spacing. The same fork-like
contact principle and its production
method has been used to develop
microminiature contact series

Printed circuit connectors with

internal type and are usually dip

soldered to printed circuit boards
They can be conveniently
located at any position on the
board for easy test takeoff
points. The connector contact
accepts and holds a nominal
.080 diameter test probe.

.075" and ,100" in spacing in

one row or .050" and .075" in
spacing in two rows are possible
and have been made.

The MS printed circuit receptacle

is a new type connector designed
to mate with one to four printed
circuit boards .
Special pins are made in various
lengths at the terminal end as
illustrated below . This receptacle
is available in both pin and socket
assemblies and will mate with
all MS type plugs .

Junction block connectors

are used for testing entire
printed circuits without
rearrangement of any components,
Connectors have recessed and
floating pin terminals mounted
at a right angle to the test
sockets and can be dip

soldered to printed circuit

boards with complete ease
of alignment . Each socket
grips and holds a standard
.080" test probe. The molded

body acts as a convenient handle

for insertion and withdrawal of
the printed circuit board.

Miscellaneous printed circuit

connectors include the following:
1 .
Test point connectors
2. Junction block connectors
3. 90 degree printed circuit
4.

tube sockets
Standoff printed
tube sockets

circuit

Test point connectors are

single contact connectors of the

The 90 degree printed circuit

tube sockets permit installation
of tubes in a position parallel
to the printed circuit chassis

3-63

OP

2230

thus conserving space where height

is limited. The brackets are
designed to maintain rigidity and
the low center of gravity offers
great resistance to vibration and
shock .
Contacts with long ends are
used to form direct metallic
connection between contact head
and printed circuit lines . They
are bent and guided into epoxy
spacer plates to obtain excellent
insulation resistance and high
voltage ratings with low capacity.
Spacer plates are permanently
secured with air- gaps to avoid
moisture traps . Component design
and material are similar to present
military type tube sockets covered
Therefore, all
by MIL-S-12883.

electrical and mechanical

characteristics are in accordance
with military specifications .
Metal parts are plated to pass
the salt spray test per specification
QQ-M-151A. Seven and nine pin
sockets with and without shields
are available. The sockets will
fit 1/16", 3/32", or 1/8" boards

7-PIN
Rear

Printed circuit tube sockets

are available for printed circuit

boards of 1/16", 1/8", and 1/4"
boards .
Standoff type sockets for
surface mounting on printed
circuit cards may be obtained
in several different styles.
A 7-pin socket with knob-like
appendages for attaching
commercially available
spring type tube retainers
is illustrated below .

7-

U~~U~

7-PTN

Front

64

PIN WITH

RETAINER
LUGS

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
6 .

7.
8.
9.

HOLE

A number of styles and qualities

are available for most of the
printed circuit connectors covered
in this section. Selection of the
most suitable connection should
be based upon considerations of
service conditions and design
characteristics including materials,
creepage distances, ability of
threads to withstand tightening
torques without damage, ability
of socket springs to retain
their spring action for the life
of the equipment in which the
connector is to be installed.

3.7.2.2.3

Mounting

of

Printed

Wiring Boards . The following

factors must be considered in
selecting a suitable method
for mounting printed wiring
boards:
1 .
Board size
2. Board configuration
3 .
Type of connector
4. Space available
5.

Accessibility

Vertical or horizontal
mounting
Support and retention

Hardware
Heat dissipation
10 .
Type of circuit and
relation to other circuits
Adequate support and retention
must be provided for holding
the board since friction alone
is not suitable for this purpose.
Boards 1/16 to 3/32 inch thick
should be supported at intervals
of not more than 4 inches .
Boards thicker than 3/32 inch
should be supported at intervals
of not more than 5 inches .
The mechanical support for
the board should hold it in
place and minimize its relative
motion to the chassis. Both
rigid support at the bottom and
lateral support at the top of the
board is best in order to raise
the natural resonance of the

assembled board structure

in frequency as possible
and to limit motion similar
to that of a vibrating reed.
Apart from electrical
consideration, the size of the
board, which is partially
determined by the method of
support, must be given careful
consideration .
Four sets of curves are
presented for four different
methods of support as an aid
for determining phenolic -board
dimensions under vibration
conditions . These curves are
plotted from an equation
which takes into consideration the
several factors involved in
derermining maximum board
as high

length

3-65

3-67

3-69

3-71

-73

OP

2230

Printed wiring boards with

mounted parts use four types of

support: cantilever,

clamped
clamped,

at each end, hinged and

and hinged at each end.

Cantilever mounting of
boards is often inadequate if
the board length is much longer
than 2 inches since boards
mounted in this manner and
longer than 2 inches can
approach resonance when
subjected to the standard

55

cps

vibration test. Since board

lengths are usually longer
than 2 inches it is advisable to
use a different mounting method.
The clamped- at-both- ends type
of mounting is normally preferred.
Various board parameters
may be calculated from the
following equations:

K* . 3.52

CANTILEVER
K . 22.4
CLAMPED AT BOTH ENDS

A -

- (fa/fr)

from which
,

- (I/A)

15.4

CLAMPED- HINGED

Y7//////A

and

K
2TT

K
7/Z>7////\

where W=bL, from which

HINGED AT
BOTH ENDS

V/////A

TYPE OF SUPPORT
*Depends on type of support

In practice, a form of cantilever

mounting bracket is normally used,
and in most cases this is the least
desirable type of support. Therefore,
cantilever mounting brackets should
be avoided unless the base of the
bracket at the chassis is broad in
dimension and perpendicular to the
board length. In addition, when
cantilever mounting is used it may
be necessary to add an additional
bracket at the top of the board to
'

"e

lateral rigidity

1/2

11/4

where
amplification factor - yi/ya
ya= amplitude of applied vibration
(inches)
yi s amplitude of induced vibration

fa

(inches)

frequency of applied
vibration (cps)
frequency at resonance (cps)

fr
K

support constant

E . modulus of elasticity of
the board ( psi)
b - board width (inches)
t -_ board thickness (inches)

inertia

moment of

- gravitation constant

unit loading (parts,

bt^/12
= 386 in/sec

board, and
psi)
hardware
maximum theoretical board length
(inches)

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
The modulus of elasticity of
material is modified
increased stiffness
caused by the addition of the

the board
due to the

components and wiring. For a

1/16 inch thick phenolic board,
the increased stiffness was
found to have a median value
of about 50 percent for a
phenolic material. If the
majority of the components are
mounted crosswise on the board,
the increase in modulus of
elasticity will not be as large.
Exactness is not required since
the 4th root is used. In the
curves shown, a factor of 50
and 25 percent were used,
respectively, for the 1/16 and
1/8 inch boards .
Various methods of mounting
BRACKET

TAPPED HOLES
IN BRACKET

printed wiring boards are

illustrated on pages 3 - 75 to
The advantages and
3 - 77 .

disadvantages of each method

are listed and should guide
the designers in selecting
the proper mounting method.
For proper mounting design,
the method selected should

fulfill
1 .

2.
3 .

4.

5 .

6.

the

following requirements:

Method of mounting must

provide maximum ease of
maintenance

Fasteners easily removable

Minimum loose hardware
Adequate clearance between
printed conductor and
mounting brackets
Board supported at proper
intervals
Positive board retention

CAPTIVE 8CRC
OR
PIVOT PIN

6HEET
ANGLE

NTEO WIRING
BOARD

CONNECTOR

CONNC CTOR

VERTICAL FLANGED BRACKET

Advantages;

Disadvantage:

Commercially
available in several
sizes
Mounts single or
double boards
Loose hardware

PIVOT CLAMPS
Advantages:

Disadvantages

Suitable for
retaining several
boards simultan
eously
2. No loose hardware
1. Relatively high
cost
2. All boards must
1.

be the same height

3-75

OP

2230

PRINTED

WIRING

BOARD

8L IDC

TO

RELEASE

CONNECTOR

CUT-OUT IN CHASSIS
Advantages:

1.

2.

Disadvantage:

PR

No munting
brackets required
Provides accessi
bility to underside
of printed board
Loose hardware

SNAP SLIDES
Advantages:

1.

2.

Disadvantage:

NTE
I R ING
BOARD
I

SHORT

Positive retention
of board
Easy removal and
replacement
Relatively high cost

BOARD

CHA 68 I 6

RIVET

OR

6C RE r

CONNECTOR

SPACERS

MOUNT ON

TAPPED SPACERS
Advantages:

1.

2.

Disadvantages:

1.

2.

76

Accomodates any
size of board
Simple inexpen
sive mounting
Loose hardware
Occupies large
chassis area

SPRING CLAMP
BALL STUD

AND
Advantages

1.

No loose hardware

2.

Quick insertion and

removal f board
Commercially avail

3.

able

Disadvantage:

Suited nly for short

boards unless add
itional support is
provided

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

CLAMP

Z-ANGLE
BRACKETS

CONNECTOR

Z-ANGLE BRACKETS
Advantages:

Disadvantages

1.

Suitable for any

size board

2.

Provides good
heat dissipation
to chassis

1.

2.

VERTICAL POST AND

GROOVED CLAMPS

Advantages

1.

Loose hardware
Occupies large
area on the chassis

2.

Disadvantage:
HANDLE

Guides board dur

insertion into
connector

ing

Can be made to

accomodate any
size board
Relatively high cost

PRINTED
W I R I NO

PR

NTED

SUPP ORT
GUIDES

BOARD

WIRING
P-OA RD 8

CONNECTOR

CONNECTOR
KE V I NO

GUIDE

A NO

PIN

DUAL MOUNTING FIXTURE

Advantages;

1.
2.

Disadvantage:

Positive retention
Boards can be used
in pairs
Additional chassis
area required for
mounting

SHEET METAL
SUPPORT GUIDES
Advantages:

1.

Disadvantage:

ing insertion
Z. No loose hardware
No positive reten

Guides board dur

tion

3-77

OP

2230

3.7.2.2.4 Flexible Printed Wiring

Flexible printed wiring consists of

a laminate of conducting material,

usually copper, bonded between two
layers of transparent flexible
insulation as shown in the illustration
below . A multi-layer construction
is also possible and further facilitates
conversion from more complex cable
harness to flexible printed wiring.
The wiring is produced as follows:
rolled copper sheet is bonded to a
sheet of flexible insulating plastic;
the required conductor pattern is
transferred to the copper, and the
exposed areas are etched. The
etching technique is similar to that

used for rigid base materials. The

copper is then cleaned and a second
sheet of plastic insulation is
bonded to the exposed conductors
forming a sandwich. Good bonding
between layers is of the greatest
importance to prevent moisture

penetration, corrosion, and

inter-conductor leakage. When
the bond is properly made, it is
highly resistant to delamination
and peel-strength tests normally
result in the destruction of the
entire laminate.
The use of several types of
flexible wiring is shown on pages
3-79 to 3-81.

BONDING AGENT

COPPER
INSULATION

FLEXIBLE PRINTED WIRING

3-78

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

**

SIMPLE WIRING HARNESS

COMPLEX WIRING HARNESS

79

OP

2230

WAFER SWITCH CABLE

COMPLEX CABLE
-

80

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

JUMPERS

TRANSITION FROM STANDARD

TO FLEXIBLE WIRING

81

OP
3.8

2230

MINIATURIZATION

Miniaturization concerns an
increase in the volumetric
efficiency of electronic
assemblies through design
techniques that effect a reduc
tion in the size and weight of
electronic equipment. Among
employed for
attaining this objective are
dense packaging, micro

the techniques

modules, microelectronics,

and related techniques such

as magnetic films, and electroluminessence . These techniques
offer the following advantages
to the design engineer: reduction
in size, weight, and cost and,
with careful design consideration,

reliability

and

maintainability

equal to or better than that

found in conventional system

design. Other benefits include

greater system simplicity from
the use of a minimum number
of discrete parts and higher
performance because the
reduced size and weight permits
the use of more sophisticated
systems and the application
of redundancy without severe
penalty to overall system design.
Essentially, miniaturization
may be accomplished by any one
method or a combination of
several methods . Although
the various methods discussed
herein are considered as
separate approaches, the
dividing line between one method
and another is generally hazy.
3.8.1 Dense Packaging
Assemblies in this category
represent the most advanced
production state-of-the-art.
Conventional components are
densely packed, with or without
a supporting structure, into
circuit modules of various
sizes and shapes.

82

Assemblies without a supporting

structure consist of an assembly
of components wherein the
individual units are stacked
in cordwood fashion, side-by-side,
and electrically connected with
metal ribbon by resistance welding.
This method represents the
intermediate approach to minia
turization for missile and space
vehicle hardware. Practically
all such vehicles utilize welded
connections since the designer
can still use proven circuits and
component parts which exhibit an
excellent reliability history.
Circuit welding is a completely
controllable process where the
machine is pre-set to a pressure
and energy setting determined by
the characteristics of the material
to be welded. This results in a
joint of high tensile strength and
a unit mass that is nonresonant
and structurally rigid.
Welding provides a means of
packaging existing electronic
assemblies in the minimum pos
sible volume. Densities up to
160 parts per cubic inch have
been achieved for digital circuits,
and packages averaging 100 parts
per cubic inch have been produced
with relatively large parts. Welded
wire matrix construction occupies
approximately one half the volume
of the printed circuit board
technique. Overall weight
reduction, although not directly
proportional to the increased
volumetric efficiency, is consider
able. Design flexibility is also
excellent since the module shape
can be arranged to fit unique
configurations .
When a supporting structure
is used, it is generally a printed
wiring board although components
may be packed in a small shell.
The principal advantage of this
type of assembly is its adaptability.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
Any class or type of component
may be used, and no special
manufacturing skills are
required. However, the
degree of miniaturization
obtainable is limited, a large
number of connections are
required, and quality assur
ance techniques are required
at the part and the assembly

An exploded view of a micro

module before stacking and
interconnecting is shown below.

level.

3.8.2 Micromodules

In this approach, all com

ponents are reduced to a
common form factor and the
assemblies are built by
stacking of appropriate
components to produce small
cube- shaped solids consisting
of wafers which assume the
basic characteristics of
electronic components . The
resulting unit is then ready
to function, based on design,
as an amplifier, oscillator,
filter , etc .
The resultant objectives of

micromodules are:
a. Appreciable reduction in
size over present
equipment.

b. High volumetric efficiency

c. Uniformity in size and
shape

d.

Versatility

e. Low power applications

f . Mass production by
automation

g. Cost reduction

The various waver forms used in

micromodules can be manufactured
from the following substrate
materials: steatite, condierite,
alumina, fosterite, beryllia,
zircon, magnesium oxide, and
pyrex glass. Of these, alumina
and glass possess the most
promising characteristics.
Alumina is favored bacause of
its superior thermal conductivity
and strength, while glass provides
a very smooth surface essential
for deposition of uniform thin

films .
A typical example of wafer
configuration is illustrated below.
metal

3-83

Op

2230

3.8.3 Microelectronics

Microelectronics concerns
the following approaches utilized
in the design of microminiature
components:
integrated circuitry
on ceramic or semiconductor
substrates, and functional blocks .

3.8.3.1 Integrated Circuitry.

This type of circuitry comprises

largest area of advanced

research interest in micro
electronics and provides the
next stage in attaining significant
size reduction. Most of the
activity centers around the use
of semiconductor active elements
although magnetic devices are
also being developed.
One class of devices uses a
ceramic or other insulating
substrate upon which is fixed
separately fabricated and tested
transistors and diodes. The
necessary passive elements and
interconnections are formed by
thin film deposition techniques
to complete a circuit on a single
wafer. The basic advantages
of this technique are: the
production of a highly dense
circuit with minimum weight
and space used for support,
insulation, and connections;
the decrease in total number of
connections; the replacement
of soldered and mechanical
connections by the ones formed
during the deposition process;
the reduction in the total
number of processing steps;
the

and the placement of the

complete circuit in a protected

environment .
A second class of integrated
circuitry involves the direct
formation of thin film semi
conductor devices on a ceramic

3-84

wafer without the need for

crystal growing, cutting,
polishing, or other preparatory
steps. The ultimate objective
is to form thin film transistors
and diodes directly without
added process steps. One
technique employed concerns the
evaporation of high-temperature
metals and non-metals in a
high vacuum and in the presence
of injected gases . This allows
vacuum evaporation of thin

film microcircuit elements

using one evaporation and
control technique .
A third technique in integrated
circuits uses a single crystal

semiconductor as the substrate.

Both the active and passive
elements are fabricated directly
on the substrate using the
technology of semiconductor
processing such as diffusion,
alloying, etching, masking,
deposition, etc. The major
problems associated with this
technique are the design of broad
classes of circuits, and uniform
producibility .

3.8.3.2 Functional Blocks . With

this technique, largely theoretical
at present, individual components
cease to exist and a block of a
specially grown and doped
crystal performs a complete
circuit function. The semi
conductor substrate integrated
circuit approaches this concept
very closely. The difference
between the two is mainly the
intent of the designer to use the
most efficient physical process to
accomplish the desired function.
Therefore,

the

full development of

this concept depends heavily on

further research into the materials.

ASSEMBLY DESIGN
3.8.4 Related Devices

The first approach to

miniaturization in this cate
gory eliminates the use of
conventional components
and uses interatomic action
within the material as
demonstrated in the thin
magnetic film shift register.
Digital information is fed
to a strip of magnetic film

and moved down the film

by an associated clock wiring
system and read out at the
end. This action is accomplished
by magnetic domain switching
and requires no components .
Such devices are out of the
research phase and in pilot
production for use in new

system developments.

A second example of this

approach is the use of a thin
film of electroluminescent
material to replace the mechanical
devices in an analog computer.
The input voltage generates light
instead of mechanical torque.
At the output a photoconductive
film is used to convert the light

into variable resistance as a

replacement for the normal
potentiometer which converts
mechanical motion into variable
resistance. Size and weight
of this thin film device is greatly
reduced versus the electro
mechanical equipment.
Longer range trends in micro
electronic technology point
towards the subject of bionics.
These efforts in bionics deal
with techniques for duplicating
electronically the extremely
efficient data processing system
of the brain and nerves . The
first probable result from these
studies will be the development
of completely new computer
logic elements .

3.8.5 Utilization
The following illustrations show

comparison between conven

tional and micromodule subassemblies, such as:
a. Ten to one size reductions
b. Volumetric densities in
excess of 250,000 parts
per cubic foot
the

3-85

OP

2230

ial Size
CONVENTIONAL

DUAL MODULATOR SUBASSEMBLY

Actual Size

- 86

ASSEMBLY DESIGN

TRANSMITTER
SECTION

RECEIVER

RF SECTION

RECEIVER

IF-AF

SECTION
Subminiature transistorized
communication transceiver
component density 50,000

parts per cubic foot.

Actual size.

Micro- Modular Equivalent

Receiver Circuits

Component density 250,000 parts

per cubic foot

Actual size

3-87

OP

2230

3.9

BIBLIOGRAPHY

For specific detailed infor

mation relating to the concepts

discussed within this chapter,
the reader should consult the
following references.
Design Guides for Circuit
Packaging and Integration of
Auto-Sembled Electronic
Equipment . Signal Corps .
Final Report, Part II.

Final Report of ONR Study

Group on Microelectronics

ONR Report

7.

June I960.

Microelectronics, A State-ofthe-Art ReporFI Report Number

TR-7. U.S. Naval Avionics
Facility, Indianapolis, Indiana.
October I960.

88

Micro- Module Production Program.

First Quarterly Report MM206,

Signal Corps Specification SCL6243.

Micro Module Concept. Surface

Communications Dept . , Defense

Electronics Products, RCA,

Camden, New Jersey.

Redemske, R. F., The Microelectrontc Spectrum. 15 February

1962.

State-of-the-Art Survey of
Electronic Microminiaturization.
Report No. NADC-EL-6079,

U.S. Naval Air Development

Center, Johnsville, Pennsylvania.
December, I960.

Chapter 4

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.0 GENERAL
The design of equipment and its
parts is determined by structural
as well as functional considerations.
Reliable performance depends on
the ability of the structure to secure
all parts in working relationship to
each other, and to protect them from
potentially detrimental conditions.
The methods of fabricating parts
and fastening them together are,
therefore, primary design
considerations.
Tolerances should
be as wide as possible but consistent
with the functions of the parts and
interchangeability requirements .
4.1

FABRICATING PROCESSES

The designer should be familiar

with the many processes used to
fabricate parts and should know
their advantages and limitations.
He should establish close liaison
with the production department to
maintain high efficiency and
coordination of effort .
Factors to be considered in the
choice of a fabricating process

are dimensional tolerances, surface

smoothness, section thickness,
material characteristics, geometry
of parts, quantity to be produced,
and cost. Automatic or semiauto
matic processes and special tools
are used when justified by the
quantity of parts to be produced.
Surface finish is often
important to the function of a part
and is closely related to the
manufacturing process used.
Dimensional accuracy is dependent
to a degree on the surface finish.
Unnecessarily close manufacturing
tolerances sharply increase cost
without increasing the utility of

parts. Detailed information

on finishes, tolerances, and
allowances is available from
military publications or
engineering handbooks .

4.1.1 Sheet Metal Working

Sheet metal is used widely
because it lends itself to
the rapid production of strong,
lightweight parts . Sheet metal

fabrication includes the processes

of bending, drawing, blanking,
piercing, trimming, shearing,
rolling, ribbing, spinning, and
stretching .
Standard strip and sheet stock,
selected to meet the required
performance characteristics,
should be used. Where flatness
is of importance to the design,
the required tolerances should
be specified on the drawing.
Standard sizes for holes and
notches should be used wherever
possible .
4.1.1.1 Bending. The most
important factors in bending are
the characteristics of the metal
used, the temperature at which
the bending is done, inside bend
radii, bend allowance, length of
bends, springback, and bend
relief. Complex shapes present
difficulties in bending and usually
require extensive tooling to
produce the desired result. As
illustrated below, bending produces
stresses in the metal; too small
a radius will cause excessive
stressing and partial fracture,
rendering the metal subject to
failure in service. The allowable
minimum radius is a function

OP

2230

of the material characteristics,

equipment used, and condition of
tools . The minimum bend radius
for a given material can be

determined only by experiment

under the conditions of fabrication.
Springback can be compensated
for by overbending .

AVOID
Too small a bend radius
results in skin fractures and
weakened part.

POOR

PREFERRED
GRAIN
Adequate bend radius results
in strong corners .

4.1.1.1.1 Grain Direction* in

Bending. The direction of grain
affects the formability of hard
(e.g., spring-temper) metals but
does not appreciably affect softer
metals. A smaller bend radius
can be used without fracturing the
material when the axis of bend is
at right angles to the direction of

4-2

ACCEPTABLE

grain. This orientation also

affords maximum strength to the
formed section.
the

* This is the same as the direction

of rolling of the sheet metal at
the

mill.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1.1.1.2 Bending Radii . Because
of processing variables, data in
technical manuals differ as to the
minimum bend radii to which various
metals and alloys may be bent
without fracture or damage. The
tables which follow give factors
used in determining minimum inside
radii, or the actual radii, for various
metals . The given or calculated
radii should be confirmed under the
actual conditions of fabrication.
Where a factor is used, the radius
for a given thickness of metal is
obtained by multiplying the

thickness by the factor. A

zero factor indicates that the
bend may be sharp.
When precision bends are
required, angular tolerances may
be one to two degrees for thin
metals (0.012 to 0.060 inch, or
30

to

16

for

gage*) and one degree

thicker metals (0.060 to 0.164 inch,

or 16 to 8 gage*), particularly for
boxes, frames, chassis, and covers
*

Manufacturers'
for steel sheets .

standard gage

CORROSION-RESISTANT STEEL
MINIMUM INSIDE BEND RADII FACTORS
FOR 90 COLD BEND PARALLEL TO ROLLING DIRECTION (GRAIN)
(See

4.1.1.1.2)

AISI type

Temper

Sheet thickness

301, 302

Annealed

To 0.050

- 0.5

301, 302

Annealed

Over 0.050

- 0.5

301, 302

1/4H

To 0.050

301, 302

1/4H

Over 0.050

301, 302

1/2H

To 0.050

301, 302

1/2H

Over 0.050

301, 302

3/4H

To 0.030

301, 302

3/4H

0.031 to 0.050

301, 302

To 0.050

3-4

inch

Factor

304, 316, 347,

410

Annealed

To 0.050

- 0.5

304, 316, 347,

410

Annealed

Over 0.050

- 0.5

4-3

2230

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN

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OP

2230

CARBON STEEL AS ROLLED OR ANNEALED;

COMMERCIAL QUALITY (CQ) OR DRAWING QUALITY (DQ)
MINIMUM INSIDE BEND RADII FOR 90 COLD BEND

Sheet thickness*,

Minimum bend radius, inch

0.008

0.012

0.016

0.020

1/16

0.025

1/16

0.030

1/16

0.035

1/16

0.042

1/16

0.050

3/32

0.062

1/8

0.078

5/32

0.093

3/16

0.109

7/32

0.

1/4

125

0.156

5/16

0.188

3/8

0.250

1/2

For thicknesses not listed, use next greater thickness

inch

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

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4-7

OP

2230

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
ASTM B90, Alloy FS1, Alloy AZ31A, QQ-M-44
MINIMUM INSIDE BEND RADII
Sheet

thickness
inch

Minimum bend radius, inches

Annealed
Hard
500F
Room temp
325F

Room temp

0.016

0.06

0.09

0.09

0.19

0.020

0.06

0.09

0.09

0.19

0.025

0.06

0.

13

0.13

0.25

0.032

0.06

0.

16

0.

16

0.32

0.040

0.09

0.

19

0.19

0.38

0.051

0.09

0.25

0.25

0.50

0.064

0.

16

0.32

0.32

0.62

0.072

0.

16

0.38

0.38

0.82

0.081

0.19

0.44

0.44

0.82

0.091

0.19

0.44

0.44

1.00

0.102

0.25

0.50

0.50

1.00

0.128

0.25

0.63

0.63

1.25

0.156

0.38

0.75

0.75

1.63

0.

188

0.38

1.00

1.00

1.88

0.250

0.50

1.25

1.25

2.50

4-8

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

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4-9

OP

2230

The minimum permissible length

for short bends

on flanges and
formed legs should be three times
the thickness of the metal. Any
attempt to make a shorter bend may
result in distortion. If a shorter

flange is desired, it should be cut

longer and trimmed to size after
bending .

MINIMUM BEND LENGTH

4.1.1.1.3 Contours of Flat Blanks .
Where possible, the flat blank of a
sheet metal part should be
designed with straight lines .
Curved contours require dies or
jigs, increase cost, and often serve
no useful purpose.
4.1.1.1.4 Ears and Lugs. The
direction of the applied load is a
determining factor in positioning
a right-angle ear or lug, especially
if considerable thrust or abuse is
anticipated. Ear A, illustrated below,
below, is recommended because
strength in shear exceeds that in
Ears B and C are
bending.
satisfactory for light loads.

4.1.1.2 Brackets. Small distances

between the two levels of a bracket
or similar bent metal forms
should be avoided if possible.

5/8

AVOID

Small distance between bends

requires difficult and expen
sive hand forming.

"A"

PREFERRED

Minimum dimension A as
given by the following table
is preferred.
Metal thickness
inch

To 0.040

0.041 to 0.072
0.073 to 0.125

BEST

^Vss^^^OOD

Length of "A"
inches
15/32
19/32
1-1/4

POOR

LOAD DIRECTION ON LUGS

Satisfactory methods of attaching
load-carrying lugs are shown below

4.1.1.3 Sharp Edges . Sharp edges

on brackets and other similar
supports can cut or snag. Rounded
corners and smooth edges are less
likely to injure personnel. Also,
rounded corners have a more
pleasing appearance than rectangular

corners.

All

edges should be

de-burred or smoothed by filing,

sanding, or chamfering.

LOAD-CARRYING

4-10

LUGS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

RELIEF
SLOT

RIGHT

AVOID
TORN

METAL
WRONG

STRESS-RELIEF SLOTS

PREFERRED
ROUNDING

OF CORNERS

4.1.1.4 Notching.

Notching or
slotting is desirable to prevent
stress concentrations at points
where an abrupt change in the
section occurs . Without such
notching, tearing, wrinkling,
or cracking are likely to occur.
Such relief notches are made in
the flat blank. Their width and
depth are generally twice the
stock thickness.
4.1.1.5 Corner Treatments. An
enclosure corner can be made
with a relief slot or hole which
can be filled with a full penetra
tion weld after forming.

FORMING CORNERS
Flanged corners, formed so that
one flange overlaps the other, are
often spot welded. This is common
practice in production of chassis,
brackets, and enclosures . When
flanges must be flush-butt welded,
a full penetration weld is required.

4-11

OP

2230

AVOID

7
AVOID

SATISFACTORY

PREFERRED
CORNER CONSTRUCTIONS

A flush-welded corner provides

level bearing surface so that a
plate or chassis may rest evenly.
Absence of overlay eliminates a
corrosion trap. Although more
expensive to produce, flushwelded corners are preferred.
Rounded corners and edges are
usually required in military
a

equipment . One method of making

these is to notch the corner in the
flat, roll-form the edges, and fill

corner gap with a formed

"knuckle" . After welding the
knuckle in place, the corner is
ground or filed smooth.
the

4-12

FORMING ROUND CORNER

Butting of corners in thin sections
is costly and produces weak joints .
Lapping and spot welding produce
strong, inexpensive joints which
are, however, difficult to close
with a corner knuckle, and may
also require sealing to preclude
moisture.
4.1.1.6 Cross Braces. Cross
braces, supports, and other
members having flanges should be
tapered to reduce weight, make
assembly easier, and provide
clearance. Avoid the long taper
shown below. Use partial
cropping as indicated.
4.1.1.7

Hole Punching.

Hole

punching with a punch and die is

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AVOID

PREFERRED

Butting of corners in
thin sections .

AVOID

Lapping and spot welding

of corners results in strong,
inexpensive joints .

Twice metal thickness

Flange should not taper

to metal face .
employed in small lot or mass
production processes. Factors to
be considered include material
properties, hole size and location,
stock thickness, and the clearance

between the punch and die .

Because of the clearance needed
between the punch and die, some
tearing occurs; hence the sides of
holes formed in this manner are not
perpendicular to the stock for its
entire thickness . Accurate holes
must be punched under size and
reamed; or a second punching
operation may be used.

PREFERRED

PUNCH

DIE

HOLE PUNCHING
4

13

OP 2230
Straighter holes can be punched
in soft metals than in hard metals,
although a subsequent deburring
operation may be needed for
soft metals .
4.1.1.7.1

Location of Holes

hole located too near an edge or

bend tends to deform or weaken the
structure and to interfere with
the use of hand or power tools.
This may result in loss of accuracy,

"1
^

'

1-1/2 T

Mil

v^7

GOOD

In general, the minimum permiss

ible distance between the edge of
the stock and the nearest edge of
the hole should be one and one-

half times the metal thickness.

When a hole is larger than 3/8
inch and the stock is less than
1/8-inch thick, the minimum
distance should be twice the
stock thickness. For softer
metals, the minimum distance
should be greater than twice
the stock thickness.

HOLE DISTORTED
HOLES NEAR A BEND

T MIN.

HOLE TOO CLOSE

4.1.1.7.2 Distortion of Holes .
Holes near a bend should be made
after the edge is formed as they
might otherwise become distorted
during the forming operation.
The distortion is more pronounced
where the circumference of a large
hole is in line with the bend, and
stock thickness exceeds 0.015

Where a hole must be placed

close to a formed edge or bend,
distortion can be minimized by
a cutout which allows the hole
to retain the desired shape.
Although such a design is not
always possible, its advantages
justify consideration in mass
production.

inches . If the holes must be

made prior to bending, they should
be at least one and one-half
times the stock thickness plus
the radius of the bend from the
formed edge.

4-14

CUTOUT FOR HOLE NEAR BEND

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1.1.7.3 Clearances. Wher
ever possible, ample clearances
should be allowed, both for hole
sizes and spacing, for ease in
manufacture and assembly of
parts .

MIN.

#27(0.

MIN.

1440)

DRILL

LANCING
4.1.1.9 Extruded Holes for
Tapping. Holes formed by
extruding sheet metal may be
tapped and used for screws
only when the full strength of
the fastening is not required.
The number of perfect threads
in a large extruded hole is
usually less than in a standard
nut. A ductile metal gives the
best results for tapped,

AVOID

extruded holes

#18(0.

169)

DRILL

2-1/2T

PREFERRED
3T

CLEARANCES FOR HOLES

AND SPACING
4.1.1.8 Lancing. The factors
considered in hole punching
apply equally to lancing . A
minimum distance of 1/4 inch
should be allowed between a

bend and the edge of the

opening .

feT

3T+R

RECOMMENDED DIMENSIONS FOR

EXTRUDED TAPPED HOLES
4.1.1.10 Cluster Dies. Certain
mounting hole arrangements are
frequently used on panel and
chassis layouts . Such holes
may be punched simultaneously
by means of cluster dies

available for JAN and MIL

standard items . Cutout and

4-15

OP

2230

mounting hole dimensions are

covered by the applicable
specifications . The two
cutouts

illustrated below are

sockets

Hand Holes and Lightening

Hand holes and those used
for weight reduction should be
made with rounded corners to
prevent concentration of stresses
which might cause tearing or
fatigue cracking.
4.1.1.11

Holes.

typical of those used for tube

DIA.
HOLES

0. 147
2

-PIN MINIATURE SOCKET CUTOUT

4-, 5-, or

-PIN SOCKET CUTOUT

Cluster dies for capacitor

cutouts are a necessity for

production work. A typical

example of a capacitor
cutout is shown below.

l6'

L\

\)

>

CAPACITOR CUTOUT

4-16

0.221
DIA.

WRONG

RIGHT
CORNERS IN OPENINGS
4.1.1.12 Shearing and Slitting .
Certain precautions are necessary
for guillotine shearing. To
avoid marking the sheet metal
surface, hold- down pads should
be faced with rubber or other
shock absorbing material.
Scratches and other undesirable
scuffing are often the result
of rough shear beds, tables, or
benches. Heavy cotton flannel
fastened to the surfaces minimizes
such damage

. _*.

After shearing, punching, or

stamping, machining operations

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
such as grinding, reaming, or
milling are used to remove
burrs and curvatures. Other
deburring methods, such as
barrel tumbling, are used for

small parts

BURR FORMED BY
SHEARING OR PUNCHING
Drawing. Primary
considerations in the design of
a part for drawing operations
are: shape, material to be
worked, number of operations
per piece, and the quantity of
pieces to be produced as
related to the cost of dies and
the time required to produce
each piece.
Materials must possess
sufficient plasticity to be
successfully drawn. Materials
most commonly drawn
include brass, steel, aluminum,
and magnesium. Drawing
magnesium at room temperatures
is limited to shallow draws
because of the rapid workhardening characteristics of
this metal.
Important factors in
cylindrical or shell drawing
operations include the ratio
of height to diameter, size
of corner radii, and ductility
of the metal. Corner radii
should be not less than four
times the metal thickness when
the height of a cylindrical
part exceeds one-third of its
diameter .
4.1.1.13

For rectangular shapes, the

greatest flow of metal occurs
at the corners. To prevent
wrinkles and fractures , this
flow must be controlled by
proper die design and shape of
blank. The draw radius for
such parts should be a minimum
of six times the stock thickness
and not less than 3/8 inch.
Use of heated dies, preheated
blanks, special lubricants , and
specially processed material
in some cases greatly improves
quality and allows closer
tolerances .

HOLD DOWN
PAD

FLANGE

DRAWING OPERATION
4.1.1.14 Ribbing and Stiff ening
The rigidity of light gage sheet
metal can be improved by

corrugations, ribbing, bulging,

and stiffening flanges . Weight
and size can usually be reduced

by these methods.

For

more

information, refer to 4.2.

Rigidity and accuracy of
a bend are increased by the
introduction of stiffening ribs
that are twice the stock thick
ness in height and equal to the
stock thickness in inside
radius .
The metal near a hole also
can be strengthened

by a

rib

formed around the hole (section

B-B, above). To minimize
distortion, the rib should be
located away from the edge
of the hole

4-17

OP

2230

The hemispherical shape is more

difficult to spin because the
angle of deformation becomes
progressively more acute.
BLANK

PARTIALLY

FORMED
SHEET

COMPLETED

SHAPE

SPINNING BLOCK

B-B

The straight- sided cylinder is

difficult to spin and should,
if possible, be formed by drawing

BLANK

RIBS OR CORRUGATIONS
Spinning. Shapes of
items which can be spun are
those concentric about one axis,
such as cylinders, hemispheres,
cones, and variations thereof.
Although a simple cylinder is
easiest to produce by drawing,

4.1.1.15

and cones the most difficult,

the reverse is true for spinning.
In cone spinning, the chuck
meets the metal at small

angles, thus allowing fine

control in forming the metal.
^ BLANK

PARTIALLY

FORMED
SHEET

SPINNING
BLOCK
4

18

. FORMED

I^SHAPE
I

SPINNING
BLOCK
Tolerances in spinning must be
large, and much depends on the
skill and experience of the
operator. Where greater
dimensional accuracy or uni
formity is required, a drawing
operation is recommended.
Ease of spinning is a direct
function of ductility; a metal that
can be deep-drawn can usually
be deep-spun, and this fact can
be used as a guide in selecting
materials for spinning. Metals
difficult to draw can often be spun,
but may require more power and
possibly the use of heat softening
or annealing between operations .
4.1.1.16 Metal Stretching . In
principle and operation, stretch-

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
forming differs considerably from
drawing. In drawing, a punch
usually forces the sheet into
or through a die. In stretchforming, the sheet is clamped
at opposite ends and stretched
over a form or die.
The degree of stretching
depends not only on the ductility
of the metal but also on the
direction of the grain caused by
mill rolling. Surface texture is
also important because elonga
tion is appreciably easier when
the materials are cleaned and
polished.
4.1.2 Machining
Machining processes include
milling, lathe turning, reaming,
broaching, drilling, counterboring, threading, knurling,
honing, grinding, boring, and
surface finishing . Materials
selected must have properties
suitable for both the intended
application and fr machinability
Adequate holding and clamping
during machining improves
accuracy, finish, and tool life.
Pieces should be designed
to permit use of standard
tooling wherever possible.
4.1.2.1 Milling. Milling is
generally used to form flats,
slots, keyways, gear teeth,
and similar surfaces . Workpieces should be without thin
or weak sections, and should
be easy to jig and machine
"without danger of distortion
due to cutting or clamping

pressures

._

There are two general

methods of peripheral milling;

conventional, with the cutter

rotating so that it cuts against
the direction of the workpiece
feed; and climb milling, with
the cutter rotating so that it

cuts in the same direction

workpiece feed.
The latter method, climb
milling, is recommended when
a high degree of finish is
desired.
as the

CHIPS

CUTTER
ROTATION

CHIP
WORKPIECE

Selection of milling cutters

is simplified by eliminating
complicated operations that
require the use of special tools
The design should permit the
use of standard milling cutters
wherever possible . Cutters
should bear against the

work-

pieces at such angles that

forces are efficiently applied
against the work and chips
are easily ejected.

4-19

OP

2230

Pieces can often be designed

for costly milling
operations. Raised or bossed
surfaces that can be spot-faced
are sometimes employed.
to avoid the need

LATHE
TOOL

SPOT FACE

ALTERNATE

CASTING

MILLING ELIMINATED

4.1.2.1.1 Milling of Titanium.

Titanium should be milled by
climb milling, illustrated
below, in lieu of conventional
milling .

Extruded stock may be used in

lieu of producing special shapes
by milling. Extrusions are now
available for this purpose in a
variety of forms in nearly all
metals. (See 4. 1.5).
CUTTER
ROTATION

WORKPIECE

CLIMB MILLING

EXTRUDED OR MILLED PART

MILLING
CUTTER

In milling titanium, the cutting

usually fails
This is mini
mized in climb milling because
the area of contact between chip
edge of the tool
due to chipping.

MILLED PART

4-20

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
and tool is at a minimum when
the chip is removed during
each cutting cycle.

NOTE: If there is play in

the feed mechanism the

workpiece may be pulled
into the cutter thereby
damaging either the cutter
or the workpiece.

4.1.2.2 Broaching.

Broaching
is the machining of material
by use of a rod-like tool (broach)
composed of a series of cutting
edges, each slightly larger
than the previous one . The broach
is drawn through or over the
workpiece. The shape of the
cutting edges determines the
shape of the machined surface .
Broaching is employed for
cutting shapes such as internal
gears, keyways, and splined
or slotted holes . The process
may also be used for gang
cutting and squaring rough
surfaces .
Although costly broaching
tools can be resharpened after
becoming dull, this has the
disadvantage of being timeconsuming .
Materials which can be
successfully broached include
steels, cast iron, bronze, brass,
magnesium, and aluminum.
Steels of hardness between
25 and 35 Rockwell C are
suitable for broaching. Softer
steels are difficult to broach.

Therefore, they must

be

hardened by heat treatment

to the optimum hardness prior
to broaching. Stainless steels
harder than 35 Rockwell C
tend to dull the broach, thus
reducing tool efficiency. Cast
and malleable irons are easily
broached. Aluminum and

magnesium are broached with

little difficulty.

In planning broaching
operations, the following
require consideration:
materials and heat treatments;
machining prior to broaching;
quality of finish desired; and
the details of any required
special broach support or
work fixture.
The

principal advantage of

broaching is that it removes

all excess metal in a single
stroke of the broach. It is
superior to reaming for
finishing round holes because
the broach will retain its
original size for a greater
number of operations thus
assuring greater accuracy.
Surface broaching is often
substituted for milling when
large quantities of a part are
to be produced to close
tolerances and fine finish.
It is generally faster than
finish milling and produces
smoother and more accurate
work. Although broaching
cutters are more costly than
milling cutters, they require
less resharpening because
the cutting load is distributed
over a large number of teeth.

4.1.2.3 Lathe Turning. Lathes

are used for a variety of

machining operations, such as

turning, boring, drilling,
threading, and tapping. Latheturned products include such
parts as shafts, collars,
sleeves, bushings, and gear
blanks. A high degree of
accuracy and surface finish can
be economically obtained by
lathe operations.
The designer
should specify the straightness
of lathe-turned finished shafts.

4-21

OP

2230

Shafts which are to rotate

within bearings should be
turned to a smooth

AXIS OF WORK

finish to

minimize wear .
Where a radius or fillet
cannot be tolerated, a rounded

10- 15

TOOLING

RELIEF

undercut can be made to avoid

concentration of stress.

CUTOFF TOOL
UNDERCUT

Cutoffs and burrs are always

present on parts turned from
bar stock by the conventional
method illustrated, in which a
standard cutoff tool is held at
a 90-degree angle to the stock.
Drawings should indicate where
these must be removed. Grinding,
filing, or tumbling can be used
to remove cutoffs and sharp
burrs. The occurrence of cutoffs
and burrs at the completion of
the lathe-turning operation
can be minimized by using
a cutoff tool ground at a
slight angle (10 to 15 degrees)
to the axis of the work and
relieved in the center, as
shown below

CUTOFF
TOOL

CUTOFF PRESENT AFTER

CONVENTIONAL LATHE TURNING

4-22

METHOD OF ELIMINATING
CUTOFFS AND BURRS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1.2.4 Drilling.

It is difficult
control the finish and diameter
of a drilled hole. Finish of the
wall is characterized by a
series of lines caused by
rotation of the tool or work.
to

The hole may be elliptical

because of improper angle or
eccentricity of the point of the
drill, a slight bend in the body
of the drill, or misalignment
of the drill and the work.
A surface to be drilled must
be readily accessible to the tool.
Design should not necessitate
the use of excessively long

drills

through fillets or curved or

uneven surfaces is not good

practice as the drill is apt

to break in the hole. When

breakage occurs, extra

time is required to remove

the broken drill and the work
may be damaged in the

process

BAD

GOOD

AVOID CURVE AT BOTTOM OF HOLE

ACCESS FOR

DRILL

Designs should avoid drilled

holes originating on a curved
or slanted surface.

DRILL ACCESS
A relatively clean, straight
hole results when a drill passes
through solid metal. Discontinui
ties should be avoided.

GOOD

POOR
DISCONTINUOUS

METAL

When a drill is held at right

angles to the surface, it will
break through cleanly. Drilling

POOR

PROVIDE FLAT SURFACE

FOR STARTING DRILL

4-23

OP

2230

Where coolants cannot be used,

allowance must sometimes be
provided for the expansion of
materials due to drilling heat
and subsequent shrinkage of
hole size when the part cools.

Drilling laminated materials

M^4

should be performed wherever

possible at right angles to the

laminations, as illustrated, to
avoid splitting the laminated
layers. A cloth base laminate
should be used in applications
where drilling parallel to the
laminations cannot be avoided.

NOT

THIS

THIS

QUESTIONABLE

USE OF

MULTIDIAMETER REAMER

To prevent bottoming and

consequent damage to reamers
in blind holes , allowances should
be made and sufficient depth
provided for the accumulation
of chips

DRILLING LAMINATED MATERIALS

4.1.2.5 Reaming.

Reaming is
a precise finishing operation
used for holes that have been
previously drilled or punched.
Tapered holes or holes for
bearings require accurate
reaming. The quality of the
desired finish and machining
tolerances should be specified
for reamed holes.
Multidiameter reamers
are excellent where the dia
meters are comparatively
close to each other. If the
diameters of the holes are
markedly unequal, one of the
holes made with a multidiameter
reamer may not have desired
accuracy and surface finish.

4-24

REAMER

ALLOWANCE FOR
REAMER CHIPS
Since in-line holes require
accurate location and alignment
by the use of a jig and pilot, their
use in design should be kept
to a minimum.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

COUNTERBORE

JIG

SPOT FACE

WORK

REAMER

When the spot-face or

counterbore is in a tight place,
such as the corner of an
angle or channel, allowance
should be made for wrench
or socket clearance during
Counterbores
assembly.
used simply for bolt head
clearance should be specified
in fractional dimensions
wherever possible.

4.1.2.7 Threading

PILOT
HOLES DIFFICULT TO ALIGN

4.1.2.6 Counterboring

and

Spot-Facing. Counterboring
and spot-facing are generally

vised to provide flat surfaces

bolt heads, washers,
spacers, bushings, and
similar items. Counterboring
is used to enlarge a hole and
form a recessed squared
surface. Spot-fa.cing-is used
to square a projecting

for

surface.

and Tapping.
Threads are generally formed
by taps, dies, milling cutters ,
grinding wheels, or rollers.
Special processes based on
supersonic vibrations and
electrical discharge are
particularly applicable for
threading extremely hard
substances and metals. The
design of the part depends on
the process selected to form
the thread.
Rolled threads are most
widely used in mass production
of standard hardware items .
Such threads are sufficiently
accurate and have a satisfactory
surface finish. The cold
working in this process usually
improves the hardness and
strength of the ductile metal.

4-25

OP

2230

Die-cut threads are easily

produced by either hand or semi
automatic machines and are
acceptable for all common
threaded fasteners . No difficulty
is experienced in cutting threads
in common structural materials .
Milled threads , in general,
have a better surface finish than
die-cut threads and can be
formed to closer tolerances,
but they are more expensive
to produce

Ground threads are character

ized by a good finish without torn
metal at the thread roots. Highprecision threads can be ground
in many types of materials .
The percentage of full thread
in a tapped hole is fixed by the
drill size used. The percentage
of full thread is seldom over 75
percent and can be as little as
50 percent in hard metals without
materially affecting the strength
of the thread.
The use of blind, tapped holes
should be minimized.
When
such holes are used, an allowance
is required for chip accumulation
at the bottom of the hole, and
space must be provided for the
tapered part of the tap beyond
the thread forming section.

Holes to be tapped and rods to be

threaded should be chamfered
at least the depth of one thread
to 30 to 45 degrees chamfer.
When necessary to allow
seating of boltheads or shoulders,
a tapped hole may be counterbored or a threaded part undercut
sufficiently to clear the imperfectly
threaded portions near the
shoulder

UNDERCUT

4.1.2.8 Grinding.

4-26

Grinding is

done by means of a bonded abrasive

wheel rotating at high speed.
Practically any type of material
can be successfully ground,

although some soft materials,

such as aluminum and brass,
may load the grinding wheel.
Parts can be finished to

extremely precise dimensions

by grinding.

ALLOWANCE FOR TAP TAPER

AND CHIPS

CHAMFER

Rough machining

usually precedes grinding.

Leaving excessive material for
grinding reduces production
efficiency .
Parts that are to be ground
must be firmly secured to avoid
distortion. Discontinuities,
such as slots, holes, and flats
in the surfaces of parts, should
be avoided since grinding grit
and chips will accumulate in
them and affect grinding accuracy.
Flat and circular surfaces can
be ground on standard machines.
Irregular shapes usually require

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
grinding by hand or, where
accuracy is important, by use
of a special setup.
4.1..2.9 Ultrasonic Machining.
Ultrasonic vibrations may be
employed for machining holes ,
slots, intricate cavities, and
complex hole and cavity shapes
in materials such as tungsten
carbide, hardened tool steel,
and ceramics . Such machining
is extremely difficult or impossible
to accomplish with conventional
equipment. This method should
not be used to remove large
quantities of stock, nor for
applications which can be
satisfactorily accomplished by
conventional machining methods .
This method of machining
utilizes the vibrations set up by
a piezoelectric crystal under the
influence of an ultrasonic
frequency current . These
vibrations are transmitted by
means of a transducer through
a shaped tool to an abrasive
grit which removes material
from the item being machined,
as shown in the accompanying

illustration.

LAMINATED
NICKEL STACK
COOL1NG
WATER

J. EXCITATION COIL

SILVER SOLDER

JOINT

TRANSMITTING
CONE
RESONANT SUPPORT
WATER
"COOLING
.
THREADED STUD
TOOL CONE

SILVER BRAZE
TOOL MOT ION

-*

WORK PIECE SZ^

?
ABRASIVE

ULTRASONIC MACHINING

4.1.3 Forging
Forging is the deformation
of metal in the plastic state
into a predetermined size or
shape. Compared to sand
castings, forged parts have
improved strength, toughness,
grain formation, and surface
finish. Working the metal
causes grain direction to
follow the shape of the part .
In heading operations (hot
or cold), the length of the
wire or rod that can be

gathered into a head in a

single operation, without
side restraint, is limited to
about three times the diameter.

4.1.4 Casting
Various methods are
associated with the process
of casting. A large proportion
of castings are produced by the
Other
sand casting process.
processes, such as permanent
metal mold, plaster mold, die,
shell mold, and investment
casting, are useful in producing
better and more intricate parts.
Almost any part, regardless
of size, shape, or material,
can be cast by some method.
Limitations in size, shape,

surface finish, density,

material, section thickness ,
strength, and dimensional
tolerances are determined by
the process used. Investment
casting, also called precision
casting, is used to produce
intricate parts to close
tolerances .
Intricate parts for electronic
equipment may also be formed
by powder metallurgy or similar
pressure-forming techniques.
4.1.4.1

Wall and Web Thicknesses,

Proper wall and web thicknesses

will prevent cold shuts and poor

4-27

OP

2230

castings. The wall thickness of all

sections of each cast part should
be as nearly uniform as possible
in order to avoid shrink defects
and casting strains . Recommended
minimum wall and web thicknesses
for various metals are tabulated
on page 4-30.
RECOMMENDED

PREFERRED
POOR

FLAT
-R FOR "T" UP TO

-,
11>

-L.R FOR "T" OVER

16

WALL THICKNESSES OF CASTINGS

4.1.4.2 Ribs. Intersections of
ribs should be staggered to avoid

of porosity during
as shown below.
Ribs are used primarily for
stiffening or reinforcing, and
should be located so that no under
cut in the mold or die is necessary,
Outer surfaces of ribs should be
flat with rounded corners to
avoid high fiber stresses. A
good rib design is shown below.
development

solidification,

POROSITY WILL
OCCUR HERE

ROUNDING

RIB SURFACES

4.1.4.3 Fillets.

Small fillets
create stress concentrations as
cast metals shrink in solidifying
from the molten state. Recom
mended minimum fillet radii
for castings of uniform thick
nesses are tabulated on page
4-30.
Use fillets instead of sharp
corners when designing adjoining
sections, as illustrated below.

RECOMMENDED
LOCAL
STRUCTURAL
WEAKNESS

AVOID

4-28

| |

LOCAL
SHRINK

LL^^*E

POOR

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
structure with generous fillets.

The radii of the fillets should

be large enough to ensure good
distribution of the load
throughout the surrounding

casting structure.

RECOMMENDED

STRESS

4.1.4.5 Casting Difficulties.

Difficulties in casting may
arise from use of excessively

C ONCENTRA T ION
AND HOT SPOT

POOR

4.1.4.4

Bosses.

Bosses to be

used with studs or cap screws

should be designed in accordance

with the values indicated in the

following sketches:

thin sections; large, flat

areas or long, narrow
sections subject to warpage;
nonuniform sections; intricate
shapes; sharp edges; very
thin, small or long narrow
cavities; and close dimensional
tolerances .
Shrinkage which occurs

during cooling of castings

may produce cracks, pits,
sink and blow holes, and

warpage.

When inserts are used, they

should be firmly anchored in
the casting by grooves, knur lings,
or similar means, depending
on the load conditions .

KNURLED INSERT ANCHOR

BOSS

DIMENSIONS

Bosses used around bolts

should blend into the surrounding

4-29

OP

2230

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM WALL OR WEB THICKNESSES

Minimum thickness, inch
Die and
Permanent
pressure
and semi
mold
permanent
Sand castings
mold castings
castings

Metal

Plaster

mold
castings

Aluminum alloys

5/32

1/8

0.080

3/32

Magnesium alloys

3/16

5/32

0.080

3/32

Steel

3/16

--.

-- '-

Brass or bronze

5/32

0.080

3/32

WMM
"

Iron

5/32

-.

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM FILLET RADII FOR CASTINGS

Minimum radii*, inch
Die and
Permanent
pressure
and semi
Metal

Sand castings

permanent
mold castings

Plaster

castings

mold
castings

mold

Aluminum alloys

5/32

1/8

0.032

0.032

Magnesium alloys

3/16

1/8

0.032

W_ H

Steel

3/16

_-

__....

Brass and bronze

5/32

0.032

0.032

Iron

5/32

..__

_-_-

_ M

-_

* Where the wall thickness of the casting is greater than the minimum
radius shown in the table, make the fillet radius at least equal to the

wall thickness.

4-30

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
When a cast part requires
subsequent machining, material
thickness allowance must be
made for machining . As little
machining as possible should
be done on die castings in

order to preserve the "skin".

Surfaces that need grinding
only after casting require
less stock.
Devices such as bosses or
hubs needed for clamping parts
during machining can be cast
and removed after the machining
operations . Cast parts such
as fluid containers or parts
under hydraulic or pneumatic
pressure that may "weep"
or "sweat" during use may
require impregnation to seal
porosity .

the extrusion presses available.

Die cost is relatively low.
Plastics, rubber, aluminum,
magnesium, brass, and most
soft metals may be success
fully extruded. Ductile steels
have also been extruded
although there is greater die
wear than with nonmetallic
materials and nonferrous
metals. Impact extrusions
are sometimes employed when
short sections or special end
shapes are required.
Typical extruded shapes
and certain of their salient features
are illustrated below.

GEAR

CLOSE
TOLERANCE

CASTING SHOWING
MACHINED SURFACES
Specifications usually require

HINGE BRACKET

that castings be inspected by

a nondestructive method such
Casting
as radiography.
materials must conform to

applicable specifications

4.1.5 Extruding

IMPACT EXTRUSION

Extruding is the process of

fabricating shapes by forcing
material through a die. The
material may be either cold or
hot. Limitations of the process
depend on the material used and

Plastic Molding
Plastic molding methods may
classified according to the

4.1.6
be

type of plastic material to be

molded. Compression and
transfer molding are generally

4-31

OP

2230

used for thermosetting material,

and injection molding is generally
used for thermoplastic material.
Compression, transfer, and
injection molding are illustrated
below .

4.1.6.1 Drafts for Molds . The

draft for a mold, as illustrated
below, may vary from 1/4 to 4

degrees per side depending upon

the length of draw, surface area,
type of material, and method of
ejection. The draft should be
allowed in the direction of the
draw on all surfaces to ease
ejection of the molded part and
to protect the surfaces of the

part.

THIS

NOT THIS

1/4 to

40

Draft

No Draft

TRANSFER
Direction of Draw

4.1.6.2 Wall Thickness for

Plastic Molded Parts. A compres

COMPRESSION

sion molded or transfer molded

plastic part should have a
minimum wall thickness of
0.0625 inch. An injection
molded plastic part should
have a minimum wall thick
ness of 0.050 inch. All the
walls of a plastic molded part
should be of uniform thickness,
as illustrated below, in order to
avoid uneven shrinkage, which
in turn causes internal stresses.
THIS

NOT THIS

INJECTION
Unif or m
Thickness

32

Varying
Thickness

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1.6.3 Ribs for Plastic Molded

Parts. Ribs

on plastic molded
parts should have a minimum taper
per side of 2 to 5 degrees, a
radius at the top, and a 1/8 inch
fillet at the base. The rib width
at the base should be 1/2 the
wall thickness and the rib
height should be 1 1/2 times
the wall thickness as illustrated

below
2

An even mounting surface

can often be obtained without
machining by using three bosses
instead of four. It is almost
always necessary to machine
one or more of the bosses in
order to obtain an even mounting
surface when four bosses are
used.

4.1.6.5 Holes in Plastic Molded

Parts. Holes in plastic molded

parts should be perpendicular

to the parting line, as illustrated
below, to permit easy removal
of the part from the mold.

TO 5 TAPER

NOT THIS

THIS

R>

T -

4.1.6.4

Parts.

' PARTI!
LINE

RADII

WALL THICKNESS

Bosses for Plastic Molded

The minimum boss width

at the top should be 3/32 inch and
the maximum boss height should

be twice the diameter of the boss.

Bosses should have a minimum

radius at the top and fillet

of 1/32 inch. High bosses

at the base

should be avoided in the upper

a mold since this portion
of the mold tends to trap gases
which reduce the density and the
strength of the boss. However,
when high bosses cannot be
avoided, they should have a
minimum of 5 degree taper
per side, as illustrated below .

When two holes at either

right or oblique angles to each
other are required, the hole
perpendicular to the parting line

should be molded and the side

hole drilled, as illustrated below.
THIS

NOT THIS
MOLD

MOLI

part of

5
2D

TAPER-*

3/32 MIN

MAX.

1/32

R
D

R.
MIN.

Holes less than 1/16 inch in

diameter should be drilled since
they are difficult to mold. Long
slender holes should be avoided
but, when they are required,
the first portion should be molded
and the remaining portion drilled,
as illustrated below .
THIS
.MOLD

NOT THIS
DRILL

MOLD

RADn
DIAMETER
=

4-33

OP

2230

Holes in plastic molded parts

should be a minimum of 1/8 inch
apart. A hole and an insert
should be at least 1/16 inch apart.
A distance equal to the diameter
of the hole should be left between
a 3/32 (or smaller) inch hole and
the edge of the molded part as
illustrated below .

There should also be sufficient

plastic material under the insert
to prevent the formation of
a blister on the bottom edge,
as shown below .

1/16
MIN.

BOTTOM EDGE
OF INSERT

Through holes should be used

possible instead of
blind holes, since through holes
are made by mold core pins which
can be supported at each end and
are therefore easier to mold.
However, when blind holes are
necessary, holes 1/16 inch or more
in diameter should not have a
depth more than twice their
diameter, and holes less than
whenever

1/16 inch wide should not be

more than one diameter deep.

Recommended locations,
widths, and lengths for both
through and blind holes in
plastic molded parts are
shown on the following page.

INSERT DIMENSIONS

And smaller
Over 1/4 to 1/2
Over 1/2

3/32 minimum

1/8 minimum
1/4 minimum

When inserts embedded in

plastic will be subjected to both
tension and torsion, their outer
surface should have a diamond
knurling as illustrated below .

DIAMOND
KNURLING

4.1.6.6 Inserts in Plastic Molded

Parts. Inserts in plastic molded

parts should be placed at right

angles to the parting line and,
if possible, all on the same side
of the line to avoid loading in
both halves of the mold, as
illustrated on page 4-36.
Rod and wire inserts should
be embedded in the plastic at
a depth equal to twice the
diameter of the insert with a
minimum of 1/16 inch clearance
between the insert and the hole.

4-34

When inserts embedded in

plastic will be subjected to only
tension, their outer surface should
have grooves as illustrated below.
.GROOVES

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

TOP VICW

THROUGH HOLES
AND BLIND HOLES

BLIND HOLES

J_

SIDE VICW
(SECTION)

THROUGH HOLES
DIMENSIONS OF THROUGH AND BLIND HOLES
Min, Sidewall.
Thickness, inch

A
1/16

5/64
3/32
3/32

3/32
3/32
1/8
1/8
1/8
5/32
5/32
3/16
3/16

Min. Hole Dia.

Max. Hole
Length, inch

or Width, inch
B

1/16

1/16

5/64

3/32
7/64
1/8
5/32
3/16

7/32
1/4
5/16

3/32
1/8

5/32
3/16

1/4
5/16

3/8

7/16

9/16

3/8

11/16

7/16

13/16
15/16

1/2

1/8
3/16

1/4

5/16

3/8

1/2

5/8
3/4
7/8

1-1/8

1-3/8
1-5/8
1-7/8

OP

2230

PARTING
LINE

REQUIRES INSERTS
TO BE LOADED IN
BOTH HALVES OF
MOLD

INSERTS LOADED IN
SAME HALF OF MOLD

When inserts embedded in

plastic will be subjected only to
torsion, their outer surface
should have serrations as
illustrated below.

Spherical and cubical shapes, for

example provide the greatest
strength in relation to weight.
Rigidity . Retention of
desirable for operational
stability, requires structural
rigidity. However, it is often
necessary to incorporate flexible
elements to absorb vibration.
c

shape,

SERRATIONS

4.2 STRUCTURAL TECHNIQUES

Military equipment demands

high structural reliability with

minimum weight . Supporting

structures are subject to rough
usage in transportation by land,
sea, or air, which involves
exposure to vibration, shock,
and extreme climatic conditions.
For good design, the following
should be considered:
a. Strength-to-weight ratio .
Gravity, shock, and vibration
effects on a structure are
proportional to the weight of the
structure; hence the effect
of these forces may be minimized
by keeping weights low.
The static
loads that a structure
can withstand depend greatly on
the configuration of the structure.

b.

Configuration.

and dynamic

36

d. Stress Distribution.
Ideally, all parts of a structure

are stressed equally, with a

minimum of stress concentration
in joints or members. The
most effective combination of
strength, rigidity, weight, cost,
material, and configuration to
withstand the forces acting on
the structure should be used.
Useful structural techniques
including bracing, gusseting,
ribbing, laminating, and
rigidizing, are discussed in the
following paragraphs .
4.2.1 Bracing
Braces improve the rigidity
of a structure by resisting bending,
torsional, and buckling stresses.
Bracing usually increases the
permissible load-carrying capacity
of a structure without a proportional
increase in weight. The resonant
frequency (natural frequency of
vibration) of a structure can be

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
varied by bracing. Greater
rigidity generally raises the
resonant frequency.
Bending within structures
should be minimized. Direct
tensile and compressive stresses
should predominate and should
be uniformly distributed.
Some
members of an insufficiently
braced structure are likely to
show excessive deflection and
extreme sensitivity to small
vibrational forces .
A structure with proper
bracing can often be designed
to have greater strength and
lower weight than an unbraced
or improperly braced structure .
A braced and welded unit often
provides maximum structural
strength and rigidity with the
least possible weight.
Certain types of bracing
are illustrated below and on the
following page.

LJ

GOOD
Brace in compression.

POOR

Subject to buckling
and side movement.

No

GOOD
Braced to pre
vent buckling

and side sway,

POOR

vertical supports,

GOOD
Stresses distributed over
more joints and members.

GOOD

Brace in tension; not

subject to buckling.

GOOD
Minimum bending stress.

4-37

OP

2230

4.2.2 Gusseting

Gussets are structural members

employed to spread the stresses

POOR

Stress
concentrations at
corners .

No bracing.

concentrated at joints over

larger areas. Joints are often
the weakest parts of structures
and may require reinforcement.
When gussets are large in
proportion to joints and joint
members, they act also as
braces. Gussets are especially
useful at joints subject to bending
forces. They can substantially
increase rigidity and are often
the most efficient and economical
means for strengthening an entire
structure. Welded gussets
produce the most uniform
distribution of stresses,
although riveted or bolted
gussets are often used.

V
GOOD

For steady load.

Thin
braces provide strength
light weight .

RIVETED GUSSET PLATE

WELDED

COMBINATION SPOT -WELDED AND

BOLTED GUSSET
GOOD

For large frame.

Stresses distributed.

4-38

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.2.3 Ribbing
A rib is a projection, ridge,

or flange which effectively

increases the rigidity and
strength of the structure to
which it is added. There are
many forms of ribs . Ribs can
be designed to distribute the
bending forces as evenly as
possible over an entire
surface by making the section
modulus at any point proportional
to the bending stress. Care
should be exercised to avoid
stress concentrations which
may result from improper
rib design. Some examples
of ribbing are shown below.

FLAT CIRCULAR PANEL RIBBED

AGAINST BENDING OR WARPING

4.2.4 Laminates

Laminates are bonded layers

of material used where high

rigidity is desired with minimum

For military electronic

weight.

equipment, laminates must be

resistant to the effects of
extreme cold, heat, moisture,
and fungus

Sheets of glass, asbestos

or cotton fabric, mica, and
wood or paper are impregnated

RIB ON SHEET METAL BRACKET

with suitable binders.

Corrugated or honeycomb
interior construction combined
with flat sheets provides high
resistance to crushing and
maximum rigidity with minimum
weight

PANEL WITH SPOT -WELDED

STIFFENING

CORRUGATED

RIB

4-39

OP

2230

for its
acoustic and decorative
qualities .
Perforated types of rigidized
sheet are often used where
ventilation is required. Perfor
sheet may also be used

HONEYCOMB
Exterior sheets of metallic
or laminated nonmetallic material
with an interior of foam rubber
or plastic provide light weight
and

rigidity

ated types can often be made

more rigid than plain, flat
sheets of similar weights .

FOAM RUBBER OR PLASTIC

SKIN

LAMINATE
Exterior sheets of aluminum
or other metal and interior sheets
of plywood are used for equipment
cases and cabinets. This
construction combines high
rupture strength, light weight,
and rigidity with a hard water
proof surface.

RIGIDIZED SHEET

CORRUGATED RIGIDIZED SHEET

(One direction only)

ALUMINUM AND PLYWOOD

LAMINATE

4.2.5 Rigidizing

Rigidized sheet is flat stock

with an embossed pattern which
stiffens the stock by increasing
its section modulus. Weight can
often be reduced substantially by
substituting thinner rigidized
material for flat sheet. Rigidized

4-40

RIGIDIZED EXPANDED SHEET

(Stiffened one direction only)

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
A 180 flat fold can be used
for stiffening sheet metal, but

should be confined to the softer

metals . Because of the tendency
of such folded areas to trap and
retain moisture, care must be
taken that the metal is properly
protected against corrosion by
use of sealing materials and
protective coatings .

FOLDS

4.2.5.1 Assembling Rigidized

Metal. Rigidized sheets should

be joined to flat materials by spot

welds, rivets, or small bolts at

points of contact. Bolts and
washers large enough to compress
the rigidized metal may be used
at any point. Residual stress
in the metal helps to prevent
loosening .

JOINING RIGIDIZED
AND FLAT SHEETS

4.2.5.2 Application
Metal. An rf shield

of Rigidized
of perforated

rigidized metal provides a light

weight shield while also permitting
ventilation .

PERFORATED RIGIDIZED
METAL SHIELD
4.3

MECHANICAL PARTS

4.3.1 Handles
Carrying" handles should be
provided on all portable equip
ment. A single handle is usually
sufficient for equipment
weighing less than 25 pounds .
For heavier or bulky equipment,
at least two handles should be
used, one at each end.
Handles should be smooth,
large enough to allow complete
entrance of four fingers, and
sturdy enough to withstand at
least five times the normal load.
If possible, use recessed, retract
able handles mounted flush with
the sides of the equipment.

4-41

OP 2230

HANDLES

TYPICAL BAILS
4.3.2 Bails

Bails are convenient for

withdrawing assemblies or
mechanisms from their cabinets
They also serve as protective
stands in repair operations . A
single bail may be sufficient
for small panels. For larger
panels , a vertical bail near
each end is required.
Bails
should be securely anchored
to withstand shear, bending,
and tensile forces at least
twice as great as normal. For
protective purposes they
should extend beyond other

projections on the panel. Open

ings should be large enough
to allow entrance of four
fingers. Small bails which
allow entrance of only one
finger may be acceptable on
miniature equipment .

4-42

4.3.3 Lifting Devices

Eye bolts or similar devices
for lifting and handling should

installed on apparatus weigh

They
ing more than 150 pounds.
should be attached to the frame
of the equipment so that
components and assemblies
will not be overstressed.
With the full weight suspended
from any one lifter, a safety
factor of at least 10 should
be used. The words "LIFT
HERE" should be placed
adjacent to the lifting device
unless its function is obvious.
Use removable types of eye
bolts or similar devices
where feasible.

be

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
must be readily replaceable
to restore operation. Spares
should be available for use
at

all times

SLIP CLUTCH

LIFTING DEVICES
4.3.4 Mechanical Safety Devices
A mechanical safety device
is analogous to a fuse in an
electrical circuit. It is intended
to protect the mechanism against
damage
be

Ideally,

a safety device should

self-restoring when safe

operating conditions have been

re-established. A good example

of this type of mechanism is the

slip clutch. A disadvantage of
the slip clutch is that continued
overloading may cause wear
or failure.

Positive disengagement under

overload is useful under many

conditions . Simple shear pins
or safety links are used, but

SHEAR PIN

A more complicated safety

device will disengage or shut
down the equipment under

overload conditions. In
this category is a type of
clutch which completely
disengages under overload
and can only be reset manually
or electrically. Other such
devices are speed governors,
thermostats, liquid level
switches, torque switches, and
pressure switches .
Warning signals, alone or in
combination with safety devices,
are often used. Horns, bells,
buzzers, and pilot lamps (in
noisy locations) are good

4-43

OP

2230

attention getters, and are useful

if rapid restoration of operation
is important or equipment is
remote and failure might not
otherwise be noticed. The slip

clutch previously illustrated

is very noisy when slipping
and is likely to attract
attention.

Stainless Set Screw

Spnnjs

4.3.5 Gears

Gears used in military

equipment differ in type and

quality. Commercial gears

are obtainable as standard
stock items. As equipment

becomes

more

precise,

ANTIBACKLASH

GEAR ASSEMBLY

the

necessity for precision gearing

is increased. It is particularly
important that specifications
and drawings of gears indicate
manufacturing tolerances and
inspection requirements .
Backlash in gears is most
readily controlled by providing
adjustment of shaft center
distances. Backlash in rightangle drives using mitre
gears can be controlled by
moving either gear or shaft.

If adjustment of shaft

104

centers is not practicable,

backlash should be controlled
by fixing dimensional
tolerances. A minimum
backlash of 0.001 inch at the
pitch line will provide sufficient
clearance for lubrication under
conditions of normal thermal
expansion. If gears must
not run tight and backlash must
be minimized, the 14-1/2 degree
tooth is preferred.
Excessive runout (eccentricity)
of gears results in excessive
backlash or binding. In mechan
isms such as servos or recorders,
where driving power is low and
uniform speeds are required,
binding must be avoided. A
typical antibacklash gear assembly
using springs is shown below.

The composite gear error is

effect of the

the combined

following factors:
a. Eccentricity of pitch circle
b. Errors in tooth form and
c.

lead

Clearance between shaft

and hub holes

Shaft runout and looseness
or shaft bearings .
In a newly assembled gear
train, run-in (wear ing- in) may
be used to minimize binding due
to minor runout errors and
machining irregularities .
Shaving, lapping, and other
finishing processes may be
used to minimize the need for

d.

run-in measures

Inspection and gaging of gears

are done by using a master gear
suitably mounted as a mating
element for the manufactured
gear. All errors and significant
dimensional quantities are
easily measured by use of
indicators . A particular advantage
of this system is that a gear
required for replacement can
be accurately reproduced at a
later date.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Less critical inspection of
gears is done by inserting
measuring pins of suitable
diameter between the gear
teeth and computing the pitch
diameter from the distance
between pins . Gear tooth
verniers also are used.
Where a smooth high-torque
drive is required, shafts must
be rigid and nonbending, with
gears mounted close to the
bearings . A long sturdy
hub on the gear will minimize
wobbling

Nonferrous metals are used

for lightly loaded gears . Where
precision is not important,
laminated phenolics , nylon,
and similar nonmetallic
materials are used to reduce
noise. Small pinions should
be of a harder, more durable
material than the mating gears.
Geared shafts may be
parallel, intersecting, or
neither parallel nor intersecting.
Spur, helical, and double
helical or herringbone gears,
illustrated below, should be
used to connect parallel shafts

HELICAL GEARS

DOUBLE HELICAL OR
HERRINGBONE GEARS
.

Straight bevel gears or

spiral bevel gears , illustrated

below, should be used to connect

shafts which are not parallel
but which would intersect if
extended. These gears must
be accurately aligned axially
with respect to their mating
gears .

SPUR GEARS

STRAIGHT BEVEL GEARS

4-45

OP

2230

HYPOID GEARS

SPIRAL BEVEL GEARS

Skew bevel gears, hypoid
gears, spiral gears, and worm
gears, illustrated below, should
be used to connect shafts which
are not parallel and would not
intersect if extended. These
gears must also be accurately
located axially with respect
to their mating gears.

SPIRAL GEARS

SKEW

BEVEL GEARS

WORM AND WORM

WHEEL

4.3.5.1 Spur Gears. The straight

teeth of spur gears provide
limited contact areas and are
-

46

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
generally noisy if high speeds,
heavy loads, and coarse teeth
are used.

4.3.5.2

Helical Gears. Helical

gears provide smoother, quieter

operation than the spur type
because of more gradual engage
ment. Helical gears are
particularly useful for quietness
of operation at high speeds. Their
principal disadvantage is that
thrust bearings must be provided.
Helical gears can be machined
and processed at about the same
cost as spur gears. Greater
friction caused by increased
tooth- sliding action and greater
driving force necessitates
greater care in lubrication.

4.3.5.3

Worm Gears. Worm

gearing is particularly suitable
for speed reduction and highThis type
torque applications.
of gearing is also widely used
for angular positioning in which
the self-locking feature is
advantageous.
Quietness
and smoothness of operation
are outstanding advantages,
but additional friction resulting
from the sliding action of the
worm markedly reduces efficiency.
Speed ratios of 100:1 or more
can be obtained by using a singlethread worm having a small
lead angle. Where a multiple
thread of large lead angle is
used, ratios as low as 1-1/2:1
are obtainable .
It is desirable to use a
harder material for the worm
than for the mating worm
wheel to minimize friction.
It is common practice in
small motors (1/10 horsepower
or less) to use laminated phenolic
material for worm gears. For
a precision drive, it is desirable
to mount the worm gear on ball

bearings and employ a specially

ground worm.
Because of the high friction
and heat generated, worm
gearing is usually lubricated by
gear oil in an enclosed bath.

4.3.5.4 Spiral Bevel Gears .

Spiral bevel gearing is usually

employed when an extremely

quiet, efficient, and powerful
right-angle drive of medium
reduction ratio is required.
These gears are furnished
in matched pairs of hardened
alloy steel and are usually
mounted on ball or roller bearings
Because of the curved tooth
construction, such gearing is
relatively expensive and is
used only in mechanisms where
the high cost is justified.

4.3.5.5

Attaching Gears to
Drive washers and nuts
should be used to secure gears
to shafts of rotary components
as illustrated below .
Shafts.

ROTARY PART

NUT

DRIVE WASHER
The designer should consider
following methods of mounting
shafts on single plates in
precision gear trains in lieu
of the conventional method of
mounting on double plates .
The methods, illustrated below,
the

4-47

OP

2230

offer the advantages of ease of

assembly and inspection.
Ball bearings pressed between
gear and stud provide a close

precision fit .

THRE

The spacer plate provides a

means of mounting the shaft with
two ball bearings in line on a
single plate .

SPACER PLATE
(ATTACH PRIOR

NUT

SCREW

LINE

11 i i

i i i 11

RETAINING
RING

TWO

BALL BEARINGS

SPACER PLATE

The boss prevents misalignment

and

bearing support.

minimizes assembly time.

SCREW

PLATE

linn
GEAR"

STUD

The polished stud acts as a

shaft and provides adequate

SINGLE

TO

BOR I NO)

in

BOSS

in

i i i i

ii iinnin

SHOULDER

POLISHED

^G

STUD

CAST
E A I

RETAINING

RE T A I N ING

BEAR

BOSS IN

SCRFW-HKLD

SPRING

PLATE

RING

CAST PLATE

The self- lubricating pedestal

supports the shaft and functions
as a bearing .

RING

RE T A I N ING

RING
o i L

IMPREGNATED

'POLISHED
RETAINING RING

POLISHED STUDS

STUD
SCREW
OR

PRESS
F IT

~~

OIL-IMPREGNATED

4-48

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
must be made for shaft expansion.
The lubricant must be sufficiently

The flanged tube eliminates

bearing- alignment .

fluid

RETAINING
RINGS

BEAR ING

PEDESTAL
Be A R INGS

GEAR

T 1 1

BEARING PEDESTAL
The raised platform provides
accommodation for a switch
or other part. The gear shaft
is accessible during operation.
R A I SEO

at the lowest required

operating temperature to
permit bearings to overcome
friction in starting.
Sleeve bearings are usually
made of cylinders, often with
a shoulder at one end to permit
them to act as a thrust bearing.
The outer surface may be
threaded to allow screwing
into place in an assembly.
Self-aligning sleeve bearings
have a spherical outer surface
which allows them to move into
alignment with the major axis
of the shaft.

SWITCH

CAM

PLATFORM

SLEEVE BEARING
SPACER
RODS

Sleeve bearings are usually

made of brass, bronze, or

mum 111 1 1 n

minimi

RAISED PLATFORM

4.3.6

Bearings
The following should be
considered in the use of bearings
and shafts:
a. To minimize shaft bending,
bearings should be mounted as
close as possible to the load.
b. Bearings should be
located so that they can be
readily lubricated or removed
for replacement.
c. Shafts in bearings must
run freely at all operating
temperatures and allowance

sintered nonferrous alloy.

Materials should be sufficiently
plastic to wear-in or conform
to the shaft. Where loads
are heavy, babbitt or soft
electroplated material on a
steel backing may be used to
provide a particularly uniform
stress distribution. Selfaligning bearings may be used
where the better wearing
properties of a harder material,
such as bronze, are desirable.

4.3.6.1 Bearing Lubrication.

Lubricant may be applied to

bearings by means of an oil
reservoir, oil-wick, or a
lubrication fitting . Where
required by heavy loads and

4-49

OP

2230

grooves may be
incorporated in the bearings to
improve circulation of oil.
Where oil-impregnated,
sintered materials are used
in "self- lubricating" bearings,
the manufacturer's installation
recommendations must be
carefully followed.

high speeds,

4.3.6.2 Ball and Roller Bearings

Ball and roller bearings are
used where very low friction is

desired and where the cost of the

equipment in which they are
used warrants their extra cost.
Where heavier loads are
involved, roller bearings are
used. Rollers may be short or
long, cylindrical (needle), or
tapered. Ball bearings can be
obtained with grease-retaining
washers which, in many cases,
contain sufficient lubricant
to last the life of the equipment.

ROLLER BEARING

Bearings should not be included

in any part of an electrical circuit.

Particular attention should

be

directed towards the effect of

bearings on radio frequency, and
resonant frequencies of equipment.

4.3.6.2.1 Mounting of Ball

Bearings. An arbor press

should be used for mounting ball

bearings as illustrated on the
next page. The outer ring of
the bearing should never be
subjected to the

full mounting

force of the arbor press as this

will cause a heavy thrust load
to be applied to the balls and
races before they are seated and
may seriously damage the bearing.
The full force of the arbor press
should not be applied until it has
been ascertained that the bearing
is started straight and not
misaligned. Forcing a cocked
bearing will distort the inner
race and may cause it to crack.
Also, the inner race, due to its
extreme hardness, is likely to
burr or score the shaft seat.
A hammer should never be used
to drive a bearing to its seat.
Such a procedure will cause the
bearing to be cocked from side to
side and may result in the shaft
being scored or burred or the
bearing being damaged in a
manner which will not show
up until after the bearing has
been put into

service.

4.3.6.2.2 Removal

of Ball Bearings,
correct methods of mounting
bearings, given in 4.3.6. 2.1,
The

BALL BEARING

4-50

apply equally to the removal of

bearings. Correct ball bearing
removal with an arbor press is
illustrated on page 4-52.
Bearings may also be removed
with a puller, as illustrated on
page 4-52

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Where gears or other remov

behind the part and the part

and the bearing may be

able parts do not allow the puller

to contact the bearing directly,
the puller jaws may be placed

removed as a unit, as

illustrated.

NOT THIS

THIS

ARBOR

ARBOR
PRESS

PRESS

INNER

OUTER
RING

BEARING

RING

SHAFT

NOT THIS

THIS

HAMMER

ARBOR
PRESS

SHAFT

BLOCKS

BEARING,

PUNCH

SHAFT

MOUNTING OF BALL, BEARINGS

4-51

OP

2230

FORCE

BLOCKS

ARBOR
PRESS
BEARING

SHAFT
INNER RING

BOTH RINGS

REMOVAL OF BALL BEARINGS WITH ARBOR PRESS

PULLER

ASSEMBLY

PULLER
ASSEMBLY
BEARING

SHAFT

REMOVABLE
BEARING

PART
r-rtiM

REMOVAL OF BALL BEARINGS WITH PULLER ASSEMBLY

4-52

SHAFT

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.3.7 Shafts

Carbon or alloy steel shafts

are used in enclosed lubricated
mechanisms where there is
appreciable speed and loading.
Brass shafts have limited
application and are normally
used only in small mechanisms
where the wear is of minor
importance. Shafts requiring
a high order of corrosion
resistance are sometimes
made of stainless steel.
The method of attaching
elements to a shaft is determined

by the magnitude of torque to

be transmitted.
Two set

screws approximately

90

degrees apart are satisfactory

for light loads . Where the full
load capacity of the shaft is
used, a pinned arrangement
should be used. Where both
reversal under full load and
ease of disassembly are required,
a spline is preferred. A welded
hub with suitable bolt holes

that they present a flush or

continuous surface with the
rest of the enclosure. They
should be sufficiently rigid
to withstand careless handling

clamping for sealing.

Large doors are usually
of double-wall construction
with edges folded back for
sealing. Size should be
limited to 6 feet high by 25
inches wide. Door pairs
generally open from the
centerline of the cabinet.
Hinges should be designed
to allow for complete dismount
ing of doors . They should be
completely out of sight when
the door is closed and should
not interfere with the sealing
surface. The disappearing
hinge illustrated is commonly
used. Large doors use a
and

number of such hinges to

ensure adequate strength and

rigidity

provides a positive drive

fastening. It is good practice
to use press fits for spacing

collars

and sleeves

BOLTING FLANGF

SPLINE

STUDS

GROUND FOR BEARING

DRIVE SHAFT WITH SPLINE

AND HUB

4.3.8 Doors

DOOR WITH DISAPPEARING

HINGE

Doors and other access

openings should be mounted so

4-53

OP

2230

Stays should be provided to hold

the door in the open position and
to limit the opening to about 90

degrees. Stays should not rattle

under normal shipboard vibration.
Small doors and covers are
usually made of sheet metal with
folded edges . When the cover
is not hinged, other means, such
as chain stays, should be pro
vided to prevent accidental loss.

Covers should be used to

prevent inadvertent maladjust
ment and the entry of foreign
material into the equipment.
These covers should be of the
captive type and should be
equipped with captive type
fasteners. One method of

accomplishing this is illustrated

below

CAPTIVE TYPE COVER

4.3.9 Slides

In large equipment it is

particularly important to provide

durable chassis slides and mounts.

Possible service shock loads and
inclination should be considered
in designing these. Provision
should be made for readily
disengaging the chassis from
the

slides

Guide pins
alignment and
of a slide-out
moving during
rods or other

are used for

to prevent the rear
chassis from
vibration. Threaded
means may be used

secure the assembly in

position.

to

4-54

Assembled slides of the ball

or roller type are usually bolted
to the enclosure for ease of
maintenance. Welding should
be used only when it is necessary
to provide a proper structural
mounting area for the slide.
Simple runner-guide slides
When used,
are often satisfactory.
they should be bolted or welded
in place. Nylon plastics may be
used for sliding surfaces. Slides
should be provided with automatic
latching devices to stop the
chassis from withdrawal beyond
the servicing position. For
additional information, see 2.2.2.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

GUIDE PIN

CHASSIS AND SLIDES

4.3.10 Latches
Latches should be provided
with handles where necessary.
Latch engagement should be
positive despite reasonable
flexure of door and cabinet. On
large doors, the latch should
hold the door at top and bottom;
a center stay may also be of
value. When the latch is
disengaged, door closure
under normal forces should
not damage the latch or lock.
If a door or cover is sealed
against a gasket, the latch
should also serve to pull the
cover in against the gasket.
A latch for a dust cover need
not have this provision, but
should prevent the cover from
rattling .

Gaskets
Selection of particular
materials for gaskets depends
on the conditions to be met,
such as roughness and finish of
sealing surfaces, temperature,
4.3.11

pressure,

and medium being

sealed.
As far as possible, gaskets
should be confined in a groove,
especially if soft gasket materials
are used. Dimensions of 0-ring

DOOR

LATCH

4-55

OP

2230

i!

ENCLOSURE

DOOR

GASKET

LATCH FOR SEALING

DOOR

grooves should follow manufactur

ers' recommendations. A flange
or shoulder may be used to
limit the deformation and prevent
crushing. It is generally
easier to seal a uniformly
narrow surface than a broad
surface. Bolts should not
extend through gaskets or
cause discontinuities in the
sealing surface.
Joints which must operate
under pressure should be
accurately fitted with gaskets .
A smooth machined surface
at the joints is not necessary,

but machining should be done

so that tool marks run parallel
to the gasket groove. Gaskets
should be continuous:
if ends

are spliced together, great

care must be exercised in
cutting or grinding the spliced
ends. A long scarf joint between
ends will minimize leakage.

4-56

ENCLOSURE

\GASKET
GASKET

COVER
ENCLOSURE
SEALING GASKETS
Gaskets for sealing doors,
hatches, ar.d covers should be
made of soft material. Rubber

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
or cork and rubber having an
approximate durometer hardness
of 30 to 50 are good for most
purposes. To minimize
permanent set, materials
should not be over-compressed.
Because of such set, covers
should always be replaced in
the same grooves from which
they were removed. Paper,
fiber, and similar materials
are generally unsatisfactory
for gaskets except for small
dustproof covers.
4.3.11.1 Gasket Selection. The
table on pages 4-58 through 4-62
which lists the characteristics,
applications, limitations, and
permissible temperature range
for various gasket materials,
may be used as a guide in the
selection of gasket material
for electronic equipment.
4.3.12 Springs
Carbon steel is the preferred
material for springs . When it
is plated for corrosion resistance,
it must be suitably heat treated
after plating to avoid hydrogen
embrittlement . In oil-filled
housings, steel springs are
usually not plated.
Stainless steel, monel metal,
and copper alloys are used where
a high level of corrosion resist
ance is required. To avoid
undue creeping, these materials
should be used only for lightly
stressed springs.
Tension springs should not be
stressed beyond 50 percent of
the yield point. End loops should
be completely closed'to prevent
unfastening under dynamic
loading . Special end loops or
bends should be avoided, as
they usually require an extra
operation. All springs exposed
to hydrogen evolved in any treatrr. :fit in the process of

manufacture, such as pickling

plating, must be relieved
by baking. Unitl this is done,
the spring must not be flexed
as presence of hydrogen causes
embrittlement. Work-hardened
spring material should be
stress-relieved to improve
durability in service.
Compression springs should
be adequately piloted to avoid
Ends should be
bending.
squared. Closure of compression
springs should be limited to
75 percent of free height.
and

CLOSE LOOP

TENSION SPRING

TORSIONAL SPRING
GRIND

FLAT-

COMPRESSION SPRING

Flat springs are relatively

inexpensive and are well suited
for use in precision mechanisms
where deflections are small.
Unless they are to be bent or
pierced they can usually be made
from fully hardened strip stock.
Unnecessary holes , notches, or
other discontinuities in flat
springs should be avoided.

4-57

-M

so

B9

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2230

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Electrical contact springs
may be of ber y llium- copper ,
beryllium- cobalt- copper ,

chromium-copper, palladiumcopper, silver-copper, iridioplatinum, phosphor-bronze, or

nickel-silver, tempered and
plated as necessary.
Beryllium-copper springs should
be heat treated after forming to
obtain the correct temper. When
flat springs are made from
materials which cannot be heat
treated, the direction of grain
should be within 45 degrees of
the longitudinal axis .
4.3.12.1

Material

Selection of Spring
.

The table on the

following page may be used as

a guide in the selection of
material for springs .
4.4 FASTENING TECHNIQUES
Methods of fastening are
determined by the type of joint,
strength required, materials,
and disassembly requirements.
Tensile strength of the joint
should approximate that of the
members joined, and stresses
should be distributed as uniformly
as possible.
Defective mechanical connec
tions are a major cause of defects
in military equipment. Although
some defects can be traced to
improper design, many are due
to poor workmanship as
evidenced by loose screws,
improperly driven rivets, and
cracked welds .
To minimize such defects
and improve reliability, equip
ment such as automatic

machines

for welding and torque wrenches

for tightening fasteners may be

used. Reliable joints can also

produced manually, but good
training and adequate supervision
be

of personnel and proper

inspection and testing are

required.

4.4.1 Welding
Welding has many advantages
over other methods of joining
parts such as high strength,
simplicity, and uniform stress
distribution.
Cost of tooling
and labor is relatively low and
welded parts require a minimum
of machining prior to assembly.
The three principal types of
welding are resistance, arc, and
gas welding. These types may
be further classified as follows:
a. Resistance: spot, line,
projection, percussive, mash,
flash, and butt.
b. Arc: metal arc with bare
electrodes or with coated
(shielded arc) electrodes in
reducing flame, atomic
hydrogen arc, carbon arc
(shielded or unshielded), inert
gas shielded arc, and submerged

arc.

c. Gas: acetylene and

oxyhydrogen .
Bonding materials used in
welding are similar in compo
sition to the base metals . All
of the common metals including

iron, steel, aluminum,

and

magnesium can be welded. The

joint is usually harder and more
brittle than the surrounding
metal. Depending on the
material used, stress relief
annealing, cold working, or
heat treating may be needed to
improve the mechanical
properties of the joint.
Inspection is sometimes
required before the finishing of
welded joints . Destructive
testing is specified for sample
lots or specimens . This is not
usually required for production
runs which are inspected by

4-63

op 2230

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
nondestructive methods such as
magnetic-particle, fluorescentdye, x-ray, or other radiographic
tests .

Parts to be welded must be

designed so that the joint is
accessible to electrodes and

welding rods

Surfaces to be welded should

be cleaned of all foreign
material such as slag, grease,
and oxides. Wire brushing or
grinding, followed by chemical
cleaning, usually serves this
purpose .

first

AVOID

GOOD

AVOID

ACCESSIBILITY FOR WELDING

Welding should not be used

.where partial or entire disassembly
may be required.
In selecting the type of welded
joint to be used, cost and
maximum effectiveness must
be considered.
Both electrode
material and the preparation of
edges are costly. A long thin
seam is usually stronger than
thick intermittent welds. Thin
parts should be fastened together
by more than one weld. Butt or
T-joints are preferred to lap
joints where corrosion traps
formed by lap joints might
retain corrosive plating fluids
and moisture.

BUTT WELDS

FILLET WELDS

LAP WELDS
When necessary, proper
fixtures should be used to

4-65

OP

2230

position and secure the parts

during welding of the joint.
The distortion of parts due
to welding can be minimized
by proper placement of parts
in fixtures by controlled welding
techniques . Greatest distortion
is produced where welding is
performed continuously on
only one side of a seam.
A good weld is smooth, dense,
and free of "cold shuts", cracks,
checks, burned spots, blisters,
and foreign matter . Most
welds weaken the metal adjacent
to the joint and reduce fatigue
resistance in the heat-affected
zone

BURNED WELD

GOOD

BUTT WELD

LACK OF PENETRATION

GOOD

FILLET WELD

EXCESSIVE CURRENT

INSUFFICIENT PENETRATION
Where extensive fillets are
used in weldments subject to
bending loads, stresses in
weldments tend to become

GOOD CORNER WELD

66

complex. In general, the

strength of the welded joint
should be equal to, or slightly
greater than, that of the parts
joined. The type of joint prepara
tion, size of fillets, and any
treatment after welding should
be specified.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Resistance Welding.
electric current of
sufficient magnitude is passed
through two adjacent metal
parts heat is generated at the
point of contact. This heat, in
conjunction with the localized
pressure exerted by the electrodes
supplying current, welds the
metals together. The type of
lap joints called seam welds may
be formed by use of the proper
resistance welding equipment.
Butt joints can also be made by
resistance welding.
4.4.1.1

When an

technique also permits welds

to be completed simultaneously
at several different points.
Sheets thicker than 1/16 inch
can be readily welded in this
manner .

Jl

PROJECTION WELDS
The amount of heat must be

o
SPOT WELD

carefully controlled by adjusting

the current and its duration.
Electrodes must be properly
shaped and cleaned in order to
conduct current efficiently
through adjacent parts . Control
of electrode pressure is also
an important factor.
to

u
BUTT WELD

SEAM WELD

For resistance welding,

projections are commonly used
to localize the weld area and
minimize distortion. This

Spot welds should be designed

resist shear or compression

forces . Spot welds should not

be used in tension, but if
assemblies of thin metals
contain a long row of spot
welds that may be subject to
bending, it is advisable to use
rivets instead of spot welds, or
to insert a rivet at each end and
space a few along the row.
For economy in spot welding,
it is of utmost importance to
design parts so that they are
accessible to welding apparatus.
Wherever possible, designs
should permit the use of
simplified electrode components
with a minimum amount of
off- setting .

Zinc- and cadmium-plated

parts can be spot-welded, but
this practice is not recommended
where maximum strength of the
joint is required. Cracking
around the weld may occur on

4-67

OP

2230

parts with thick zinc deposits.

Cadmium fumes generated in
welding cadmium-plated parts
are a health hazard. Where
plating is removed prior to
welding, a protective coating
should be applied by metal
spraying, brush electroplating,
or painting .
4.4.1.1.1 Electrode Materials.
The three classes of alloys
shown in the table on page 4-69
are satisfactory electrode
materials for the majority of
spot welding applications .
Class 1 alloy electrodes
should be used to spot-weld
aluminum alloys, magnesium
alloys, brass, bronze, terne
plate, tin plate, cadmium plate,
and galvanized iron in applica
tions which require high
electrical and thermal
conductivity .
Class 2 alloy electrodes
should be used to spot-weld
mild steel, low-alloy steel,
stainless steel, low- conductivity
brass and bronze, white brass,
and nickel alloys in applications
which require moderately
high electrode force and high
thermal conductivity.
Class 3 alloy electrodes
should be used to spot-weld
materials with high electrical
resistance such as inconel.

4.4.1.2 Arc Welding. In arc

welding, either carbon or metal
electrodes are used depending
on the materials being welded.
The arc extends from one
electrode to the other or, where
only one rod or electrode is
used, from the electrode to the
work which is connected to the
electrical circuit by clamping
The quality of the weld is
affected by current density,

electrode material, and arc

length. The selection of proper
electrodes is of great impor
tance since these affect the
electric current polarity, slag
removal, hydrogen embrittlement, and joint strength.
Electrode types and sizes are
listed in military specifications
and in publications of the American
Welding Society.

4.4.1.2.1 Metallic Arc. In the

metallic arc process, only one
electrode is used and it is
generally made of a material

similar

to the metals

to be

The rod is coated with

a flux, deoxidizer, and ionizer
which protect the filler when
molten. Flux in the form of
bin-fed granules is sometimes
used to cover the rod and arc.
Metallic arc welding can be
adapted to automatic processes
for producing long welds such
welded.

as pipe seams

Most ferrous metals, including

stainless and high-alloy steels,

can be welded satisfactorily

if the correct type of welding

rods or electrodes are used. It

is sometimes necessary to heat
treat the weldment after
welding in order to develop
desired mechanical properties .
Aluminum alloys, such as
1100, 3003, 5052, and 6061, can
be welded by the metallic-arc

process. In butt welding these

alloys, best results are achieved

when the stock thickness exceeds
1/8 inch. A backing strip is
often used during welding to
prevent the soft filler metal from
falling through the joint.
Carbon Arc. In carbon
arc welding an electric arc is
generated between a carbon
electrode and the work. Flux

4.4.1.2.2

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

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4-69

OP

2230

is applied directly to the work

or by a flux-coated welding
rod supplying the filler material
to the weldment. Backing strips
are required to support the weld
where thin material is used.
Both manual and automatic

carbon arc welding are suitable

for aluminum. Magnesium can
also be successfully welded by
this process. Carbon arc welding
is generally limited to metals
less than 3/8 inch thick.
Shielded Arc. Shielded
arc welding uses an inert gas,
usually helium or argon, to shield
the arc from the atmosphere during
welding. This process minimizes
oxidation and requires little or
no flux. Shielded arc welding
is used extensively in welding
magnesium and aluminum alloys .
If the joint is properly designed,
no filler metal is required.
The
intense arc is struck between a

4.4.1.2.3

virtually nonconsumable tungsten

electrode and the work. If filler

is used, it is of the same alloy

as the base metal. The process
is the same as in oxyacetylene
welding, (4.4.1.3), except that
no flux is used, and corrosion
due to trapping of flux is avoided.
Also, cleaning after welding may
not be required.

4.4.1.2.4 Atomic Hydrogen Arc

In atomic hydrogen
arc welding a fine jet of hydrogen
is forced into the arc struck
between two tungsten electrodes,
dissociating the gas into atoms.
The hydrogen atoms recombine
into the molecular form when
Welding

they leave the

arc.

The heat

absorbed during dissociation of

the hydrogen is given up upon
recombining and produces a jet
flame of molecular hydrogen
burning in a hydrogen atmosphere
at extremely high temperature

4-70

(though a lower temperature

than that of the arc itself). Heat

transferred to the work is

highly concentrated and more
intense than in other welding
methods . The welding rod is
fused in the flame and deposited
as in gas welding. Extremely
thin sheets can be welded by
this method and it is recommended
where fine contours are to be
minimized. This type of welding
is often used in the repair of
aluminum castings .

A number
of mixtures are used in gas

4.4.1.3 Gas Welding.

welding, including air- acetylene,

oxyacetylene, and oxyhydrogen.
Metal from a welding rod is usually
puddled into the joint to form
a part of the weld. Although gas
welding is not as fast as arc
welding, the slower evolution of
heat permits greater control and
prevents "burn- through" in the
welding of thin ferrous materials .
When the section to be welded
is thicker than 1/8 inch, the edges
of the joint should be suitably
prepared by grinding or machining
followed by cleaning. Proper
fluxes and cleaning are essential
to minimize oxidation. Slag
and oxidation products must be
removed after welding.
Gas welding should be used
only for small parts . With

proper tip selection, mild steel

as thin as 0.005 inch can be
readily welded. Thin sections
of aluminum (0.030 inch minimum)
can also be easily welded by
this process. Softening or fusion
temperature are not evidenced
by change of color, however, and
careful heat control is required
to produce a sound weld. Backing
strips, or "chill blocks" may
be employed to help control the
heat.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
When objects of large area
are gas welded, distortion may
result. It Is therefore desirable
to preheat the area surrounding
the joint before welding.
Cooling stresses may be large
enough to produce failure in
ferrous metals of high carbon
content.
Annealing the entire
part after welding will improve
the quality of the weld for any

SEAM WELD

material.

4.4.1.4 Welding of Aluminum

Alloys . The suitability of the
various welding processes for

joining aluminum alloys is

shown in the table.

BACKING STRIPS

METHODS FOR WELDING ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Aluminum

Alloy

Association
Designations

Gas

Welding

Arc

Welding

Resistance
Welding
(Including Spot
and Seam)

WROUGHT
3003
2014

2024
5052
6061

7075

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent
Excellent

Excellent
Excellent

Poor
Poor
Poor

Good
Good

Good
Good
Good
Good

Poor

Good

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

CAST
43
122
142
195

220
356
A612

Excellent

Fair
Fair
Fair

Fair
Fair
Fair

Fair
Fair
Fair

Good

Excellent

Good

Poor

Fair

Poor

Fair

Poor

Fair

4-71

OP

2230

4.4.1.5 Welding of Titanium.

Titanium alloys can be fusion

welded by techniques similar

to those used for other metals.
The major difference is that
hot and molten titanium must
be protected from air and
foreign materials. The molten
weld metal and heat- affected
zones must be shielded from
contaminating elements by
a protective blanket of inert
gases. Coated electrodes or
fluxes cannot be used in this

welding process; thus,

titanium can be fusion welded
only by inert-gas shielded-arc
welding procedures, which
include both the nonconsumable
(tungsten-arc) and consumable
(sigma) electrode processes.

A. Nonconsumable Electrode
Process. The nonconsumable

The major disadvantage of

nonconsumable electrode welding
is the possibility of tungsten
contamination of the weld during
manual operations if the operator
allows the electrode to contact
the molten puddle. -This

contamination is minimized

by the use of fully automatic

or semiautomatic machines.

B, Consumable Electrode

Process,

inert-gas shielded-arc
(sigma) electrode should be used
for materials heavier than 0.125
inch. Consumable electrode
welding offers the advantage of
more weld- metal deposit per
unit time and unit of power
consumption. One of the main
disadvantages of this type of
welding is excessive spatter.

(tungsten-arc) process offers

many advantages: the physical

aspects of the weld such as
penetration and width of the
fusion zone, may be accurately

controlled; there is no spatter;

the weld appearance is smooth
and uniform whether or not
filler is used; it can be used
very effectively on sheet
materials up to thicknesses of
approximately 0.125 inch; and
it can be accomplished manually
or by machine, with or without
filler material. The two factors
which govern the use of filler
material are gage and joint
fit-up. With good joint fit-up,
using material heavier than
about 0.090 inch, filler is
generally required to avoid
undercutting adjacent to the
weld bead. With bad joint
fit-up, filler may be required
in gages lighter than 0.090 to
avoid burn-through as well as
undercutting .

Inert-Gas Shielding

shielding is of two
types: open air- shielding , and
enclosed-chamber shielding .
Generally, shielding is by
the open-air method with a
combination of inert- gas shields
and inert-gas back-up shielding.
In this method, the weld puddle
and adjacent heat-affected
zones on the face of the weld are
protected by the nozzle gas
(primary shielding) . Trailing
shields are used to protect
the hot solidified metal and
heat-affected zones behind
the weld puddle. Back-up
shielding Is used to protect
the root of the weld and the
adjacent heat-affected zones.
An example of open-air
nonconsumable electrode
welding of a titanium sheet
sample with automatic equip
ment is illustrated on the
following page .

Inert-gas

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
c. Turbulence from outside
sources should be
prevented.

Back-up shielding is accomplished

by the use of back-up bars which
should always be grooved with
the groove centered directly
beneath the weld joint to provide
a passage for inert-gas flow
under the joint. The groove
should be 1/4 inch wide by 1/100
to 1/16 inch deep for material
The
up to 0.050 inch thick.
groove should be 3/8 inch wide
by 1/16 deep, with an additional
groove at the bottom center
measuring 3/16 inch wide by 1/16

Trailing shields, used to

protect the weld metal during

solidification and cooling,
may be mounted on manual,
semiautomatic, or automatic
electrode holders, or on guns,
as illustrated below.

inch deep, for material from

0.050 to 0.125 inch thick.
Enclosed-chamber shielding
illustrated on the following page,
is used primarily to weld small
parts and complex shapes which
are difficult to shield adequately
by the open-air method.

4.4.1.6 Ultrasonic Welding.

The following tabulation shows

various combinations of metals
which can be successfully joined
by ultrasonic welding:

Material
Aluminum

Welded to

Beryllium, copper,

germanium, gold,
kovar, magnesium,

molybdenum, nickel,
silver, steel, tanta

lum, tin, titanium,

TRAILING SHIELDS
The following are factors
in the design of a trailing shield:
a. Large shields with high
usage rates should be
water cooled
b. Release of the inert gas
into the inside chamber
must be controlled

zircaloy

Copper

Aluminum,
nickel

kovar

Germanium

Aluminum,
platinum .

gold,

Gold

Aluminum, germanium,
kovar, nickel, silicon

4-73

OP

2230

ENCLOSED-CHAMBER

Material

Welded to

Molybdenum

Aluminum,
tantalum

Nickel

Aluminum, kovar,
molybdenum

nickel,

copper, platinum,
steel
Platinum

Aluminum, german
ium, gold, kovar,
nickel

Silicon

Aluminum,

gold

Zirconium

Aluminum,
steel

copper,

This method of welding

the vibrations set up by

utilizes
-

74

SHIELDING

piezoelectric

crystal or magneto-

strictive material subjected to

an

ultrasonic frequency

electro- magnetic field. A

coupling device transmits

the vibrations to the sonotrode
which is in contact with the
pieces to be welded. The
result is a solid-state metal
lurgical bond.

4.4.2 Soldering and Brazing

Soldering and brazing are

generally less expensive than
similar welding operations;
joints are neater and less
finishing is required. Further
more, parts that are too thin
to be welded may be soldered
or brazed satisfactorily.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Soldering and brazing
materials have lower melting
points than the base metals.
Soft solders are composed of
tin and lead and melt at tem
peratures below 700F. Hard
solders, often called brazing
alloys, melt at temperatures
ranging from 700 to 1600F .

spreading on the metals to be

joined and alloying with them.
The surfaces to be soldered
must be free of dirt, oil, and
corrosion products before flux
is applied. At the soldering
temperature, flux dissolves
residual oxides and prevents
further oxidation of the prepared
metal.

4.4.2.1 Soft Soldering.

Because
of its low melting range, soft
solder is widely used for bonding
electrical connections, hermetic
sealing, and for joining metals
to metals or to metal-coated
ceramics. Soft solder joints
are weak compared to the
metals joined, and fatigue
easily. These disadvantages
are overcome by securing the
parts mechanically before
soldering, e.g., hooking
wires to terminals or locking
seams together. If parts
cannot be secured mechanically,
the area of the joint must be
increased. Properly designed
lap joints are adequate for
lightly stressed parts .

.SOLDER

BELLOWS
Soft Soldering Alloys.
Lead- tin alloys are used for
The solder
most soft soldering.
be
should
25 to
temperature
100F above the upper melting
temperature (liquidus), as shown
in the following chart .

4.4.2.2

LEAD

INSULATOR
SOLDER

(%)

l00

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

l0

ZO

30

4O

50

60

70

80

90

700

METAL
JOINING METALS AND NONMETALS
See 7.3.6 and 7.3.7 for
soldering of electrical connections
The requirements for
successful soldering are rela
tively simple. The solder

IOO 8

TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR SOFT

SOLDER COMPOSITIONS

must be capable of wetting and

4-75

OP

2230

Commonly used solder and

soldering specifications are:
QQ-S-571 Solder: lead alloy,

tin- lead alloy and tin alloy

JAN-S-627 Solder, low-melting-

point

MIL-S-19234 (NOrd) Solder,

cadmium- silver

MIL-S-6872A Soldering

process,

for

general specifications

MIL-S-12204 Solder, aluminum

alloy
Antimony increases the
strength and raises the melting
range of solders but lowers the
ductility of the lead-tin alloys .
If some increase in strength
is desired, a higher antimony
content and range is specified;
but for good ductility, the
maximum antimony content is
kept low. In addition, tin- lead
solders containing over 0.5
percent antimony should not be
used on zinc, cadmium, or
galvanized iron since a brittle
joint will result when antimony
combines with these metals.
The presence of other metals
lowers the melting point of the
alloys; but this is an insignificant
factor if only small amounts
are present.
Where solders are to be
molded, as in wiped joints and
sealing applications, alloys
containing 30 to 35 percent tin
are used because of their broad
melting range. Because of the
scarcity and high cost of tin,
which is a strategic metal,
alloys low in tin should be used
wherever possible. Low-tin
alloys require higher soldering

4-76

temperatures and do not spread

and wet as readily as those
containing larger amounts of
tin. The most commonly used
solders are those with tin content
of 40 to 50 percent.
When tin is in short supply,
soft solder may be composed
of lead with 2-1/2 percent silver,
melting at 600F; or of lead with
1-1/2 percent silver and 1 percent
tin, melting at about 590F .
Because of their higher melting
points, these solders may require
the use of higher capacity heat
sources than the lead-tin solders.

Forms of Soft Solders .

Soft solders are commercially
available as bars, stocks, wire,
sheet or ribbon, segments, drops,
and powder. Rosin core wire and acid
4.4.2.3

core wire are available. The former

is widely used to join wire and
posts. Dry mixtures of powdered
alloy and flux, and pastes containing
fluxes and solder, can be obtained.

4.4.2.4 Fluxes for Soldering.

Soldering fluxes must be carefully
selected. Their chief function is
to remove oxides formed on the
metal surfaces at the soldering
temperature. Clean copper and
brass surfaces can be fluxed with
organic materials , such as rosin,
petroleum jelly, or tallow. For
other metals, such as aluminum,
stainless steel, or zinc, more
corrosive fluxes, such as
ammonium or zinc chloride, may
be required.
Zinc chloride and mixtures of
zinc chloride and ammonium
chloride remove oxide film which,
although invisible to the eye, forms
almost immediately on freshly
exposed and cleaned metal surfaces
These
at soldering temperatures.
acid fluxes are quick-acting and
promote good wetting. They are
available as powders, pastes,

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
solutions. Flux residues
remaining after soldering are
and

corrosive and must be com

pletely removed from the

surface by washing with hot

water, and, if necessary, a
petroleum solvent. No flux or
compound should be

cleaning

allowed to remain. If
corrosive fluxes cannot be
effectively removed after the
soldering operation, parts
should be cleaned, pretinned,
and then joined, using non-

wetting the metal, and result in

a poor, mechanically weak
joint. These difficulties can
be minimized by applying the
heat a short distance from the
joint and allowing the joint to
come to the proper temperature
by conduction.

Conditions for soldering a

lap joint are illustrated below.
r-CLEARANCE,

0. 002

TO

0. 004

IN.

corrosive flux.

Where cleaning after

soldering is difficult,
impracticable, or forbidden,
rosin flux must be used. A
paste flux consisting of powdered
rosin mixed with petrolatum is
available . Levulinic acid in
alcohol is used for soldering
terne plate and tin-plated sheet
and wire stock.
Soldering Process .
Metal that is to be soldered should
be cleaned of all dirt, grease,
and corrosion films . Any heavy
scale or oxide must be removed
by pickling or by some mechani
cal means such as filing, sanding,
or wire brushing. Chemical
cleaning is superior to mechanical

4.4.2.5

The oxides that can be

removed by the flux are thin,
invisible oxides or, at most,
only a discoloration on the surface.
Surfaces should be soldered as
soon after cleaning as practicable.
methods

Temperature control is
important in soldering although
it is not often measured. Over
heating should be avoided, as it
causes excessive oxidation of
both the work and the solder,
and may also result in buckling
and discoloration of the work.
If flux chars, it will prevent
close contact between joining
surfaces, prevent solder from

^APPLY HEAT HERE

SOLDER
SOLDERING A LAP JOINT
The two pieces to be joined are
cleaned, coated with a thin layer
of flux, and supported on blocks
or clamped in the desired
relative positions . If clamps
are used, they should contact
the edges rather than the faces,
to allow the necessary clearance
of about 0.002 to 0.004 inch for
the flux or the solder. Place
a piece of wire solder against

the edge, and apply heat as

indicated in the illustration to
bring the sheets to soldering
temperature. The solder will
melt and be drawn into the
space by capillary attraction.
If the length of lap is large,
heat should be applied to the top
sheet just over the end of the
bottom sheet. On perfectly
clean, fluxed sheet assemblies,
solder can travel several inches
by capillary attraction. Where

considerable overlap ie involved,

it may be necessary to add more
solder where required. As soon
as the solder has been properly
distributed, heating is stopped

4-77

OP

2230

Molten solder may be used to

conduct heat to areas to be

and the joint allowed to cool

until the solder solidifies.
Movement during solidification
or rapid chilling to hasten
cooling will result in an
extremely poor joint. A test
piece may be broken to check
soldering quality and coverage.

4.4.2.6

Heating Methods.

soldered, for instance, in

soldering thin sheets.

For

small areas or thin metal, the

heat from an iron is generally
sufficient. For larger work,
a gas-air, acetylene- air , or
gasoline blowtorch flame will
be required to bring the
temperature of the joint above
the liquidus temperature of
the solder .
Induction or resistance
heating and oven heating are
when parts
used in production,
can be cleaned, fluxed, and
assembled with the solder.
The use of an iron to heat
an area remote from the joint
is illustrated below . Where
surfaces have no clearance,
solder remains on one side.
This results in a weak bond
useful only for tacking. By
pretinning one or both pieces
or by use of sheet solder, a full
bond can be secured.

HEATING BY SOLDER
Strength of Soldered Joints
The tensile strength of soft solder
is about one tenth the tensile
strength of the base metals (4000
to 8000 psi as compared to 40,000
to 80,000 psi). For this reason
it is necessary to have as large
a contact area as practicable for
a strong joint. Illustrated below
are various joint designs used to
provide a soldered area larger
than that provided by a butt joint.

4.4.2.7

BUTT JOINT

LAP JOINT

STRAP JOINT
SHEET SOLDER

LOCKED JOINT

Wire solder may not penetrate

'nt if fit is too close.
5E

OF REMOTE HEAT SOURCE

TYPES OF SOLDERED JOINTS

STRUCTURAL
The loads required to shear
soldered lap joints 1 inch wide
are shown below for 70-30 solder
0.002 inch thick. Shearing
strength increases in proportion

DESIGN

6000

lap.

to the length of

SO00

jr2

l500

4OOO

00*

0.01

0.09

SOLDER THICKNESS <INCMES)

UJ

KlOOO
M
Ou

EFFECT OF SOLDER THICKNESS

STRENGTH OF JOINT

ON

Heat affects the shear strength

of soldered joints as shown in
the following chart.
l/8

1/4

LAP

3/8

l/2

5/8 3/4

(IN)

STRENGTH OF LAPPED SOLDERED

JOINTS, 1 INCH WIDE
l200

The effect of solder thick

ness on the strength of a joint
is shown below. In general a
thickness of 0.002 to 0.003 inch
is desirable for maximum
strength. This requires good
positioning of the parts to be
soldered, for example, by
crimping or locking of the
parts .

Relative movement must be

avoided while the solder is
solidifying to prevent weakening
of joints .

100

200
TEMPERATURE

300

(F)

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOLDERED
SLEEVE JOINTS

4-79

OP

2230

4.4.2.8

Solder ability of Metals .

of
various metals with lead-tin
solders are listed below in order
of decreasing solderability.
The low solderability of
magnesium and aluminum is
due to the formation of a thin
oxide film on the surface.
The relative solderability

Metal

Relative
Solderability

Tin and

tin alloys

Silver

Copper and
copper alloys
Steel

Nickel

Monel
Lead
Cadmium
Zinc
Stainless steel
Magnesium
Aluminum

1
1

2
3
3
3

4
4
4
5
6
6

To improve solderability,

metals are often "tinned" or

coated with a more solderable
metal such as tin, copper, or
silver, applied by hot dipping

or electroplating . Copper wires

are often electroplated with tin
to prevent the formation of
copper oxide which forms
readily in storage. Solderability is often a factor in
the selection of electrodeposited coatings . Tin and
tin alloys are used for
electroplating of instrument
parts; tin- zinc, and tin-copperzinc alloys providing easy
soldering. Copper and copper
alloy parts used for electrical

4-80

connections are often silver

plated to improve conductivity
and solderability.

4.4.2.9

Brazing.

Many common

metals, whether similar or

dissimilar, can be joined by
brazing with copper alloys or
silver alloys to facilitate
fabrication of complex assemblies.
Brazing is done at temperatures
higher than those for soldering
and lower than those for welding.
Distortion is less likely with
brazing than with welding because
of the lower temperature range.
Strong hermetically sealed units
can be readily produced by
brazing . Some plated parts
can also be brazed.
Lock-seam, tee, line contact,
or lap joints are preferred to butt
or scarf joints . Brazed lap
joints with overlap equal to
two or three times the metal
thickness are generally stronger
than the thinner member.
The strength of a brazed joint
varies with the clearance and
brazing material used. When
the joint is properly prepared,
the resulting bond may be stronger
than the base metal. High stress
points should be avoided through

proper design.

LAP JOINT

BUTT JOINT

LAP JOINT

TEE JOINT

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

For silver-base alloys (called

AVOID

IMPROVED

silver solders), a 0.002- to

0.005-inch clearance results in
good shear strength. The optimum
clearance for any given type of
joint is best determined by
experiment.
The tensile strength of joints
brazed with a silver alloy
may be as high as 120,000

GOOD

AVOID

BETTER

GOOD

psi.

Impact strength of brazed

members depends on the alloys
used, clearances, and joint
design. Localized stresses
must also be considered.
Brazed parts should be
restrained to prevent movement
during brazing. In closed
containers, provision should be
made for releasing gases
generated during heating.
VENTING MUST
BE PROVIDED

CAVITY
GOOD

BETTER

BRAZED JOINTS

VENTING OF CONTAINER
Surfaces must be thoroughly

Clearance between the parts

to be brazed must be provided
for the flow of brazing material.
Flow and wetting characteristics
of the brazing alloy determine
the amount of clearance required,
Since flow depends on gravity
and capillary forces, very
loose and very tight fits must
be avoided. When copper-base
material is used, clearance may
vary from 0.001 to 0.002 inch.

cleaned

prior

to

brazing. Dirt,

oxides, grease, and oil must

be completely removed either
mechanically or chemically.
In brazing silver alloys,
the melting temperatures of the
brazing materials range from
950 to 1550F;

alloys, from

for copper

1330 to 2100F

Aluminum brazing alloys consist

of aluminum alloyed to give a
melting point lower than the soften
ing point of aluminum (1200F).

4-81

OP

2230

Flux is used to protect metal

surfaces from oxidation, to
dissolve oxides that may form,
and to assist the flow of molten
brazing alloy.
Heat can be applied by torch,
gas-air flame, electric arc,
induction, resistance, furnace,
dipping in molten alloys or
salts, or other means. Torch
flames should be neutral, that
is, neither oxidizing nor
reducing. In furnace heating,
a neutral or reducing atmosphere
is desirable. Hydrogen and
inert gases can also be
employed to reduce flux
requirements. Induction
heating rapidly develops heat
over a controlled area. Coils
and joint members should be
arranged to produce heat
uniformly through the parts.
Incandescent carbon heating
allows application of pressure
during brazing. In this method,
flat work is placed between
carbon plates and then the
heating current is applied.
Dip brazing, using a molten
salt or metal bath, is useful
for small parts.
After brazing, joints should
be cleaned to remove all
traces of flux. Most brazing
fluxes contain fluorides or
bifluoride salts which are
highly corrosive. Corrosion
due to dissimilarity of metals
may be severe unless

precautions are taken. For

example, 18-8 stainless steel
is severely corroded if brazed
with an alloy containing no

nickel.

All conditions should be

evaluated experimentally to
aid in selecting the bonding

process and material.

Calculations based on previous
jobs or handbook data are not
always applicable or reliable.

4-82

4.4.3 Riveting

Riveting is one of the most

widely used methods of making
rigid, permanent joints . Like
welding, riveting is usually
applied over large areas, but in
some constructions, a few
rivets may be used to advantage.

4.4.3.1 Characteristics. A
structurally sound joint is
provided by correctly set

rivets with minimum clearance

between holes and rivets .

Slippage of the two faying sur
faces cannot occur unless the
shearing strength of the rivets
is exceeded, or the plate or
shape on which the rivets bear
fails by crushing or tearing.

PROPERLY SET

POORLY SET

RIVETED JOINTS

Warping due to thermal

is not likely to occur
where parts are riveted since
mechanical properties of the
joined metals remain unchanged.
(In welding, the properties of
parts are sometimes seriously
affected.)
In riveting brittle materials,
washers must be used to
distribute the stresses over a
larger area and prevent cracking
expansion

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
RIVET

METAL

If sealing is required in riveted

joints, special provisions must

be used to

seal the faying surfaces.

A correctly set cold-formed

rivet will often be self-sealing .

SOFT WASHERS

CERAMIC

Hot-formed rivets seldom leak.

Heavy sections may be caulked
for better sealing.

WASHER

RIVETING BRITTLE MATERIAL

4.4.3.2 Rivets Versus

Welds

Spot

Riveting is relatively
expensive compared to spot
welding, but results are
slightly more uniform and
consistent. Thin or dissimilar
metals and nonmetals of any
reasonable thickness may be
joined by rivets . "Blind"
.

rivets can

be used to

join

4.4.3.4

Stresses in Rivets .
Loads on rivets should be in
simple shear. To develop
maximum strength in multiplerivet designs, the holes must
be accurately aligned by line
Avoid tensile and
reaming.
cantilever loads on rivets .
RIVETS SUBJECTED TO
BENDING STRESS ONLY

pieces in areas not accessible

to welding equipment.

4.4.3.3

Limitations of
Riveting . Parts joined by
riveting cannot be easily
disassembled. Electrical
and electronic items including
resistors, capacitors,
inductors, transformers, and
motors, should not be secured
by rivets because of difficulty
in replacement . However,
pieces within a readily
replaceable part may be
secured by rivets or eyelets,
providing electrical contact
is not involved. Where
riveting results in a major
structural improvement and
involves only minor servicing
difficulty, it is considered
desirable .

NOTE: Rivets or riveted

RIVETS SUBJECTED TO
SHEAR STRESS ONLY

GOOD
LOAD

RIVETS SUBJECTED

TO

COMBINATION OF SHEAR
AND BENDING STRESS

POOR

STRESSES ON RIVETS

sections must never be

used as a part of an

electrical circuit, includ

ing grounding

of shields

4-83

OP

2230

4.4.3.5

Design. Precise test

values and other data for riveting
can be obtained from available
engineering handbooks . Recommended
rivet sizes and other values for
use with common sheet gages are
tabulated below.

BEST

Edge distance (the distance

edge of the part to be
joined to the center line of first
rivet hole) should be at least twice
the rivet diameter to assure
optimum bearing stress and
minimum bulging about the rivet
head.
Pitch (the center-to-center
distance between rivets) should be
at least three times the rivet

from the

diameter .
Bulging and warping are
aggravated by spacing rivets too
widely in thin materials. Wide
spacings reduce structural rigidity
and prevent sealing of faying
surfaces .

POOR
LOADS ON RIVETS

Thickness of
sheet, T
0.000
0.065
0.094
0. 126
0. 188
0.251

to 0.064
to 0.093
to 0. 125

to 0. 187
to 0.250

and up

Rivet diameter

Edge distance

3/32

3/16

1/8
5/32

1/4
5/16

3/8

3/16

1/4
T
1.4

1/2

2D

RIVETING DATA

(Dimensions in inches)

4-84

Minimum pitch

9/32

3/8

15/32
9/16

3/4

3D

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
for handling rivets in assembling
are tabulated on page 4-86.

BULGING DUE TO WIDE SPACING

Selection of the type of

rivet

to be used should be
made on the basis of an
analysis of joint stresses and
other requirements . Whenever
practicable rivets should be
made of the same material
as the plates they fasten.
Countersunk heads are
weaker than round heads and
should not be used where
head height exceeds metal
thickness. Preferred types
of rivets are shown in
specifications and standards,

REAMING OF RIVET HOLES

for example, FF-R-556

(copper), MIL- R- 7885

4.4.3.8

(steel).

pre-pierced holes where

(aluminum alloy), MS 35743

4.4.3.6 Rivet Holes. Before

large quantities of rivets are
ordered,

the optimum size of

a given hole size should
be determined by a driving test.

rivet for

To develop full strength when

multiple rivets are used, holes

should be drilled slightly
undersize then reamed slightly
larger than the rivet. Where
the full shear strength of the
rivet is not required, reaming
may not be necessary.

4.4.3.7 Aluminum Rivets

Practically all

the wrought
aluminum alloys, such as 1100,
3003, 2017, 2024, 5053, 5056,
and 6061, can be used. Data

Tubular and Split Rivets,

Tubular rivets are used in

maximum shear strength is

required. The hole in the
rivet is usually slightly deeper
than the thickness of the parts
being joined. Ease in clinching
the head reduces joint deforma
tion and material fracture.
Tubular rivets, including eyelets,
may be used to pierce their own
holes in wood, plastics, leather,
canvas, and other nonmetallic
materials. Stresses in clinching
the head are low, but, in soft
materials, washers or backing
strips may be required to avoid
not

cutting into the

material.

Split rivets may be driven

directly into steel 0.040 inch
thick and clinched over. In
specifying the length for a split

4-85

OP

2230

ALUMINUM RIVET DATA

Alloy

and

temper

as supplied

Temper after
driving

Data and conditions

for driving

(3003)

2S-F
3S-F

F
F

As fabricated (F). Rela

tively soft, and may be
stored indefinitely.

(2117)

A17S-T4

T3

As received; but if aged,

(2017)

17S-T4

T3

As received; but if aged,

(2017)

17S-T4

T31

Immediately after reheattreating and quenching.

(2017)

17S-T4

T41

Hot, 940 plus or minus

10F.

(2024)

24S-T4

T31

Immediately after reheattreating and quenching.

(5053)

53S-T4

T41

Hot, 960F and 1050F

(5053)

53S-T6

T6

As received. May be
stored indefinitely.

(5053)

53S-T61

T61

As received.

(5056)

56S-F

H321

As received. May be
stored. Good for magne
sium structures .

(6061)

61S-T4

T43

Hot, 1020 plus or minus

30F.

(6061)

61S-T6

T6

As received.

(1100)

4-86

re-treat.
re-treat.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
or hollow rivet, it is good
practice to add up to 100 percent
of the shank diameter to the
required finished thickness of
the assembly.

Blind Rivets. Where

accessibility is limited blind

4.4.3.10

rivets may prove necessary.

Warping and distortion are
minimized by lower head
pressures. The rivet can be
driven without the use of a
bucking bar . Prior approval
for the use of blind rivets should
be obtained

agency.

D
TUBULAR AND SPLIT RIVETS

4.4.3.9 Special Rivets . If part

of the rivet must be used for

functions other than joining, the

so-called formed or clinch
head is made by staking,
spinning, crimping, or similar
operations . Such formed
heads have relatively low
strength, but are adequate
for some purposes .

from

the cognizant

The most common types

of blind rivets are the drive-pin,
pull-stem, and chemically
expanded types .

Drive-pin rivets , illustrated

below, consist of two parts - a
slotted shank, partially drilled
from the head side, and a grooved
pin. As the pin is hammered in,
the shank segments are forced
apart, locking the rivet in place.
This type of rivet does not
require finishing of the head
after setting. It should be used
only on material sufficiently
rigid to withstand the blow
necessary to drive the pin into
the

rivet.

PRIOR TO
INSERTION

AFTER
INSERTION

DRIVE -PIN RIVET

SPECIAL RIVETS

Pull- stem rivets , illustrated

on the following page, consist of
a hollow shank on a pull stem.
The stem is pulled through the

4-87

OP

2230

shank after the rivet is

inserted, and an upsetting

head on the end of the stem

forms a "tulip head" on the

blind end of the shank. In
some designs the stem remains
within the shank and is broken
off flush with the rivet head,
while in others the stem is,
completely withdrawn. A
sealing pin may be driven
into the shank to provide
greater shear strength or
better sealing of the joint.

Heat applied to the head ignites

the charge causing it to explode
and set the rivet.

CAUTION : Equipment

specifications must be
checked for limitations on
the use of rivets and on

permissible rivet types.

EXPLOSIVE
CHARGE
PRIOR

PULL STEM

TO

INSERTION
CHEMICALLY

AKTER INSERTION
EXriANOEIJ RIVET

The blind rivet illustrated

below is a combination of a
rivet and a threaded fastener.
When the rivet is placed in a
PRIOR TO
INSERTION

AFTER INSERTION

PULL STEM RIVET

Chemically expanded rivets
are one-piece fasteners which

enclose a chemical explosive

charge. The charge is centered
and runs the length of the shank.

suitably drilled hole, the threaded

section is pulled by a threaded
stud, while the head is held by
a tool anvil.
This action causes
the shank of the rivet to expand
at the center section and lock
in place. The principal use of
this type of rivet is in joining
sheet metal sections which cannot
withstand the blows necessary to

install drive-pin rivets.

STUD

ANVIL
MATERIAL TO
BE JOINED

PRIOR TO
INSERTION

AFTER INSERTION

COMBINATION RIVET AND THREADED FASTENER

4-88

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.4.3 .11 Extruded Rivet
Process. The extruded rivet

process provides an airtight

joint for metals . A punch
forces metal from the top
sheet through the under sheet,
punching a hole in the latter .
Step one of the process is
shown below.

slug
punched
out

in the rivet hole

is assured. The slow-acting
squeezer type is recommended
for aluminum and magnesium,
as it reduces rivet cracking.
Where accessibility is limited,
pneumatic and manual hammering
methods may be used. With
these methods, separate
bucking bars of sufficient mass
to assure expansion of the rivet
shank must be provided. The
recess in the nose of the bucking
bar should center on the rivet
head in order to transfer
compressive forces to the
rivet shank .
the shank

STEP ONE
riveting

\jJp*>

anvils

p^

^4?

LJ

POOR

GOOD

BUCKING BAR RECESS

STEP TWO
FORMING EXTRUDED RIVETS
In step two, the riveting
punch and flat anvil rivet the
two pieces together. The top
sheet remains unpierced
is therefore completely
airtight .

and

Setting Rivets. Heads

of any type of rivet must be
properly formed and squarely
seated, without damage to the
parts, to provide a tight joint.
Rivet- setting tools should not
strike the plates. Polished
surfaces on the rivet set aid
metal flow in the rivet head.
Rivets can be set manually
or automatically. Standard
or squeezer types of riveting
machines are preferred, since
these do not require a separate
bucking bar, and expansion of

4.4.3.12

SET RIVETS

A cone head forms most

easily for a given rivet strength,
and it is recommended for
aluminum rivets, where the
relatively large size of heads
requires considerable force.
For softer materials and
smaller sizes, small pneumatic
hammers, riveting presses,
or riveting machines can be
used. Hot-forming is generally
used for large steel or alloy
rivets .

4-89

OP

2230

Where high strength is not

required, the heads and shanks
need not be fully formed, and
the rivet may be of the hollow,
semitubular, split, shoulder,
or similar type.

4.4.3.12.3 Flange Clearance.

When it is necessary to locate a

rivet joint near a flange there
should be adequate clearance
between the two in order to avoid

interference with the riveting

operation, as illustrated below.

NOT THIS

THIS

4.4.3.12.4 Counterbore Clearance,

When a riveted joint requires a

HOLLOW RIVETS
4.4.3.12.1 Edge Clearance.
There should be sufficient
clearance between a rivet and
the edge of the material being
joined to permit solid
positioning of the riveting tool,
as illustrated below .

counterboring operation the

counterbore should be large
enough to allow complete entry
of the setting tool, as illustrated

below

THIS

NOT THIS

4.4.3.12.5 Riveting Angular Pieces

Flat Pieces . When angular

to

THIS

NOT THIS

4.4.3.12.2 Hole Clearance

Excessive hole clearance for

rivets should be avoided because
this will often result in buckling
of the rivet, as illustrated
below, during the riveting
operation.

THIS

90

NOT THIS

pieces are joined by riveting to

flat pieces a flat should be
provided on the angular piece,
as illustrated below, to permit
a uniform clinch which will
result in a stronger joint. Do
not form the clinch on an inclined,
round, or uneven surface.

THIS

NOT THIS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.4.3.12.6

Riveting Unequal
Thicknesses of Metal. When
unequal thicknesses of metal
are joined by riveting, the
rivet head should be located
over the thinner member and
the clinch formed under the
heavier member as illustrated
below

THIS

NOT THIS

4.4.3.12.7 Riveting Nonmetallic

Materials . When two nonmetallic
materials, such as fabric and

plastic are joined by riveting, the

rivet head should be located
over the weaker material and
the clinch formed under the
stronger material, as illustrated
below. A washer should also be
used under the clinch, as
illustrated, to prevent tearing
of the material and provide a
foundation for a tight clinch .
FABRIC
PLASTIC
WASHER
THIS
PLASTIC
FABRIC
NOT THIS

4.4.4 Threaded Fasteners

Threaded fasteners are

used where ease of assembly

and disassembly are required.
Proper functioning of threaded
fasteners may entail controlled
tightening methods with adequate
safeguards to prevent inadvert
ent

loosening.

The Unified Thread Standard

series should be used for screw
thread sizes 0.250 inch and
larger j the American Standard

Thread series for screw thread

sizes between 0.250 inch and
0.060 inch; and the National
Miniature Screw Thread series
for screw thread sizes between
0.055 inch and 0.0118 inch.
Dimensions of screw threads
for each of these series are
specified in Handbook H28, Part

4.4.4.1 Thread Classes

I.

Classes

of fit between mating parts of a

threaded fastener are given in
Handbook H28-Screw Thread
Standards for Federal Services .
Classes range from 1, the loosest
fit, to 4, the tightest. Threads
used by the Armed Forces
conform to the Unified Series
in the 'Screw-Thread Standards
for Federal Services. The most
commonly used thread fit for
ordinary fasteners is Class 2.

4.4.4.1.1 Unified and American

Screw Thread Series . Class 2A

external threads and Class 2B
internal threads should be used
for general applications when
the sole function of the threaded
member is to act as a fastener.
The Class 2A and 2B fits were
established to allow for
manufacturing and plating
tolerances while still providing
a

fit that will enable

the

full

strength of a bolted assembly

to be developed without thread

stripping. The fit also provides

for ease of bolt, screw, and nut

assembly in production.
Class 3, 3A, and 4 thread
fits should be used only when the
threaded member has to perform
a function other than fastening
such as for adjustment or
positioning where lead angle
tolerances and pitch diameter

4-91

OP

2230

tolerances must be held closer

than usual in order to attain a
more exact ratio of longitudinal
movement to rotary motion.
Since Class 5, or interfer
ence fits, are difficult to work
with, they should be avoided
unless it is impossible to use
a Class 2B fit. The Class 5
fit is a wrench fit intended

for studs

and tapped holes

which are to be assembled

permanently. Unless the
tolerances of the tapped hole
are held very close, the stud
tends to be too loose after
insertion or thread interference
becomes so great that the
threads lock and the stud
cannot be inserted all the way.
Wherever practicable, use a
conventional bolt or cap
screw in a hole tapped to a
2B fit in preference to a stud
in a tapped hole.

4.4.4.1.2 National Miniature

Screw Thread Series. The
National Miniature Screw
Thread Series has only one
class of thread.
4.4.4.2 Thread Series .
Screw threads have been
standardized in three series,
coarse threads (UNC), fine
threads (UNF), and extra
fine threads (UNEF) .
The coarse thread series
(UNC) is used for bolts,
screws, and nuts where
operating conditions do not
necessitate a thread of
finer pitch.
The fine thread series
(UNF) is used where vibration
is severe.
For thin-walled tubes ,
ferrules, couplings, or
similar applications, extra
fine (UNEF) threads may be
used.

The use of special thread forms

be avoided, but if
required, should be in accordance
with Handbook H28 . When a
and

fits should

suitable screw thread is not

available in the Unified Series,
a satisfactory one should be
selected from the American
Series in Handbook H28.

4.4.4.2.1 Unified and American

Screw Thread Series . Coarse
threads should be used for
applications requiring rapid
assembly or disassembly; when
threading into low- strength
materials such as castings, soft
metal, and plastics; and in most
general applications. Coarse
threads are stronger, less
subject to thread nicking in
handling, better adapted to
subsequent plating or coating,
and less affected by decarburization of the screw blank and by
corrosion that may result from
exposure

to a

corrosive

atmosphere.
Fine threads should be used
only where:
a. A smaller longitudinal
movement is required
relative to the rotary
motion;

b. A closer ratio is necessary

c.

between the static strengths

of the bolt or screw and
nuts;
Length of engagement is

limited;
d. Smaller lead angle is
desirable; or,
e. The wall thickness pre
cludes the use of a coarse
thread. Fine threads
should not be used in
castings, soft metals,
plastics, or similar lowstrength materials .
Extra-fine threads should be
used only where:
a. Thin-walled material is

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
antiseize compound should be
applied. Destructive galvanic
clearing ferrules,
couples should be avoided.
After plating, external
coupling flanges, and
threads should not exceed the
similar objects must be
basic size and internal threads
held to a minimum;
c. Limited length of engage
should not be smaller than the
ment requires the maximum basic size, as specified in
Handbook H28 .
practicable number of
threads within a given
4.4.4.4 Fastener Performance.
distance.
The loosening of nuts and bolts
is the greatest single cause of
4.4.4.2.2 National Miniature
joint failure, usually as a result
Screw Thread Series. The
of shock and vibration.
miniature threads of the
Other conditions which may
National Miniature Screw Thread
diminish the useful life of
Series should be used only for
fastenings are thermal effects,
general purpose fastening
plastic creep of metals, and
screws and other similar uses
improperly mated bearing
in watches, instruments, and
surfaces and insufficient bearing
miniature mechanisms.
areas .
4.4.4.3 Materials and Plating .
Stainless steel, monel, bronze,
and brass are used where
corrosion resistance is required.
Carbon or alloy steel may be
used in high- stress applications
or if protection against corrosion
is provided.
Aluminum threaded fasteners
are weak compared to steel
fasteners of the same relative
size. They are acceptable if
suitably proportioned to the
to be threaded;
b. Thread height of nuts

load but should not be employed

where frequent disassembly
may be necessary.

For corrosion protection,

steel bolts, nuts, and screws
should be plated with cadmium
or zinc. In joining aluminum,
cadmium-plated steel is an
acceptable alternate to
aluminum fasteners . Where
corrosion may be severe,
nickel-plated steel fasteners
should be used. Aluminum
threaded devices should be
given a suitable chemical

GOOD

POOR

BEARING SURFACES

corrosion-resistance treat
ment or anodized, and

4-93

OP

2230

applications

It is recommended

that the torque be 60 to 80 percent

of the failure value as determined
by actual test, unless fasteners

INSUFFICIENT

are furnished with locking devices .

Lubrication of the threads should
be avoided.
The graph which follows shows
the approximate tensile load
developed in typical screws at
various torque values taking into
account thread friction only. If
nut or head bearing friction is
included, the torque values are
approximately doubled.

SUFFICIENT

BEARING AREAS

A torque wrench or similar

device should be used for
securing threaded fasteners
critical or high- strength

in

FOR

H* 31

n
i

,0
W*

a
&

N NO. THDS
m PITCH Oik.
K = FftlCTION COCCF

l00

ZOO

300

400

500

too

700

TENSILE LOAD, Ib

BOO

RELATION BETWEEN TENSILE LOADS AND TORQUES

4.4.4.5 Bolt and Screw
Selection. Bolt and nut
combinations are satisfactory
where the location of parts and
spacing of holes are not
critical and where metals
are thin. Usually, hole
clearances are generous .
Wherever possible, parts
should be fastened by more
than one bolt .

4-94

For accurate part location

and high shear

strength, and where

metal thickness is adequate, studs

or cap screws are preferred.
Many castings and metal sections
are of such shape and thickness
that either studs or cap screws
must be used. In castings,
sufficient bearing area and section
thickness must be provided to

prevent cracking. I

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Self-tapping screws are not
generally acceptable in military
equipment and approval should
be obtained from the bureau
or agency concerned prior
to their use .

CAP
SCREW

STUD

FLUSH
SOCKET-HEAD
SCREW

Screw lengths should be

chosen so that components may
be

readily assembled.

the nut is tightened,

the

After
screw

thread should project through

for at least one and onehalf threads, but not more
than 1/4 inch. Excessive
thread projection interferes
with easy servicing. The ends
of screws must not be clipped
or deformed to secure these
conditions .
Screws less than 1/4 inch
in length should have slotted
screw driver heads of the flat,
pan, or fillister type.
Do not use odd-sized or
special threads or nonstandard
the nut

types of heads

Proprietary

screws are permitted only

under certain conditions .
Socket-head screws may be
used for flush mounting or in
counterbored holes .
All machine screw styles
except the hexagon head are

available with slotted driver

recesses and cross-recessed
driver slots of the Phillips
head design. These two types
with their associated drivers
are illustrated below.

SLOTTED
HEAD

PHILLIPS

RECESSED HEAD

The main advantage of the

slotted-head screw styles is

that they do not require the use
of special screw drivers so that
maintenance and repair work
are not hampered or delayed
through lack of suitable drivers.
The principal advantage of
screws with the Phillips head
is that they can be easily power
driven even in awkward places.
They can be driven to their

full torque limit, thereby

obtaining greater rigidity
and resistance to vibration.
The slight vertical taper of
the Phillips recess allows

variation in dimensions of
either part within allowable
tolerances, yet keeps the point

of the driver above the bottom

of the recess. Four sizes
of screw drivers span the entire
range of Phillips head screws
(No. 2 through 1/2 inch). The
disadvantage of this type of
head is that maintenance
personnel must stock the

special Phillips screw drivers

and when damaged they cannot

be reground.
The selection of the slotted
versus the Phillips head designs
should be governed by the
applicable equipment specification.

4-95

OP

2230

4.4.4.5.1 Flat-Head Screws.

The correct use of an 80 to

82 flat-head screw seated in a

78 to 80 countersunk hole

is illustrated below. The

metals flow somewhat under
the application of pressure in
assembly and provide good
seating

Where a countersunk hole must

match a tapped hole in a mating
part, careful alignment is necessary

and the operation is costly from a

production standpoint . The use
of floating basket nuts is preferred.

T - 1-1/2 SCREW DIA. MIN

o.

BASKET
NUT

PREFERRED

Use floating basket nuts

whenever practical.

CORRECT USE OF

FLAT -HEAD

SCREW

Flat-head screws should be

flush-finished

used only where

surfaces are necessary since

their use requires a counter
sinking operation which increases
production cost.
Do not attempt to countersink
screws in sheet metal too thin

full depth of the

screw head as this will result
in an extremely weak joint.

to take the

When it is necessary to
countersink in thin metal, it
should be dimpled into the
countersunk mating piece as
shown below

WRONG

COUNTERSINKING IN THIN METAL

4-96

AVOID

Countersunk hole matching

tapped hole in mating part.
(Alignment problem)

ALIGNMENT OF
COUNTERSUNK HOLES
The 82 flat-head screw should

for general applications

requiring a flush assembly. The
material should be at least 1-1/2
times the screw head height. This
screw is available in sizes ranging
from No. 0 through 3/4 inch.
Use of the 100 flat-head
screw should be restricted to
thin or soft materials where the
82 flat-head screw is not satis
factory. The increased angle
distributes the load over a larger
surface and is therefore adaptable
to thinner sections.
This screw
is available in sizes ranging from
No 0 through 3/4 inch.
be used

STRUCTURAL

DESIGN

4.4.4.5.2

Use
Set Screws.
set screws of the hardened
hexagon- socket type, preferably
No. 6 or No. 10, except for
control knobs where slottedhead set screws may be used.

Refer to Specification FF-S-103

for data. Use cup-pointed set
screws except where engaging
surfaces are suitably counter
sunk, in which case a conepointed set screw may be
employed. Cone points deform
the shaft surfaces and make
removal of parts difficult.
When a part is not adjustable
in angular relationship to the
shaft on which it is secured,
flat surfaces for engagement
of cup-point screws should
be provided. Where two set
screws are used, make the
angle between them not less
than 90 degrees, nor more
than 120 degrees.

4.4.4.5.3 Pan

Head Screws .
Pan head screws should be
used (in lieu of round, binding,

truss, and fillister head

designs) for general

applications which do not
require a flush assembly.
The pan head design has a
large bearing area which
distributes the load over a
greater surface than other
head designs . It also has

THIS

PAN HEAD
NOT THIS

FILLISTER HEAD

4.4.4.5.4 Drilled Fillister

Head Screw. The drilled

head screw should be
used only where the small head
diameter is necessary because
of space limitations, or where
it is desired to lock the screw

fillister

in place by a wire to prevent

loosening of the screw. To
obtain a flush assembly, this
type of screw may be used in
counterbored holes as illustrated

below

the advantage of being the

most economical of the

removable-type fasteners.
The pan head screw, available
in sizes ranging from No. 0
through 3/8 inch, is illustrated
below with the slotted driver
recess. It is also available with
a cross-recessed driver slot
of the Phillips head design.
The selection of the slotted
versus the Phillips head designs
should be governed by the
applicable equipment specifica

tion.

DRILLED FILLISTER HEAD SCREW

WITH LOCKING WIRE

The drilled fillister head screw

is available in sizes ranging from
No. 2 through 3/8 inch.

4.4.4.6

Nut Selection.

Nuts

should be sufficiently thick and

strong not to fail before the bolt

4-97

OP

2230

or screw fails in tension.

Shearing stresses in thick
nuts are usually low enough
to preclude shear failure.
Nuts are usually of the
same metal as the bolts .
Hexagonal finished steel nuts
are recommended for heavy
equipment and for highly
stressed parts . Where corro
sion resistance is required,
stainless steel nuts may be
used. Thin nuts should be
avoided.
1-1/2 SCREW
DIA. MIN.

TYPICAL NUT
Clinch, anchor, weld, and

other types of secured nuts

should not loosen if they have
been properly set. Such nuts
are used to resist shock and

CLINCH
Locknuts are used to maintain
thread friction when bolt tension
is reduced to zero, but they
must be drawn up tight to insure
adequate contact at bearing
surfaces .
Supplementary locking devices
are recommended where vibration
is severe and where the nut must
be constrained.
Temperature
limitations for plastics must be
taken into account when the locking
action depends on a plastic insert.
Lockwashers
are usually
unnecessary when locknuts are
used.

vibration. More intensive

inspection of these types is

required. They are usually

zinc plated for corrosion
protection, and sometimes

hardened to improve their

mechanical properties.

LOCKNUTS

WELD

ANCHOR

4-98

Safety wiring should be used if

from backing
off under any conditions . Cotter
pins are used in the bolts where
only occasional disassembly is
contemplated. Cotter pins and
safety wire must never be reused,
as repeated bending weakens the
the nut must be kept

material.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.4.4.7 Flat Washers.

Flat

ers are used to increase

the load-bearing area, aid in
tightening of nuts or screws,
prevent loosening, and protect
surfaces. They are necessary
where hole clearances are large.
Flat washers minimize buckling
wash

of thin

materials.

4.4.4.8

Spring Type Lockwashers

Lockwashers are used to increase
bearing friction and thus prevent
loosening. Spring type lockwashers are usually of hardened
steel or a suitable noncorrosive
material. They are used where
considerable spring force is
desirable to prevent loosening.
The outer diameter should be
at least equal to that of the
bearing area of the screw head
or nut. Thicker washers give
greater spring force. A lockwasher may be used under the
nut of a nut and screw combination
or under a screw head.

JOINING THIN MATERIALS

Washers for plastics, leathers

and soft metals must be large

enough to distribute the load so
that the materials will not be
cracked or unduly deformed.

METAL WASHER

JOINING PLASTICS
In joining ceramics or glass,
a soft washer is usually used
to prevent cracking.
.SOFT WASHER

nn

METAL

WASHER

JOINING CERAMICS TO METAL

SPRING TYPE
LOCKWASHER

rrn

CORRECT USE OF LOCKWASHER

4.4.4.9

Tooth Type Lockwashers.

Lockwashers with external
teeth, cnforming to MIL-W-6986,
are preferred for making electrical
bonds, noise suppression, and
external grounding. Cup types
are used under flat- or oval-head
screws .
Countersunk tooth type
lockwashers are designed
specifically to provide locking

action for the 82 to 100 flathead screws when used in tapped

holes. The countersunk hole

4-99

OP

2230

should be enlarged sufficiently

to accommodate the added

hole in soft metals and plastics

and should be used only in
exposed locations.
Sealing compounds and staking
are other means for improving
the locking of nuts and screws.

material thickness when this

type of lockwasher is used.

These lockwashers are available

with external teeth in screw
sizes ranging from No. 2
through 1/2 inch for use with
the 82 flat-head screw, and
in screw sizes No. 4, 6, 8,
and 10 for use with the 100
flat-head screw.

EXTERNAL

COUNTERSUNK

These are particularly suitable

for small nuts and screws.

Sealing materials should be tough

and have good adhesion

TOOTH TYPES OF LOCKWASHERS

Tooth type washers of hard

ened material bite into softer
metals, thus increasing bearing

friction.

Calculations for

tightening torque must take into

account the added bearing friction.
Tooth type washers should not
be used for screws over 1/4

inch in diameter or where their

biting action will destroy
protective coatings on the joined
parts
Washers with internal teeth
tend to bite into the clearance

100

4.4.4.10 Nylon Screws, Nuts,

and Washers. In electrical
devices involving brushes, contacts,
and other parts insulated from
their holders, nylon screws,
nuts, and washers may be used
to advantage, for example, where
a contact spring must be secured to
and insulated from a metal base.
A nylon screw may also be
. %
used to eliminate electrical
hazard where a removable control
knob is mounted on a metal shaft.

INTERNAL

EXTERNAL
INTERNAL

to metals

SHAFT

NYLONSCBt"

Spring contact blades on insu

lating strips may be secured by
nylon nuts and screws to provide
unbroken insulation.
Nylon screws and bolts are
also useful for attaching metallic
laminations where metallic or
magnetic fasteners must be
avoided.
SMINt CONQCTS
MULATDHS

NVLMNUTS

GOOD

METL MSC

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

NYLON SCREWS

plug provides a locking torque to

internal and external threads so
that the screw may be removed
without unseating the insert.

LAMINATIONS
NTLON NUTS

GOOD

Inserts. Inserts are

used to provide load-bearing or
wear-resistant threads in soft

4.4.4.11

or thin materials. These inserts

are internally threaded and are
available as bushings or linings
with various locking devices .
Materials and finishes are
similar to those used for screws
and nuts, with steel and stain
less steel the most common
materials. Hell-Coil, Rosan,
and Nylock inserts are illustrated
below .
The Heli-Coil is a screw
thread insert coiled from stain
less steel wire with a diamond
cross section. The bottom end of
the coil is offset to provide a
simple driving member called
the tang. The insert is installed
in a pretapped hole by applying
torque to the tang .
The Rosan insert is a tubular
bushing with threads cut on
both interior and exterior
surfaces . A locking ring is
provided which has serrations
on both inner and outer surfaces .
This insert is installed in a
tapped hole and the locking ring
is pressed into position with the
inner serrations engaging the
insert and the outer serrations
broaching the parent material.
The Nylock insert is an
internally and externally
threaded bushing with a nylon
plug projecting past both inner
and outer threads . The nylon

HELI-COIL INSERT

ROSAN INSERT

NYLOCK INSERT

4.4.5 Stapling

In mass production, thin

metals and nonrnetals may be
joined by stitching or stapling
without precleaning, drilling,
punching, or hole alignment.
Stitching permits savings of
as much as 90 percent of the

time required in riveting.

Mating and clamping require
ments are less critical than
in riveting or welding. As no
heat is generated, warping is
largely avoided, and coatings
already applied are not affected.
Most stitched parts can be
disassembled without damage.

101

OP

2230

4.4.5.1 Application.

Stapling
successfully joins such
materials as canvas, rubber,
wood, and metals. Fatigue
and shear strength are excellent

in a well- designed stapled

joint, but staples should not

be used in tension. Lap joints

can be stapled up to a thickness
of 0.250 inch for aluminum and
0.040 inch for cold rolled steel.
The practical thickness limit for
dense plastics and fiber board
is about 3/16 inch.
The preferred spacing
between individual stitches
is approximately 1/2 inch.
Tests indicate that no vibration
tearing occurs around stitch
holes, even in sandwich com
binations, as the staple leg,
driving its own hole, is snugly
fitted in each layer of sandwich

allows no play.
To avoid corrosion where
steel staples are used in
aluminum, the wire should be
cadmium- or zinc-coated.
For high-temperature applica
tions, stainless steel wire
should be used. Flange widths
on joined parts can be as little
as 1/4 inch. Production
and

speeds range

from

80 to 100

stitches per minute.

Clinch Forms. Staples

are clinched in two basic forms:
loop and flat . Loops are further
classified as standard, by-pass,
or outside. These basic clinch
forms are shown below, with
general data regarding each.

4.4.5.2

STANDARD LOOP
4

102

7/16-inch crown
Used in 95 percent of
all metal stitching

applications . Metallic
and nonmetallic ma

terials fastened

to

thin metal sections.

BY- PASS LOOP

1/4-inch crown
Used for assembling
all types of metallic
and nonmetallic com
binations . Especially
effective in attaching
rods, small tubes,
and springs to metal
sections .

OUTSIDE LOOP
1/4-inch crown
Used when it is de
sired to bury the
stitch ends in nonmetallic materials

LOOP CLINCHES
The crown size of any metal
stitch is the distance between the
insides of the legs of the formed
stitch regardless of wire size.
Special crown sizes are available
for unusual applications.
.
Loop clinches are used most
frequently. They are formed by
bending the legs with dies-.-

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The flat clinch is formed by
folding the legs flat against the
bottom material with an upwardmoving die. Flat clinches
are used where the stitched
joint must carry substantial
loads. However, this form
is unsuitable for heavier gages
of metal, or for nonmetallic
material over 1/4 inch thick.
In the thicker materials, the
legs of the stitch wander as
they are driven through and
tend to miss the guideways in
the clincher die.

FLAT CLINCH

Used when stitched

joint must carry

substantial loads.
Mostly for aluminum
and lighter gages of
steel.

A flat clinch is preferred for

metal-to-metal assembly as it
provides solid full-line contact,
whereas the ends of loop
stitches make contact only

at the leg ends . Under

vibration, leg ends may cut

into the sheet.

FULL LINE CONTACT

NO CUTTING

HERE

POINT CONTACT ONLY

CUTS MATERIAL
HERE

CURVED STITCH

Springy; weak pressure

Use of 1/4- inch crown stitching
is increasing for this increases
machine capacity and the legs
penetrate better without wandering.
Special crown sizes as small as
1/8 inch and as large as 1.201 inch
have been used. Stitches with
smaller crowns have better
appearance and higher strength.
Flat clinch crowns are flush
within about 0.002 inch of the
top surface and 0.005 inch of the
bottom.

4.4.5.3

Shear Strength. Shear

strengths of the flat clinch in
various positions are tabulated
below in pounds per stitch of
Type 290 wire clinched through
sheets of 2024T aluminum of
three different thicknesses .

4.4.5.4 Stitching Wire. Wire

for stitching is obtainable in low
or high carbon steel, monel,
copper, bronze, and stainless
steel. Those listed below are
in general use and readily
available. Copper, brass, and
monel wire can be obtained on
order .
Wire
Zinc-coated
high carbon

aircraft

FLAT STITCH

Solid clinching pressure

stitching
wire

Data

No.

18 gage, type
290, with 0.0015inch zinc coating.

Total diameter

0.051 inch.

See

MIL-W-6714.
4

103

OP

2230

Wire

Data

Stainless
steel

No.

Phosphor
bronze

No.

18 gage, type
302, no. 213 finish
163,000 to 230,000

psi tensile strength.

18

S-54.

gage, type

a. "Liquor": light tin or

copper plating - very
little rust resistance.
b. Tin - some rust resistance.
c. Galvanized - high rust

resistance.

d. Copper - some resistance

to

Carbon steel wire is available

with the following coatings:

corrosion.

e. Zinc - coated 0.0015 inch,

to comply with U.S. Air
Force specifications for
stitching aluminum.

SHEAR STRENGTH OF STAPLES

In pounds per stitch using Type 290 wire, flat clinched through
2024-T aluminum

Position of staple

Thickness of aluminum sheet

inch

0.032

1-

Perpendicular

Parallel
Diagonal

V*

Butt, reinforced
Butt

Dia.
inch
0.0475

20

0.0348

Extent of use
98

percent of

all applications

1.5 percent of

all applications

0.051

per stitch

431

557

601

433

476

480

Same as perpendicular, but

preferable because of both
parallel and perpendicular

coverage.
196

232

reinforcement

18

104

Ibs

Not recommended

Standard sizes for stitching

wire are:
Steel wire
gage no.

0.040

16

252

without

0.0625

0.5 percent or
less of all
applications .

Tolerance for diameter is plus

or minus 0.001 inch. Wire
must not be more than 0.001
inch out of round.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Wire is available in 5- and

10-pound spools .
166 feet per pound
309 feet per pound

wire.

There are

for 18-gage;
for 20-gage

MIL- W- 6714 covers

specifications for galvanized

drawn steel stitching wire.
The tensile strength of
high carbon steel stitching
wire is as follows:
Grade
230
260
290
330

Tensile strength, psi

220,000
250,000
290,000
320,000

to 249,000
to 289,000
to 319,000
to 360,000

All sizes

and grades of wire

ductile enough to
withstand a 180-degree bend
without fracturing or breaking.
must be

4.4.5.5 Maximum Thickness

of Materials . The table on the

following page may be used as
a guide to determine maximum
thicknesses of materials to
be joined by stitching. Maximum
metal thickness and metal- tononmetal assembly data are
listed. The table covers only
the loop clinch except as noted.

4.4.5.6 Typical Stitched

Sections . A full-length
aluminum hinge stitched to
the edge of a plastic panel is
shown below as typical of a
stitched section.

Shown on page 4-107 are

other applications in which

stitching can be used to
advantage, including fastening

tubing to metal sheet and a

spring to a nonmetallic material.
Location of stitches and type of
arm are indicated. Use of

straight arm, gooseneck, or

tapered-post clinch arms allows
various assemblies.

4.4.6 Miscellaneous Fasteners

Other types of fasteners

include tubular, groove, and
cotter pins; keys; splines;
retaining rings; and captive types.

4.4.6.1 Tubular Pins

.
Spring-type
tubular pins should be used in
preference to solid pins. Tubular
pins may be used in ordinary drilled
holes and reaming is not required.
Hardened pins have high shear
strength and, because of the
spring feature, remain tight
during vibration.

TUBULAR PINS

105

OP

2230

MAXIMUM THICKNESSES OF STITCHED MATERIALS

Using staples of 18-gage wire, grade 330, white
Material

and

condition

Maximum thickness
inch

Metal-to-metal
Aluminum, SO
Aluminum, 2024-T

Alclad

Aluminum,

extruded

Steel, cold rolled,

Steel, hot rolled0
Steel, galvanizedb

Other sheet

One sheet

1010b

0.093a
0.040a
0.040a

0.125

0.064
0.064

0.062a

0.093

0.050
0.037

0.078

0.062

0.037

0.050

Stainless, full- hard

Stainless, half- hard
Stainless, quarter-hard
Stainless, annealed

0.010
0.012
0.015
0.020

0.020

Brass, soft

0.030

0.050

Copper

0.035

0.064

0.025
0.030
0.040

Nonmetal-to-metalc
Asbestos sheet

Cork sheet
Felt
Fiber sheet

Flannel
Leather
Masonite, standard
Masonite, tempered

d
e

3/8

1/2
1/2

3/8
3/8

1/4

Plastic sheetd

3/16

Wood6

3/8

Phenolic sheetd
Rubber, solid
Rubber, sponge

a
b
c

1/4
1/2

Flat or loop clinch

Rockwell B 50 or softer.

1/8
1/4
1/2

may be joined to any of the metals listed above, but

of
maximum thicknesses are not always feasible,
combinations
Stock must be soft enough to permit penetration without cracking,
Grain structure may cause legs to wander. Straight-grain stock
up to 1/2 inch may be used.
The nonmetals

106

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Open Top Box with Insido Flong.

Overhanfl Arm

Bottoms to Inwde Flan8e

on Open Top BOK
Orop Goosonock Arm

Hidden Channel*
Rer* Oooswseck Arm

Out. ide Channels

Clincher to Front
Drop Goosenck Arm

Non-Metallic Tackd to
Metal Tub* (16 go max }
Straight or Drop Gooseneck Arm
No Clincher
Spec.al Work Holder

Boffle Plates with Punch. d Tabs

Drop Gooseneck Arm

Outside Flange
Straight Arm

Oulside Edge Flan9e

Straight Arm

S.de. to Bottoms and Cornon

Straight Arm

InsMe ChanneU
Oindsor to Rear
Drop GooftoneckArm

Corrugation
Drop Goosonock Arm
Narrow Taporod Post

Coil Springs to Non-Metallic IOM

TYPICAL STITCHED SECTIONS

4

107

OP

2230

Drives easily by hammer, arbor pren, or air

cylinder and can be readily adapted to on
automatic hopper feed. Requiresonly o stondard hole, drilled to normal production-linetol
erances.

Removesreadily with a drift pin without dam

age to pin or hole, con be used again and
again in original hole.

Locks securely in place without using a sec

ondary locking device;won't loosendespite im
pact loading, stressreversals,or severe vibra
tion.

INSERTION AND REMOVAL OF TUBULAR PINS

rubber core type, the projecting
metal knob is backed up by the
spring action of a rubber core.
Pressure on the stem forces
the knob into the core permit
ting release of the pin.

BALL LOCKING PIN

RUBBER CORE PIN

Groove Pins. Groove pins
have three longitudinal slots equidistantly spaced. The grooves may
be straight or tapered, may run
the full length of the pin, part of
the length, or only in a bulged
section. Some of the standard
types are shown below.

4.4.6.2

TYPICAL USES FOR TUBULAR PINS

4.4.6.1.1 Quick Release Pins

Quick release pins are available

in two major types as illustrated
below. In one type, protruding
steel balls are the locking element
engaged by a notched springloaded plunger which operates
In the
on a push-pull movement.

II

HI

GROOVE PINS
4

108

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Groove dowel and clevis pins
are often used instead of springtype tubular pins .
Cotter Pins.

4.4.6.3

Cotter

pins should be used only as

retaining devices and should not

carry

any

appreciable load.

They are obtainable with

various types of ends such as
square cut, extended mitre,
hammer lock, or bevel point.

4.4.6.4

Keys and Splines.

Keys and splines are used to
prevent relative rotational
movement between parts on
shafts

4.4.6.4.1 Keys. Keys may

parallel, or tapered with

be

parallel sides.

They may
have gib heads to limit motion.
The Woodruff key is made
in the form of a segment of
a disc. It is tightly fitted in a
keyway formed longitudinally
in the shaft by a key slot cutter

BASIC TYPES

o0
(e.r.tnol)

Tapereddesign principle permits

rings to maintain constant circu
larity and pressure against bot
tomol groove.

(bOTMS

Radially applied
Provide* urge
shoulderon jmjll
than dlamet.tr.
loweddrsion provtdfl take-up of
end-play.

part fitted to the rhaft. This

type is particularly suitable
for gears .

4.4.6.4.2 Splines. Splines

function as multiple keys and
keyways, but are integral parts
of the shafts and the fitted part.
The 4, 6, 10, and 12 parallelside splines are standard forms
Splines give the greatest
strength, but are the most
expensive form of keying.

4.4.6.5 Retaining Rings .

Retaining rings or snap rings
are used to retain bushings,
collars, cams, bearings, and
similar parts on shafts or studs
or in recesses or holes. Grooves
for such retainers must be
carefully machined in accord
ance with the manufacturer's
recommendations, preferably
with special grooving tools.
OWID

O O O
(internal)

CRESCENT

(extornof)

Inverted construction provides

unilorm protruding shoulders
while maintainingconstant circu
larity when installed in groove.

INTERLOCKING

Applied radially
overshaft.Secure
againstimpactand
vioration.

(external)

Two-pieceringap
plied radially.Se
cure against
cstremely high
r p.m.'sand heavy
thrusts.

(internal)

BEVE1ID

0
(xternof)

Bowed construction permits re

silient take-up ol end-play.

1inrer(la/i

r>rorrtaO

Beveled construction permits

rigid take-up of end-play.

SELF- LOCKING TYPES

CIRCULAR SELF-LOCKING

nO O
(exftrnafj

FOR TAKING UP END-PLAY

FOR RADIAL ASSEMBLY

I-RINO

the key projects

beyond the shaft surface to
engage a keyway in the hub or

INVERTED

ASIC

(internoO

A portion of

(interno!)

(externol)

installedanally Requiresnogroove
assem
Recommended
for permanent
blies esposedto relativelymoderate
thrusts, impacts or vibralional
loading.

TRIANGULAR

StlF-lOCKING

TRIANGULAR
NUT

AA
(elernolj

Low cost retainer

Makes possible
t grit assemblies
tree of end-play
on relativelysoft
shafts.

GRIP-RING

l'treina.'i

(external)

flattens under
torque Secures
equal load distri
bution Replaces
lock washer on
screw.

Appliedanally on
shaft Requiresno
grooveEsertscon
siderablefnctional
hold againstasial
displacement.

RETAINING RINGS
4

109

OP

2230

External-type rings may be

slipped on shafts fairly easily
by hand. Internal-type rings
are best applied by plier-type
tools which engage holes at
the extremities of the ring.
This tool may also be used to
remove rings without damage .
Self-locking retaining rings
are not approved. Internal
rings are especially suited to
retain bearings mounted in
recesses as they are designed
to take simple thrust loads
without excessive rotary
friction at their faces.

4.4.6.6

Captive Fasteners .
Where covers, units, assemblies,
doors, panels, or other inter
changeable parts require rapid
or frequent removal, the
fastening mechanism should
be a "captive" type; that is,
one which will prevent
separation of the fastener.
The fasteners should have
adequate strength to hold the
parts together under special
service conditions . There
are a number of proprietary
fasteners available, but
specifications such as
MUF-5591 should be
consulted for those accept
able for a particular purpose.
The simple one-piece
fastener for blind holes shown
below has a steel spring wire
which locks in position and
prevents loosening under
vibration. It is self-adjusting
for various material thick
nesses and locks or unlocks
by twisting .

110

ONE-PIECE CAPTIVE FASTENER

FOR BLIND HOLES

4.4.6.6.1

Common Types

Captive

type screws should be used for

retaining access panels and
covers. Anchor nuts and nut
plates may be used, when
practicable, for threaded engage
ments in light sheet metal.

TYPICAL CAPTIVE FASTENERS

Pawl fasteners may be used
quick-operating latches for
doors or to fasten chassis-panel
assemblies in cabinets . They
should not be used where there
is the possibility of over
as

tightening

and consequent

deformation.
Screwdriver-operated devices
are preferred to wing nuts. A
wide slot may be used to permit
operation by means of a coin

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
or other relatively thick
piece of metal.

4.4.6.6.2 Self-Ejecting Type.

The self- ejecting fastener
shown below is for weather -

tight applications.

COWL FASTENER

4.4.6.6.5 Quarter-Turn
Fasteners. Quarter-turn

SELF-EJECTING FASTENER FOR

WEATHER TIGHTNESS

4.4.6.6.3

Chained Type

Chains attached to covers,

doors, and detachable parts
prevent their loss and can
also prevent injury to personnel
caused by accidental dropping.
Such devices must be installed
so that they cannot damage
equipment

fasteners are a type of captive

fastener available in a variety
of styles and sizes. These
fasteners have three major
parts; a stud, a stud retainer,
and a receptacle.
Spring
action either on the stud or
the receptacle presses the
fastened surfaces together

when the stud is engaged in the

receptacle. Quarter-turn
fasteners are supplied with
slotted, wing-nut, or knurled
stud heads . Receptacles can
be attached by spot welding or
riveting. A typical quarterturn fastener is shown below.

RETAINER
RECEPTACLE

CHAINED FASTENER
QUARTER-TURN

4.4.6.6.4 Cowl Fasteners

Cowl fasteners are used for

mounting light chassis panels,
covers, and similar assemblies.

FASTENER

4.4.7 Cementing

Metal fasteners

welding,

and soldering are the most

111

OP

2230

widely used joining methods,

but use of adhesives is practical
for many materials under some
conditions . Recent develop
ments in adhesives provide
advantages worth investigating.

4.4.7.1 Advantages.
adhesives

Use of
for joining has the

following advantages:
a. Heavy gage material can
be joined to thin sheets

where other methods are

impractical.

b. Shearing and other stresses

are distributed uniformly.
c. In dissimilar metals,
insulating effect prevents
electrolytic corrosion.
d. Lower weights often
result from elimination
of metallic welds or
fasteners and use of
honeycomb

cores.

e. Stresses resulting from

flexing, vibration, and
thermal expansion may
be absorbed.
f . Elimination of voids and
gaps.
g. Smoother contours,
h. Inconspicuous joints.
i. Joining of complex shapes
not possible by any other

j.

method.

Sealing of joints .
k. More rapid assembly by
elimination of drilled
or punched holes, jigs,
and care in matching .
1.

Elimination of need

curing, necessitating extra

storage space.
b. Expensive jigs and fixtures
and application of heat and
pressure may be required for
curing .
c . Control of humidity and
temperature may be
necessary .
d. Questionable durability of
some new adhesives under
severe or unusual condi
tions or in use .
e. Instability of organic

materials at higher
temperatures .
f . Instability of organic materi
als at higher temperatures.
g. Insulating effect of adhesive
is sometimes objectionable.
h. Possibility of softening at
high temperatures,
i. Difficulty of bonding some
materials, such as Teflon

j.

and polyethylene

Low peel strength.

4.4.7.3 Properties of Adhesive

Joints. Because tensile and shear
forces are fairly uniformly distrib
uted, relatively

carried.

large loads can be

Yield strengths

as high as

per square inch are

attainable, but relatively low forces
concentrated at an edge can cause
easy separation.
5000 pounds

to

stock many sizes and

types of fasteners.
m. Facilitation of disassembly
without damage, by use
of heat or a solvent.

4.4.7.2 Disadvantages . Adhesives

have the following disadvantages:
a. Some adhesives require a
long time for drying and
4

112

LOADS ON ADHERED JOINTS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.4.7.4 Use in Electronic

Equipment. Adhesives offer

certain advantages over other
fastening methods especially
where there is vibration or the
presence of screws or rivets
is objectionable. Uniform
adhesive bonding eliminates
dimples and wrinkles which
may occur on thin sheet
metal joined at only a few
points

The high shear

strengths of some adhesives

are of particular advantage
in bonding thin sheet metal
subjected to low tensile loads.
Adhesive bonds are also
useful in sealing pressurized
equipment used at high altitudes.

4.4.7.5

Classification.

Adhesives may be classified

by general chemical type or
origin, or by physical
properties or methods of use.

Chemical Classifica
tion. The general chemical
types of adhesives are:
I Thermosetting
II Thermoplastic
III Cellulose derivatives

4.4.7.5.1

IV Rubber

V Rubber-resins

Certain other adhesives such

as shellac, asphalts, starches,
gum arabic, oleoresins, and
sodium silicate, are also used,

but not to any great extent in

electronic equipment .

Thermosetting resins, e.g.,

phenolics, are permanently set
by heat, can be used over a wide
temperature range, and have
high water and solvent resistance
Thermoplastic resins , e.g.,
vinyls and cellulose derivatives,

soften and flow when heated and

should not be used in equipment
subject to high temperatures.

Also, resistance

to organic
solvents is usually poor.
Natural and synthetic rubbers
are used for flexibility. Differ
ent types of rubber vary in
resistance to solvents and to
high or low temperatures.
Mixtures of adhesives are

often used to obtain the

properties of different
materials. For example,
thermosetting and thermo
plastic materials may be
combined to secure sufficient
flexibility for conditions of
vibration or differential thermal
expansion. Compounded adhe
sives are usually described
under the name of the major
constituent.

4.4.7.5.2 Physical Classification.

4.4.7.5.2.1 Pressure Sensitive.
Pressure-sensitive adhesives
retain their tack, cohesive

properties, and adhesive pro

perties for a long time. After
an initial rapid evaporation of

the solvent, the elastic modulus

remains essentially constant.

Parts are simply brought into
contact or pressed together
at room temperature to complete
the bond.
Both surfaces should
be coated. Such bonds are
flexible, comparatively weak,
and subject to plastic creep.
Continuous and appreciable loads
must be avoided. These
adhesives are thermoplastic and
possess the same general
physical properties as highly
viscous fluids . Vinyls, rubber-base
compounds,
and other formulations
are used, with and without catalyzers

11 3

OP

2250

Many materials are available

pressure-sensitive tapes
and films . Base materials for
as

these tapes include such versatile

substances as silicones and other
snythetic rubbers, Teflon

(polytetrafluoroethylene), fiber
glass (including fiberglassimpregnated silicones and
Teflon), Mylar (polyester),
phenolics, and copper foil.
Most of these are coated with
a silicone adhesive. They are
used for electrical insulation,
for color coding, as hermetic
seal surfaces, for printed
wiring boards, for bonding
rigid materials, and in
applications where resistance
to heat, chemicals, friction,
and wear is important.

4.4.7.5.2.2 Temperature

Sensitive. Temperaturesensitive adhesives used in

heat-cured or heat- softened
bonds are usually stronger
than others . Often the cohesive
forces within a cement are
weaker than the adhesive
forces bonding the adhering
surfaces. Curing at elevated
temperatures quickly produces
structural changes through
oxidation, polymerization,
When
and solvent migration.
heat cured, thermosetting
adhesives are usually
stronger than the thermoplastic
types. For joining metals,
the phenolic-elastomer type
offers a good combination of
strength, resistance to
solvents and high temperature,
and low water absorption.

4.4.7.5.2.3 Reaction Sensitive.

In reaction-sensitive adhesives,
catalysts are added to facilitate

4-114

oxidation or polymerization, and

to eliminate or minimize heat

curing. For curing at room

temperatures, the catalysts are
strongly acid and comparatively
large amounts are required.
"Pot" life for some of these
adhesives is short. Higher
temperatures reduce the curing
time .
Epoxy and resorcinol resins
can be cured at room tempera
ture in a reasonable time.
Resorcinol resins are excellent
for all materials except metals
and glass. The epoxys are good
or excellent on all materials,
but are somewhat sensitive to
thermal conditions .

4.4.7.6

Properties of Various

Data on the various

types of adhesives are tabulated
on pages 4-116 to 4-128.

Adhesives.

4.4.7.7

Selection of Adhesives
By due consideration of the
various factors involved, the
choice of adhesives for a
particular purpose can be
narrowed down to the few
most suitable from which the
final choice can be made.

First,

adhesives

must be

selected which will bond with

the materials to be joined.

Some types of adhesives bond

poorly or not at all with certain

materials . For joining like

materials with identical
thermal expansion such as
thermoplastics, a solvent might
be chosen. Where unlike
materials are to be joined,
adhesives must be compatible
with both adherends. For
example, to join steel and
rubber, one of the following
is indicated: phenol formaldehyde,

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
epoxy, neoprene, or phenol
formaldehyde-vinyl acetal.
Other factors must then be
considered and some compro
mise is often necessary.
Materials which are softened
by heat cannot be bonded

readily with adhesives requiring

heat and pressure for curing.
Use of pressure-cured
adhesives for irregular shapes
would require expensive fixtures.
Selection of adhesives will
also depend on service conditions
which may affect joints such as
high and low temperature and
presence of water, oil,
solvents, or other fluids.

For example, thermoplastic

are not resistant

chemicals similar to the
solvents used in making them,
nor to high temperatures.
Adhesives suitable for
particular materials are tabu
lated in 4.4.7.7.1. Solvents
for use with thermoplastics
are listed in 4.4.7.7.2.
Adhesives suitable for parti
cular service conditions are
tabulated in 4 . 4 . 7 . 7 . 3 .
adhesives

to

4.4.7.7.1 Adhesives for

Various Materials. Adhesives
for particular materials are

listed on pages 4-129 and 4-130,

Materials which can bond
to themselves by use of a
solvent are identified by
letters referring to the
appropriate solvents listed
in 4.4.7.7.2.

4.4.7.7.2 Use of Solvents.

Some thermoplastics may be
cemented to themselves by
use of solvents. Surfaces to
be joined are immersed in
solvent until they soften,
usually in a few minutes, then
held together under light
pressure until the solvent
evaporates . Some solvents
in general use are:
a. Ethylene dicholoride
b. Methyl ethyl ketone 50
percent, toluene 50
percent
c . Methyl ethyl ketone 80
percent, propylene
oxide 20 percent
d. Acetone
e. Acetone 70 percent,
ethyl lactate 30 percent
f . Acetone 70 percent,
methyl cellosolve
30 percent
g. Xylene
h. Diethyl benzene

115

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
Material

Solvent
(see 4.4.7 .7.2)

Adhesive

Rubber

Phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol

formaldehyde, epoxy, neoprene,
nitrile rubber, phenol formaldehydevinyl acetal

Ceramics

Vinyl acetate, vinyl butyral, furfuryl

alcohol, epoxy, polyurethane, neoprene,

nitrile rubber, phenol formaldehyde-

vinyl acetal

Acrylics

Vinyls

Melamine formaldehyde, resorcinol

formaldehyde, nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde-nitrile rubber
b, c

Vinyl acetate, neoprene, phenol

formaldehyde-nitrile rubber,
resorcinol polyamide

Vinylidene
chloride

Vinyl acetate, neoprene

Polyester

Silicone, epoxy, nitrile rubber

Polyamide

Resorcinol formaldehyde, neoprene,

nitrile rubber, resorcinol polyamide

Polystyrene

Methyl methacrylate,

nitrile rubber

styrene, alkyd,

Thermosets:
phenolic s ,
ureas
melamines

Phenol formaldehyde, urea formalde

resorcinol formaldehyde,
furfuryl alcohol, silicone, epoxy,
neoprene, nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl acetal, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl butyral.

Steel

Vinyl acetate, phenol formaldehyde,

hyde,

epoxy, polyurethane, reclaimed rubber

neoprene, phenol formaldehydenitrile rubber, phenol formaldehydevinyl acetal, phenol formaldehydevinyl butyral

129

OP

2230

ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS - continued

Material

Solvent
(see

Adhesive

4.4.7.7.2)

Vinyl acetate, polyisobutylene, phenol

Aluminum

formaldehyde , epoxy , polyur ethane ,

reclaimed rubber, neoprene, phenol
formaldehyde-nltrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl acetal, phenol
formaldehyde-vinyl butyral.

Magnesium

Silicone, epoxy, polyur ethane, phenol

formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde-vinyl acetal

Zinc

Neoprene, nltrile rubber, phenol formal

dehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol formaldehydevinyl butyral

Copper,
brass ,
bronze

Vinyl acetate, silicone, epoxy, phenol

Nickel

Epoxy, neoprene,

Tin

Epoxy, nitrile rubber

Silicones

Silicone,

epoxy

Fluor ocarbons

Silicone,

epoxy

Leather

Vinyl acetate, vinyl butyral, resorcinol

Paper ,
textiles ,
felt, cork

Cellulose acetate, methyl methacrylate,

vinyl acetate, vinyl butyral, phenol
formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde,
melamlne formaldehyde, resorcinol
formaldehyde, epoxy, neoprene, phenol
formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde-vinyl acetal, resorcinol
polyamide

Cellulose
derivatives

130

formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol

formaldehyde-vinyl butyral

nitrlle rubber

formaldehyde, epoxy, neoprene, phenol

formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl acetal, resorcinol
polyamide

d, e,

Cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate,

resorcinol formaldehyde, polyur ethane,

nltrile rubber.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS - continued
Material

Solvent
(see 4.4.7.7.2)

Adhesive

Vinyl acetate, phenol formaldehyde,

Wood

urea formaldehyde, melamine

formaldehyde, resorcinol formalde
hyde, furfur yl alcohol, neoprene,
rubber,
phenol formaldehyde-nitrile
phenol formaldehyde-vinyl acetal
d, e, f
Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene)

4.4.7.7.3 Adhesives for

Various Service Conditions .
Adhesives suitable for various
service conditions are listed

on page 4-132

4.4.7.8 Additional

Data .
Additional data on adhesives
are tabulated on pages 4-133
through 4-135. Separate data
are given on adhesives for

rubber, porous materials,

and structural purposes.

4.4.7.9

Bonding

Epoxy, silicone, phenol formaldehyde

synthetic rubbers

Adhesion of smooth surfaces of

the type presented by a highly
finished metal, glass, and similar
materials depends solely on the
adhesive bond. All such surfaces
must first be carefully cleaned
by chemical or mechanical means
so that the adhesive will wet
the surface.
The intimacy of
contact is extermely important.
Localized deformations and

possible separation of flexible

materials should be counteracted
by using flexible cements.

Details.

4.4.7.9.1 Surface Condition.

High-strength bonds are
obtained where the adhering
surfaces are attacked or
dissolved slightly by the
adhesive. An intermolecular or welding action is
thus effected. Where the
adhering surface is rough,
cellular, or porous, the
effective adherent area is
increased and an interlock
ing action is obtained.

4.4.7.9.2 Application
For wet bonds,

of Adhesive

is
applied to one surface, usually
the less porous , and the other
surface is brought immediately
into contact. Insulating materials
and fabrics are usually joined by
this method.
For tacky bonds, both parts are
usually coated, air dried until
tacky, and then pressed together.
the adhesive

131

OP

2230

ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS SERVICE CONDITIONS

Service
condition

Adhesives

Static loads

Phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde, melamine

formaldehyde, resorcinol formaldehyde, furfuryl alco
hol, alkyd, silicone, epoxy, phenol formaldehyde-nitrile
rubber, phenol formaldehyde- vinyl acetal, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl butyral, resorcinol polyamide.

Impact or
vibration

Cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, methyl methacrylate, vinyl acetate, vinyl butyral, polyisobutylene,
natural rubber, reclaimed rubber, neoprene, nitrile
rubber, phenol formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl acetal, phenol formaldehyde- vinyl
butyral, resorcinol polyamide

Presence of
water

Vinyl acetate, styrene, polyisobutylene, phenol formal

dehyde, melamine formaldehyde, resorcinol formalde
hyde, silicone, epoxy, neoprene, phenol formaldehydenitrile rubber, phenol formaldehyde- vinyl acetal, phenol
formaldehyde- vinyl butyral, resorcinol polyamide

Presence of
solvent

Phenol formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol- formaldehyde,

urea formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde, resorcinol
formaldehyde, furfuryl alcohol, epoxy, polyurethane,
rubber, phenol formaldehydephenol formaldehyde-nitrile
acetal,
vinyl
phenol formaldehyde-vinyl butyral, resor
cinol butyral

High tempera
ture

Phenol formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde, resorcinol

formaldehyde, furfuryl alcohol, silicone, epoxy, phenol
formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol formaldehyde-vinyl
acetal, phenol formaldehyde- vinyl butryal, resorcinol
polyamide

Low tempera
ture

Phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde, melamine

formaldehyde, resorcinol formaldehyde, silicone, epoxy,
rubber
phenol formaldehyde-nitrile

Differential

Cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, methyl methacrylate, vinyl acetate, vinyl butyral, natural rubber,
reclaimed rubber, neoprene, nitrile rubber, phenol
formaldehyde-nitrile rubber, phenol formaldehyde- vinyl
acetal, phenol formaldehyde- vinyl butyral, resorcinol
polyamide

expansion

132

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OP

2230

4.4.7.9.3 Solvent Release.

Solvents are used only to

facilitate spreading of the
adhesive and to set the sur
faces to be cemented. On
reverting to its viscous or
semisolid state, the adhesive
becomes stronger. On
further drying to a solid state,
maximum strength is attained.
After application, the strength
and cohesion of adhesives
should be allowed to develop
fully without disturbance during
solvent release. Temperature
and humidity affect the rate of
evaporation and should, there
fore, be carefully controlled
in accordance with the manu
facturer's instructions. If
surfaces harden beyond the
tacky stage they can be
reactivated with a "flash"
of solvent just before joining.
Where the tack of the adhesive
is stable for a long time,
contact under slight pressure
is adequate. The adhesive
should be kept free of dust
and other foreign matter
before joining .

4.4.7.9.4

Use of Heat.
Thermoplastic adhesives may
be reactivated or softened by
infrared heat or other methods .
When sufficient tack is developed,
pressure may be applied to bond
the joint.

Heat- or accelerator-cured
adhesives are applied wet and
the parts pressed together .
Because of the short pot life of
some adhesives, it is better to
reduce the amount of accelerator
and depend more on heat curing.

4.4.7.10 Adhesive Joint Design.

Since most of the adhesives used

for bonding metal to metal are

relatively rigid, strong in shear,
and weak in peel strength, joints

136

are usually designed to place

the adhesive in shear and prevent
or minimize peel stresses.
Butt joints are not satisfactory.
Lap joints with square, tapered,
or scarfed ends are good.
Materials should overlap at least
15 times the thickness of thin
sheets. It is best to provide
as much contact area as possible
as adhesives have less unit
strength than metal fasteners.

Joints should

be designed

so that

tensile and shear loading bring

the whole adhered area into play.
Various types of joints are shown
below and on the opposite page.

Butt

_i

Good-practical

JoggW lop

_S

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dturaole

_i

Good somotimos
dtsiraWo

_1

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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ADHESIVE JOINTS
FOR FLAT METAL
Peel or stripping strength of
adhesives is rather low: about
10 to 65 Ib per linear inch.
Peel stresses can be reduced
by increased areas, wraparound
ends, and supplementary rivets,
as shown below.

Thin sheets to which stiffening

members are cemented may
deflect in service producing
peel stresses. When the flanges
on the stiffeners are made to
deflect with the sheet, minimum
difficulty from peel is expected.
Typical means of changing
stiffness are shown below .

Incrooso bond ana

Mo, pool

Mo, pool

Bane

Topered

RoduCO itiffnou

Groovos dooper
looord odo,o

Koduco itiffnoti

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METHODS OF MINIMIZING
PEEL STRESSES

METHODS OF REDUCING
PEEL STRESSES

137

OP

2230

In bonding heavy sections,

parts should be designed so
that the adhesive is in shear.
Peeling stresses can also be
minimized by increasing the
area in tension, as illustrated

below

Stress direction

J
I

I
No

No No

res

air Fair Yes

Yes

INCREASING BONDED AREA

4.5

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reference books to aid designers,

who may require additional
authoritative information on the
subjects covered in this chapter,
are listed below.
Design Work Sheets.

Yes Fair Yes

Yes

Compiled

Pro duct
McGraw-Hill.
Engineering.
Published periodically.

by the editors of

Engineering Tables . American

Society of Mechanical Engineers,
1956.

J.

't

Yes

i
Yes Yes

Ye$

Fasteners Handbook.
Soled.
Reinhold Publishing Corpora
tion, 1957.
tening and Joining
Handbook of Fastening
Metal Parts . V . H. L aughner
and A. D. Hargan , McGrawHill, 1956.

!
Yes

1
Yes Yes

Yes

Handbook H28; Screw-Thread

Standards for Federal Services ,
U. S. Department of Commerce,
National Bureau of Standards,
1957.

Machining; Theory and

American Welding
Practiced
Society, 1955.

4-

138

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Mechanical Design for
Electronics Production.
J. M. Carroll. McGraw-

Modern Plastics; Encyclopedia

Issue . Breskin Publications,
Inc. Published annually.

Mechanical Engineers

Product Engineering; Design

Digest Issue . McGraw-Hill .
Published annually .

Hill,

1956.

Handbook . L.
editor . 6th ed.
Hill, 1958.

. Marks,
McGraw-

Metals Engineering; Design.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1953.
Metals Engineering; Processes,
American Society of Mechanlcal Engineers, 1958.
Metals Handbook; 1948 Edition.
(See also 1954 and 1955
Supplements). American
Society for Metals .

Tool Engineers Handbook.

American Society of Tool
Engineers . McGraw-Hill,

1959 .

Welding Handbook. Section I.

American Welding Society, 1957,
The designer should also refer
to current issues of applicable
serial publications to obtain
up-to-date information on
the subjects covered in this
chapter

139

Chapter

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
5.0 NEED FOR COATINGS
Protective coatings of various
types are applied to the surfaces
of electronic equipment and parts
to protect against deterioration
by corrosion, abrasion, and rough
handling. Such coatings often
enable the use of cheaper or
less critical basic materials.
Coatings are also used for
sealing, improving paint adhesion,
improving solderability, increasing
or decreasing reflectance, and
for decoration. Nonmetallic
coatings are used to provide
or enhance electrical insulating

properties.

Metallic coatings

are used to improve electrical

conductance of metallic surfaces,
to enable soldering of connections
to ceramic materials, and as
conductors in printed circuits.
The following list rates
various treated and untreated
metal surfaces in the approximate
order (top to bottom) of their
need for additional corrosion
protection.
a. Magnesium alloys
b. Untreated magnesium
c. Untreated steel and iron,
and their alloys, except
stainless steel
d. Steel or iron plated with
chromium, nickel,
copper, silver, or tin
for other than decora
tive purposes.
e. Steel or iron plated with
cadmium, zinc, terne,
or lead

f. Untreated silver , copper,

brass, bronze, beryllium,

lead, cadmium, zinc,
babbitt, and all

aluminum alloys
g. Untreated stainless steel,
monel metal, alclad
aluminum, or titanium
h. Any surface plated for
decorative purposes

SURFACE PREPARATION

5.1

Before the application of any

protective or decorative coating
it is essential that the surface
be clean and properly prepared.
Various methods of surface
preparation are discussed
below

Cleaning Methods
The choice of cleaning method

5.1.1

depends on the metal to be

cleaned, type of soil to be

removed, and the coating to
be applied. Oils and greases
are generally removed by
organic solvents or alkaline

detergent baths; tarnish, rust,

and scale are removed by acid
baths or special alkaline
The speed of the
processes.
cleaning process may be
increased by using the bath as
an electrolyte.
The work is
suspended from a rod in the
electrolyte and is made cathode

or, if applicable alternatively

cathode and anode. This method

is advantageous when burnedon or thick deposits must be

removed.

5-1

OP

2230

When more than one bath is

required for cleaning, water

rinses or sprays are used to
remove the adhering solutions
from one bath before immersion
in the next. Hot water rinses
are often required to remove the
last traces of products resulting
from chemical cleaning since
these might affect adhesion,
subsequent processing , or
performance of the protective
coatings to be applied.
Ultrasonic methods may be
employed for cleaning (or
degreasing) metal parts. Dirt,
grease, chips, lapping and honing
compounds, and metallic dust
can be removed from metallic
materials by this method more
quickly and thoroughly than by
conventional methods . Ultrasonic
cleaning is primarily used for
cleaning small precision parts
when speed of cleaning is of prime
importance and conventional methods
are not sufficiently thorough.
5.1.1.1 Steel. Vapor degreasers ,
organic solvents, single-phase
and diphase solvent-emulsion
cleaners, and alkali baths are
used for removing oils and
greases. Heavy burned-on
soils may require pressurespray cleaning . Electro
chemical treatments in nearboiling alkaline baths are
sometimes used with the work
treated as cathode, or alternatively
cathode and anode. Acid dips
are used to remove smut or
light oxide films and to brighten

parts. This process is called

"pickling", "bright dipping", or

"pickle polishing" .
Low carbon steels rarely
require hydrogen embrittlement
relief after cleaning. Steels
with more than 0.35 percent

5-2

carbon and case-hardened

steels of hardness greater than
Rockwell C40 should be
relieved by heating at 350 to
400F for at least 2 hours.
Ordinarily, this treatment will
not materially affect hardness.
In some cases, a mechanical
test for relief of hydrogen
embrittlement may be required
Springs being cleaned, plated,
or coated must not be flexed
until after treatment for
hydrogen

relief.

5.1.1.2 Stainle s s Steels .

Removal of soils fron stainless
steel may be carried out as
described in 5.1.1.1. Alkali
cleaning is preferred. On
exposure to air, stainless
steels quickly develop a thin,
tenacious oxide film. Passiva
tion treatment (see 5.2.2.2.4)
is used to increase corrosion
resistance by formation of a
passive film and to remove
embedded particles of other
metals . This film prevents
adhesion of plating so that,
immediately before or during
electroplating , the film must
be removed. If hydrogen is
evolved in the film, removal,
hydrogen embrittlement must be
relieved as described in 5.1.2.
5.1.1.3 Cast Iron. The surface
of cast iron should not be
disturbed any more than necessary.
Prolonged cleaning or pickling
develops carbon smuts that
are difficult to remove. If not
removed, they seriously
interfere with the adhesion of
subsequent coatings. Hydrogen
embrittlement is not a problem
in cleaning cast iron, but if
nickel or chromium platings
are to be applied to cast iron,

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
occluded hydrogen will
adversely affect adhesion of
the electro-deposit and must,
therefore, be removed by suit
able heat treatment after plating

5.1.1.4 Copper and Brass. The

surfaces of copper and brass tend
to pick up solid particles which
are sometimes difficult to remove.
For cleaning, vapor degreasers,
solvents, etc. are used. Special
cleaners of controlled alkalinity
or with inhibitors are available .
Bright dips (usually acid) and
stain removing chemicals are
frequently used.
5.1.1.5 Zinc. Solvent-type
cleaners may be used to remove
grease and oil. Alkaline and
acid cleaners attack zinc and
should not be us-^d without proper
control. Anodic cleaning is

preferred to cathodic as the film

produced is more easily removed

in the subsequent acid bath.
Cleaners especially formulated
for zinc die castings are available.
A mild acid dip to neutralize the
last traces of alkaline products
is often used.
5.1.1.6 Aluminum. Aluminum
should not be allowed to pick up
metallic particles during processing,
These are difficult to remove and
may cause destructive electrolytic
action. Strong alkaline cleaners
attack aluminum, but cleaners
of controlled alkalinity may be
used. Anodic cleaning is not
used. A bright etched surface
may be obtained by using a hot

alkaline solution with accurate

control of time of immersion.

5.1.1.7 Magnesium. Unlike

aluminum, magnesium is not
appreciably attacked by caustic

solutions. Heavy duty alkaline

cleaners of the type used for
steel are satisfactory,
particularly for removal of
old chrome pickle, dichr ornate
coatings, oil, or grease. Acid
pickles are used to strip off

up to 0.002 inch of metal to

assure the removal of embedded

soils . The various types of

pickles remove part of the
surface, and the designer should,
therefore, indicate dimensional
tolerances for the finished
items .
5.1.2 Hydrogen Embrittl em ent
Cleaning and other treatments
in which hydrogen gas is
released (pickling , plating,
cathodic cleaning, and acid
brightening) may result in
occlusion of this element by
the metal. With high carbon
or surface-hardened steels,
this occluded hydrogen may
cause embrittle ment and
consequent

failure of

the

part in service; provision

must be made for its removal.
Typical hydrogen-removal
treatment is to heat the parts
at 300 to 500F, from 2 to 5
hours. The need for such
treatment to relieve hydrogen
embrittlement is indicated
in the text.
Absorption of hydrogen
causes internal pressures to
develop in the surface of
steel, with a resultant
reduction of fatigue strength
and ductility . Occluded
hydrogen may also produce
blistering, cracking, gas
pits, peeling, and generally
poor coating adhesion.
Although it is common
practice after plating to heat
treat a part for several hours
5-3

OP

2230

at temperatures up to 500F, the

complete removal of hydrogen is
not always attained, particularly
where a relatively thick electrodeposit exists. This is
especially true of cadmium or
zinc deposits, which act as
efficient barriers to hydrogen
effusion. A simplified, more
effective technique has been
developed for the relief of
hydrogen embrittlement in such
deposits. This process involves
first flash plating the part, i.e.,
depositing a thin layer of the
plating metal, next baking the
part to release occluded hydrogen,
and then completing the electro
plating operation by depositing
a coating of any desired thickness.
The baking time is shorter than
that normally required, and the
part will not require additional
hydrogen relief treatment after
the full plate is deposited.
This process has been evaluated
and is being used for cadmiumplated steel parts, but it may be
applicable to other electroplates
as well .

5.2 COATINGS
Coatings may be divided into
three main types: metallic,
chemical conversion, and painted
coatings. Metallic coatings are
often subjected to chemical
conversion to provide additional
corrosion resistance.

5-4

5.2.1 Metallic Coatings

Electrodeposited metal
coatings useful in the electronics
field are discussed below.
Some general rules regarding
the use of metallic coatings are:
a. Parts should not be ground
or machined after electro
plating - drawing should
allow for coating thickness
by specifying dimensions
after plating .
b. Thicker coatings usually
afford better corrosion
protection, but they are
more expensive, and
economy demands use of
thinnest adequate
coating .
c. The end use of the part to
be plated is the governing
the

factor in selecting a

particular coating (see 5.5).

d. Choice of one coating
material over another
should be determined by
cost and degree of protec

tion afforded by alternative

materials .
e. Surfaces must be properly
prepared. Adequacy of
metallic coatings is directly
dependent on pretreatment
of the surfaces to be
plated (see 5.1).
It is also advisable to refer to
applicable Government
specifications for performance
requirements and tests . The
following table lists a number
of Government specifications
covering metallic coatings.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
METALLIC COATING SPECIFICATIONS
Specification

No.

Discussed in
Paragraph No.

Title

QQ-C-320

Chromium Plating (Electro-

5.2.1.1.2

QQ-P-416

Plating, Cadmium

5.2.1.2

MIL-C-14550(Ord)

Copper Plating, (Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.3

QQ-N-290

Nickel Plating (Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.4.1

MIL- P- 1453 5 (Or d)

Plating , Black Nickel

(Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.4.1

MIL-P-18317(Nord)

Plating, Black Nickel (Electrodeposited) on Brass, Bronze,

5.2.1.4.2

QQ-Z-325

Zinc Plating (Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.5

MIL-Z-17871

Zinc-Coating

(Hot-Dip Galvanizing)

5.2.1.5

QQ-T-425

Tinplate (Hot-Dip and Electrolytic)

5.2.1.6

MIL-T-10727(Ord)

Tin Plating: Ferrous and N onFerrous Metals

5.2.1.6

MIL-L-13808(Ord)

Lead Plating (Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.8

QQ-S-365

Silver Plating (Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.9

MIL-G-45204(Ord)

Gold Plating (Electrodeposited)

5.2.1.10

deposited)

(Electro deposited)

or Steel

5.2.1.1 Chromium.

Electro-

deposited chromium combines

brightness with wear resistance
not found in any other commonly
used metal. It may be used
in contact with rubber.

5.2.1.1.1

Decorative Chromium.

The chromium electroplate

used for decorative purposes

is generally very thin and

porous, and, by itself, is of
little value for protection

5-5

OP

2230

against corrosion. For corrosion

resistance, chromium is deposited
over a plating of nickel, copper,
or a combination of the two .
Copper is applied first to secure a
tight bond to the base, followed
by nickel. The latter is much
harder than the copper and
affords a good intermediate for
the still harder chromium. If
chromium is plated directly
onto a relatively soft metal,
the harder chromium film (about
1000

Brinell) will crack, split,

or flake off.

The combined thickness of

undercoats of copper and nickel
ranges from 0.5 to 2.0 mils
(0.0005 to 0.002 inch). Chromium
plating over copper-nickel is
usually 0.01 to 0.02 mil thick.

5.2.1.1.2 Engineering Chromium.

Engineering chromium plate is

bright chromium with a hardness
of about 1020 Brinell. In addition
to its hardness, the good
resistance to seizure is of
Other chromium
advantage.
platings such as "burned" deposits
(generally nodular) up to 1165
Brinell hardness, "milky" types
(due to low current densities)
which average about 830, and matte
or dull, as low as 640 are not used
for engineering plating.
Engineering plating may vary
from 0.01 to 10.0 mils depending
on the application. As a general
rule, plating is applied 1.0 to 3.0
mils thicker than required for the
finished item to allow for honing,
lapping, and polishing to final
dimensions .
Specification QQ-C-320 covers
different classes of chrome
plating; MIL-E-16400 gives
requirements for electronic
equipment

5-6

5.2.1.1.3

Crack-Free Chromium,

Crack-free chromium plating

provides a deposit which is
light gray, matte, and can be
buffed to a high luster. The
bath used has good throwing
power. When heated to 1000F
and then plunged into cold water
it remains adherent and crackfree. Moreover, it has marked
leveling properties . A plating of
0.3 to 0.4 mil applied over a
30 to 50 microlnch surface
roughness gives a final finish
This
of 3 to 7 microlnches.
plating applied directly on a
steel base has corrosion
resistance equivalent to that
offered by the standard copper nickel-chromium composite.
The plating is softer and more
ductile than those described
above

5.2.1.2 Cadmium. Cadmium

protects by sacrificial corrosion.
Electroplating baths have
excellent throwing power,
while barrel plating is a good
process for screws and small
hardware. Cadmium applied
directly to steel is more
resistant to moisture and
salt air than zinc; consequently,
it is commonly specified for
Naval applications . It has
less resistance than zinc to
industrial atmospheres.
Cadmium is a strategic metal
and more expensive than zinc.
Cadmium plating develops
white nonadherent corrosion
products when exposed to
moisture, humid tropical
conditions, or marine atmos
phere, and, therefore, should
be given a supplementary
chromate treatment. For items
to be painted, the surface should

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
be phosphatized for additional
protection and to provide a good
adhesive surface for the paint.
See Specification QQ-P-416.
Cadmium plating should not
be used in unventilated equipment
where unstable organic materials
are present. Such materials as

impregnated paper, cloth, sealing

compounds, some plastics , and
paints that contain vegetable oils
decompose

under elevated

temperature and humid conditions,

forming volatile organic acids
which will attack cadmium,
especially where moisture is
present.
Cadmium coatings may be
deposited to a thickness of about
0.3 mil in 10 minutes of
immersion electroplating.
When the cadmium is plated by
the barrel process, it takes about
30 minutes to deposit a 0.3 mil
coating

Cadmium plating is used in

thicknesses ranging from 0.2
to

0 . 5

mil . A coating of about

0.5 mil is recommended for

work which will not be painted.
Thinner plating, about 0.2 to
0.3 mil, is used where dimen
sional tolerances limit thickness,
or where painting is to be done.
Platings range from dull to
bright but the latter should not
be used on exterior surfaces.
Cadmium is deposited directly
on the basic metal without
preliminary plating except in the
case of parts made of corrosionresistant steel. For this metal,
a preliminary coating of nickel
is permissible prior to cadmium
plating. Resistance to abrasion
is very poor, as hardness is
only 35 to 50 Brinell. Any
welding should take place before
plating with cadmium because
cadmium fumes are poisonous .

Cadmium has fair solderability, but where this is

important, an alloy with 20

percent zinc should be used.
This alloy also is more corrosion
resistant than cadmium and
as easily plated.

5.2.1.3 Copper.

Copper
electroplating on ferrous alloys
is used as an undercoat for
nickel or chromium plating
and to improve electrical
conductance and solderability .
However, copper stains or
tarnishes quickly and requires
lacquering if luster is to be
retained, Sulfides and rrarine
atmospheres corrode copper.
Copper plating 1.0 mil or more
thick is relatively free of pores
and affords good corrosion
resistance, but is rarely used
by itself or over an undercoat.
Platings range in hardness

from

60

to

150

Brinell,

and

are easily buffed smooth to

serve as a base for deposits of
other metals. By selection
and control of plating baths, bright
coatings can be secured without
polishing, and platings varying
in hardness may be produced.
As an undercoat for nickel
plating, copper should be about
0.6 mils thick. To improve
electrical conductance, copper
coating should be 0.5 to 1.0 mil
thick. Copper plating is
generally given a water- dip
lacquer coat to minimize
soiling and fingerprinting during
assembly and to retard tarnishing
in service. The thin lacquer
coat does not interfere with
soldering or grounding in
assemblies secured with bolts
or rivets .
To improve solderability of
ferrous metals, a copper plate
5-7

OP

2230

about 0.3

mil thick is used,

sometimes with the addition

of 0.2 mil of tin. For small
items, a coating of 2.0 mils of
silver may be used over the
copper, plus a water-dip lacquer.
For ease in soldering chromiumnickel stainless steel, a copper
electroplate 0.3 mil thick
followed by an electrodeposited
tin coating 0.2 mil thick is
recommended. Copper plating
is also used as a stopoff for
selective carburizing or nitriding .
Unless covered with zinc or
cadmium, copper electroplates
accelerate corrosion of aluminum
and magnesium in the presence
of an electrolyte.

5.2.1.4 Nickel
5.2.1.4.1 Metallic Nickel .
Nickel electroplating is rarely
used alone. It is used over an

undercoat in a variety of
applications because it has
excellent corrosion resistance
and good wear resistance.
The
plating can be bright, and hard
or soft, as required, ranging from
150 to 500 Brinell hardness.
Some
electrolytically deposited nickel
coatings are as hard as the
softer chromium platings . The
softer nickel platings are tough
and more resistant to fracture
than the harder coatings .
When thicker than 2.0 to 3.0
mils, nickel electrodeposits are
practically pore-free with good
corrosion resistance and
sufficient hardness so that they
can often be substituted for
the more expensive copper-nickelchromium plating. Nickel plating
may be used over base metals
(e.g., copper) that are not
compatible with rubber.

5-8

Decorative bright nickel

platings range from 0.3 to 1.5
mils on steel, and 0.2 to 0.5
mils on brass or copper.
Engineering coatings, generally
hard, range from 3.0 to 30.0
mils thick.
Specification QQ-N-290
covers various types of nickel
plating .

5.2.1.4.2 Black Nickel.

Black nickel suitable for provid
ing a nonreflective surface on
brass, bronze, and steel in
optical equipment can be
obtained by electrodeposit.
The coating is nonmetalllc
(largely composed of nickel
oxide and nickel sulfide) with
poor adherence and ductility.
It affords little protection against
corrosion and is therefore
suitable only for protected
surfaces within equipment unless
applied to a nonferrous under
coat or base. Very thin
deposits withstand moderate
bending. Black nickel can be
deposited on copper, brass,
nickel, cadmium, and zinc, or
over electrodeposits of these metals
Smooth, adherent coatings can be
obtained on zinc and cadmium.
A nickel undercoat aids in
providing greater resistance to
scratching and marring.
Specification MIL-P-18317
discusses black nickel electrodeposited plating on brass,
bronze, or steel; specification
MIL-P-14535 discusses black
nickel electrodeposited plating
on zinc, cadmium, and nickel.
5.2.1.5 Zinc. Zinc protects by
sacrificial corrosion with the

degree of protection depending

upon the thickness of the coating.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Normally, under coatings are not
used. However, corrosion resist
ance may be enhanced by

supplementary chemical treatment.

Zinc coatings may be applied
by electrodeposit, hot-dip
galvanizing, spray, or chemical
immersion (zincating) . Electrodeposited coating thicknesses
vary from 0.2 to 1.0 mil. Hot- dip
coats may be as heavy as 2.5
ounces per square foot, and,
because of the heating involved,
may cause warping of the metals.
Hot dipping is not suitable where
even coatings and close tolerances
are required. To prevent the
formation of white corrosion
products, a supplementary
chromate treatment is applied.
Such treatment is required for
items exposed to marine atmos
phere. When the article is to be
painted, a supplementary
phosphate treatment is used.
See Specification QQ-Z-325.
Zinc plating baths have good
throwing power and are particu
larly suited for barrel plating
small hardware. Abrasion
resistance is poor, with
hardness ranging from 40 to
50 Brinell. Platings have
excellent solder ability and
fair flexibility. Zinc is attacked
by acids, alkalies, moist air,
and live steam.
It is seldom
used where the temperature
may

rise above 212F

5.2.1.6 Tin. Tin coatings may

applied by hot dipping (tinning) ,

spraying, immersion coating, or
electroplating. Hot- dipped coats
vary from 0.5 to 1.0 mil. For
electroplating on copper bases,
thickness should be 0.3 to 0.5
mil. On steel for indoor or
protected service, thickness
should be 0.1 to 0.3 mil; for
outdoor or industrial atmospheres,
be

0.75 to 1.0 mil. Tin coatings

are used universally to improve
solderability, and, on steel,
should be 0.1 to 0 .15 mil
thick. As a mask for selective

nitriding,

a 0.2- to 0.6- inch

thickness is used.
The porosity of an electrodeposited tin coat may be
reduced by melting and
reflowlng at about 50F above
the melting point of tin. Tin
has good resistance to mineral
acids, alkalies, and marine
atmosphere. It should not be
used where temperatures
exceed 400F. Platings have

good

flexibility

but poor

abrasion resistance.

5.2.1.7 Aluminum

Aluminum

plating cannot be deposited

electrochemically, but may be
sprayed or applied by hot dipping
The latter improves the
resistance of ferrous metals
to corrosion and high tempera
tures. With subsequent
heating, the aluminum coating

will diffuse

and

alloy with the

The surface has

a hardness of Rockwell C 50 to
60. A coating averaging only

base metal.

5.0 mils in thickness greatly

improves the resistance of
ferrous metals to oxidation
at high temperatures.

5.2.1.8 Lead.

Lead is a very
soft metal with poor wearing
qualities. Its use is restricted
to applications where resistance
to certain acids and other
corrosive liquids is important.
Lead may be plated directly
on ferrous and cuprous metals .
Deposits of 3.0 mil are
usually sufficiently impervious,
but for severe conditions,
coatings 50.0 mils or thicker
are sometimes used.

5-9

OP

2230

5.2.1.9 Silver. Silver has good

corrosion resistance but tarnishes

rapidly in the presence of sulf ides

It possesses excellent solderability. By application of very
thin water lacquer or chromate
coating, surfaces maybe made
resistant to tarnishing, while
remaining solderable.
To improve the solderability
of surfaces, such as those of

terminals,

0.3-mil silver

electrodeposit is applied. For

corrosion protection of nonferrous
metals or for increasing conduct
ance of base metals, a thickness
of 0.5 mil is usually used. For
electrical contacts, from 0.5 to
10.0 mils is used, the exact
thickness depending upon pressure,
friction, and electrical load.
Silver plating should not be used
when severe arcing or corona is
likely to occur. Electrodeposited
silver is covered by Specification
QQ-S-365. For higher resistance
to tarnishing, corrosion, and
wear, a silver -indium diffusion
coating can be used. (Refer
to 5.2.1.14).
5.2.1.10 Gold. Gold is a noble
metal and does not oxidize in
air. It is used for plating

electrical contacts and infrared

reflectors. Platings from

ordinary baths are very soft,

with poor wearing qualities, but
certain processes give fairly
hard, abrasion-resistant coatings .
Gold has good solderability and
is used on some replaceable
contacts. Gold platings range
from 0.02 to 0.05 mil in thickness.
Acceptable gold electrodeposlts
can now be obtained in thicknesses
up to 5 . 0 mils for special
applications .

5-10

Gold coatings which are

fine grained, dense, adherent,
and uniformly thick, and which
have good corrosion resistance,
heat reflectivity, and emissivity

characteristics can

be obtained

with commercially available

The deposits do
processes.
not tarnish and are easier to
solder than silver plate. Many
of the difficulties normally
encountered with silver plate
are eliminated, although gold
electrodeposits are usually more
expensive

than

silver.

The

combination of a relatively
thin electrodeposlted gold plate
over silver plating may be less
expensive than a thick gold
deposit and yet effectively
improve tarnish resistance
and

solderability.

Gold plating Is used on

printed circuits, wave-guides,

electrical contacts . The

gold deposits duplicate the
contour of the surface to be
plated and prevent galling in
sliding and wiping types of
and

electrical contacts.

5.2.1.11 Palladium. Palladium

is finding increased application
in the electronics field as a
nontarnlshable coating for
silver-plated wave-guides and
other parts . It is customary
to apply a 0.5-mil coating of
silver, then a 0.04-mil coat
of palladium.
Palladium

electroplates are very sensitive

fingerprint staining.

to

5.2.1.12 Platinum. The platinum

group metals (palladium, platinum,
rhodium, osmium, iridlum) are
used as electrodeposits where
high temperature resistance

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
arc resistance are major
Rhodium and
requirements.
most frequently
are
the
palladium
used, but where continuous
exposure to local temperatures
up to 2000F is required without
oxidation, platinum plating is
preferred to these metals.
and

Fine-grained, uniformly dense,

low-stress platinum electro-

deposits are now producible in

thicknesses up to 1.0 mil. An
undercoating of nickel is generally
recommended for platinum
electroplate.

5.2.1.13

Rhodium.

Rhodium is

electrical contacts where

hard corrosion-and wear-

used for

resistant plating is required.

The deposits are smooth and
brilliant in appearance. Rhodium
may be electroplated over copper,
nickel, silver, palladium,
platinum, gold, and most of
their alloys . If the plating area
includes soft solder , a copper
undercoat should be applied,
followed by a soft nickel coating .
This improves both the appearance
and wear resistance of the rhodium.
In electronics, rhodium deposits
up to 1.0 mil thick are now being
used. However, deposits greater
than 0.5 mil generally tend to
become coarse-grained, brittle,
and highly stressed, causing peeling
of the plating from the basis metal.
Certain proprietary processes
are available which will provide
deposits of 0.5 to 1.0 mil. These
deposits exhibit good adhesion
and are relatively free from
locked-in stresses . Rhodiumplated surfaces exhibit
relatively poor solderability
unless the plate Is extremely
porous (usually not desirable),
thereby allowing the solder to
flow to, and alloy with, the
basis metal.

5.2.1.14 Indium. Indium is a

soft white metal of about the
same color and reflectance
as tin. Because of its low
melting point (311F), it may
be diffused into copper, brass,
bronze, lead, and silver,
forming surface alloys. A
silver-indium diffusion coating
is used over silvered electrical
contacts to obtain higher
resistance to tarnish, corrosion,
and wear. The silver coating
1.0 to 5.0 mils thick is plated
with 0.1 to 0.5 mil of indium,
depending upon service required,
then heated and held at 350F
for 2 hours. The throwing power
of indium in the plating bath
is excellent.

5.2.2 Conversion Coatings

Conversion coatings are

inorganic films on metal
surfaces, formed either by
electrolytic action known as
anodizing or by chemical
conversion. The films so formed
are oxides, chromates, or
phosphates of the metal treated
and often of additional metals
in the solution.

5.2.2.1 Anodizing.

and magnesium

Aluminum

may be andized
The
by electrolytic treatment.
processes used for these metals

are described below.

5.2.2.1.1 Anodic Treatments for

Aluminum. Anodic treatment
is widely used on aluminum
alloys. The anodizing processes
are identified by the electrolyte
employed, e.g., chromic r
sulfuric acid.
Anodizing produces a thin,
inert, hard, durable oxide
surface with excellent abrasion
and corrosion resistance.
Films
range from colorless transparent
5-11

OP

2230

varying shades of gray, silver,

and tan, depending upon the
process and the alloy. The films
readily absorb and retain dyes
and serve as a good base for
adhesion of paints .
Anodic films on aluminum
have high dielectric strength, so
anodizing should not be used on
parts (such as chassis, panels,
and racks) which may need
electrical grounding. Such parts
can be made of Aluminum Alloy
1100, 3003, 5052, 6053, 6061,
6063, 7072; or any equally

5.2.2.1.2 Anodic Treatments for

to

Magnesium. The various

anodic treatments for magnesium
are shown on page 5-15.

5.2.2.2

Chemical Conversion
Chemical conversion
coatings are oxide, chromate,
or phosphate films produced
by chemical action on metal
surfaces .
Coatings.

corrosion-resistant alloy.

Chromate. Zinc- or
cadmium-plated steel, zinc
die castings, aluminum,
copper alloys, magnesium,

on pages 5-13 and 5-14

chromated. The color of the

film varies according to the
base metal: colorless, blue,
yellow, olive-drab, or bronze
on zinc and cadmium; clear to
brown on aluminum; clear to
light brown on copper alloy;
dark brown on magnesium; and
pale yellow on silver. Darker
shades are produced by
heavier coatings. The coatings
may be dyed red, black, blue,
or green.
Chromate coatings have
very poor abrasion resistance.
Chromates on zinc and cadmium
are not as hard as those produced
on aluminum. All chr ornate s
increase in hardness with age.
Chromate coatings on hot-dip
zinc and on zinc alloys should
meet the requirements of
Specification MIL-C-17111.
Chromate films improve the
adhesion of paint to metal. On
silver, chromating produces
a pale yellow protective film
which has excellent resistance
to tarnishing.
Soldering is
easy without precleaning.
Chromate coatings are used
on zinc and cadmium

Surfaces that are to be grounded

may be cleaned with an inhibited
alkaline cleaner without further
treatment, or Specification
MIL-C-5541 treatments may be
used.
After formation, the oxide
coating may be converted into
the monohydrate by treatment
in boiling water to increase the
volume and close the pores.
Anodic coatings may also be
sealed by treatment in chromate
or dichromate solutions. This
adds to the protection and imparts
a yellowish color to the coating .
Copper-bearing aluminum alloys
produce coats of relatively dull
shades and lower durability.
Silicon imparts a gray color,
and alloys with more than 5
percent should not be used if
bright dye colors are desired.
Although anodizing may be done
in phosphoric, boric, boricsulfamic, oxalic, and other acids,
only the chromic and sulfuric
acid processes covered by
Specification MIL-A-8625 are
approved for military applications
A tabulation of various anodic
treatments for aluminum is given

5-12

5.2.2.2.1

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ttf

Q
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-"o
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3
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W
4)

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cc

.2

OP
2230

00

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to
4)

to

L|
^"

I-l >r4
TJ >*j M

ro

PL,

00 O
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CO

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non'

CU

s <'

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-g

CU
C0

o
'u
l

'rt

with

all

fv
to

bronze,

and

inserts

not

good

affected.

crrosin.
cadmium'plated,

to

base

alloys.

and

CO
an

Br

steel

paint

be
notably

be

T3
0)

resistance

Good

magnesium'cerium

be

sto

but
base.

Can

rt

shapes.
cannot

manganese

and

magnesium'

which

alloys

Good

must

paint

color,

required,

treated,

alloys

strength.

lacquer.

abrasion

dichromate

for

For

dyed.

dielectric

off

good
inserts

provides
Metallic

yellow

if

rt

Chromate

high

a
a

imparts

neutralizer,

resistance.

Relatively

t0
CU
CX

rt

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1^

rt

CX

rt ^v

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rt C

U-2

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rd3

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h
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rt

<

PROTECTIVE
COATINGS

.
10
to
rt a

CO

*-i
00

rtoo

tf
H

O
ii

Ji
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5-15

OP

2230

electroplatings for supplemental

corrosion resistance, especially

where there is exposure to marine

atmosphere. Immersion in
chromating solution causes
precipitation of a gelatinous
slime which becomes harder and
more adherent upon rinsing, and
much harder and more adherent
on exposure to air . A certain
amount of plating is removed in
the process, and allowance must
be made for this. Most processes
produce a minimum chromate film
thickness of 0.15 mil. The saltspray resistance requirements
for chromate-treated zinc and
cadmium platings are given
in Specifications QQ-Z-325 and
QQ-P-416.
Chromate films on aluminum
are often used in place of
anodizing for paint bonding or
to retard corrosion, and
particularly to prevent intergranular corrosion.
On copper and its alloys,
chromating is sometimes used
to retard corrosion or to provide
a good base for painting. The
heavier coatings may be colored
with organic dyes .

5.2.2.2.2

Phosphate.

phosphate coating on steel,

zinc castings, zinc-plated steel,

or aluminum increases paint
adhesion and durability, which
greatly improves corrosion
resistance. If not painted,

heavy phosphate coatings should

treated with rust-preventive

be

oils

Phosphating is usually done

by immersion in chemical baths, but

some solutions may be sprayed or
brushed on.
Manganese- or zinc-base type
heavy phosphate coatings build up
0.2 to 0.6 mil. Accordingly, the
5-16

design must provide for

dimensional changes, except
where the coating is used to
break in bearing surfaces, or
in drawing or extruding.
Treating solutions and

phosphate coatings intended for

paint bonding are covered by

Specification MIL-C-490.
Heavy phosphate coatings sup
plemented by preservative
oils are covered by MIL-C-16232.

5.2.2.2.3

Black Oxide.

Black

oxide coatings on carbon steels

are produced by a low-

temperature, alkali- oxidizing

process. A high-temperature
fused sodium dichrorrate
process is used for stainless
steels . Black oxide surfaces
are oiled and used for sliding
surfaces . Refer to
Specification MIL-F-13924.

For copper or high copper

alloys, Specification MIL-F-495

may be used. This gives a
more scratch-resistant coating
than that obtained by black
nickel plating . Other
processes are available for
producing a jet-black color
on zinc-base alloys and zinc
electroplates .

5.2.2.2.4

Passivation. After

treatment with an oxidizing

agent, such as nitric or chromic
acid, the surface of steel. (and
some other metals) becomes
"passive" due to the formation
of a thin oxide film which
resists corrosion. This
treatment is especially
important for stainless steel
which has been contaminated by
embedded particles of other metals
during machining, wire brushing,
etc

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
The usual treatment for
ordinary chromium stainless
steel is immersion for 15 to
30 minutes at 110 to 130F in
a 50- to 70-percent nitric acid
solution, or in a solution of
20 percent nitric acid with 2
percent sodium dichromate.
For chromium- nickel stainless,
a 20- to 30-minute immersion
at 120F in a solution of 25
percent nitric acid is suitable,
or the above nitric- dichromate
solution may be used. After
immersion, the parts should
be rinsed in water and dried.

5.2.2.2.5 Treatments for

Aluminum. Specification MILC-5541 covers chemical
conversion treatments for
aluminum. See also SAE
Aeronautical Material Specifi
cations AMS 2473, AMS 2474,
and AMS 2475A.
Aluminum may be colored
either by dyeing the anodic
coating or by electroplating gold,
silver, copper, or other metal
over a zincate coating (5.2.2.3).
Sulfur ic anodizing baths produce
the best coatings for dye work.
Chromic acid anodic coats can
be dyed, but the opaque nature
of the film has a dulling effect.
Fastness of dyes must be

considered.
Various chemical treatments
used to etch, brighten, or produce
conversion surface films on
aluminum are tabulated on
pages 5-18 to 5-20

5.2.2.2.6 Treatments for

Magnesium. The various

chemical treatments for
magnesium are tabulated on
pages 5-21 and 5-22.

5.2.2.3

Zincating. Zincating is
chemical process for rapidly
forming a thin coating of pure
a

zinc on clean aluminum or

magnesium. Chemical action

takes place when these metals

are immersed in a solution of

sodium hydroxide containing

zinc oxide. This coating
provides a base for electro
plating and should be uniform
and adherent to assure good
bonding of the platings applied
over it. A copper-base coat
over the zinc film should be
used before further plating
with brass, copper, cadmium,
chromium, silver, zinc, or
nickel. The zincating process
is particularly useful for
metals whose cleaned
surfaces develop thin,
transparent oxide films upon
exposure to air.
Electrodeposition of metals
on aluminum and magnesium
is possible over the coating

produced by an electrolytic
phosphoric acid bath. However,
the zinc film produced by
zincating affords a better
metallic base and is the
standard procedure . Successive
platings may be applied if the
necessary buffing , electrocleaning, rinsing, etc., are
done between platings . Data
on the various electrodeposited
metal coatings

which may be

applied to zincated aluminum

and magnesium are given

on pages 5-23 and 5-24.

5.2.3 Painted Coatings

Painted coatings are applied

by brushing, dipping, or

spraying, and include pretreat, primers,

paints,
enamels, varnishes, and
lacquers. Refer to NAVORD
OSTD 52 for surface treatments,
painting procedures, and systems
approved for Naval Ordnance
Data on surface
equipment.
preparation are given in 5.1.
ment coatings

5-17

to
CO
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5-18
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4-*
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el

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original

but
to

/,

r _

preparing

be

Use

surfaces
only

to

for

paint

for

process

parts

corrosion

relatively

satisfactorily.

to

Nonconduct

Adaptable
small
cheapest

of

resistant
film.

dyed

rinse.

small
on

brush,

of

film.

resistant

Improved

possible

hot

and

anodic

dyed.

in

brush,

by

Thinner,

base.

painting.

for

and

treatment

bulk
Simplest

Less
anodic

anodic

Less

paint.

may

be

than

bath,

to

good

Chroma'

desired.

Sealed

treatment

resistance

than

is

where

For

almost

economical

immersion,

seal

enamel,

or

tumbling.

for

than

tumbling.

by

Cannot

or

areas

Touch'up

bulk

base

with

sealed

only.

porous

bath;

apply.

low.

Abrasion

ing.

chromate

spray

Applied

damaged

for

corrosion

parts.

Good

to

Nonconducting.

Excellent

dichromate

easier

or

immersion

more

more
film,

softer,

by
dip,

ground

preferred

exposure

is

spray,

Applied

electrical

tizing

indoor

stock

lacquer

dimensions

fitn,
returns

which

generally

anodic

Surface

Notes

s|

t
tj
(M

PU

tw >^4

XI
O

EN

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t.
M

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r
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1 1

W
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n)

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u

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S3

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<
Bc
1)
(U 00

rt
w

ht

"u

OP
2230

CO
0)
U

0,
r
r^
H

JH

^ n ^

h e

"-i

43
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0)

JJ

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o rt

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ID O

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a
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4) OC

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rt

paint

be

small

Clear,

MJ

percent

with

-1

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0)

1*1

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at

H
u

Q0

00

Ou

5-19

grime

mild

is

soap

to

remove

Cle

act

servi

anodizin
service.

dulled
outdoor

reflectance,

to
not

by

and

Up

to

where

protective

Used

QO rt

with

Good
touch'up

chemical

abrasion
resistance.

good

transparent

electroplate

by

sur
and

Use
duty

film.

apprecialbly
Good
for

86

corrosion

film

applied.

adherent.

and

required.

electrical

areas.

parts

is

chassis

unpainted

arc

resistant

medium

masked.

and
and

spray,
Improves
resistance

anodic

Less

shielded

than

on

of

base

deposited

subsequent
be

for

low.

dyed

where

damaged

Firmly

Zinc

of

for

grounding

panels

faces,

immersion,
tumbling.

Abrasion

by
or

also

corrosion

protection

as

May

to

relatively

welding.

weldability

brush,

Applied

Notes

73

u
S

6
<3

S
(0

rt

"o o

1
T3
0)

o8

U VM
"-1 ^i

hi

I
1

it O

u
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.2

3
2

PROTECTIVE COATINGS

5-20
U v4
rf .^.
X!
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Uto

to
to

>13J2
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.^t l i^l
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0)

.y

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xl
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to
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U3

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4)

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h <<

jj

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l

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Id

H
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4)

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OX

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O
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O

PU

0
rt"j

rt

"o o h

Q) *&

trj
E3

Cc
to

'X

hi

2^0

(X h O

n)

to

easy

all

o.

to

4)
U

to

used

MIL'C'5541.

tumbling

immersion
or

be
Conforms

Can

be

parts

as

than

(not

anodic

Conforms

film.

resistant

and

M o

easy

to

bath,

used

than

dyed.

welded

and

bath,

pretreatment

More

Nonconducting
dyed.

painted

Usually
for

be
corrosion

Can

corrosion

Economical

dip

by

to

apply

to

parts.

film.

Can

be

or

Can

to

brush).

spray,

Applied

MIL'C'5541.

for

anodic

resistant

Conductive.

Economical

dip,

immersion

apply.

brush,
tumbling.

by
spray,

Applied

Notes

OP
2230

0)
to

X
U

ill

UD P-i

u
,
w
GO

--1

"

"

**

(*

to

<u

H
g

"J

^
o

CQ

43

o
3>

1J

C j^ yj

fli

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oo

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not

dielectric

alloys

w
C0

45

not

exposure

ft)
r_l

*
GO

0)

4?
.u
"-i

4)

5-21

finish

protection.

unless

etches

or

die

castings

Good

additional

severe

prolonged

If

Not

item

Attacks

steel,

paint

service

outdoor

less

decorative

use

brass

chrome'pickle.

painted,

given
for

for

expensive
good

and
be

to

zinc,

inserts

bronze,

for
than

or

they

cadmi

Good

is

affect

aluminum.

cadmium'plated

Does

percent

more

film.

but

Does

treated

permanent

bronze,

steel.
protectioi
shipment,

strength.

inserts,

of

inserts

For

usually

and

and

steel,
inserts.

01

and

Cheapest

appearance

polished

discolorization

containing

cause

galvanized

brass,

process.

castings

affect

this

Sand

storage

base.

and

galvanized
brass
paint

discontinuity

may

or

not

Low

by

mold

affect

cadmium'plated

touch'up.

during

Good

etches

Attacks

and

Does

in
bronze,

treatment

dip
attractive

not

Simple
but

^5

P n)

aH

nt

0 0

O6

T3

43
u-i ^
_Q
|4

Notes

"l3 3 6

4)
4) >S.S

g 0O

0)

'

T3

p*

o
V

o a nt

5j

3,53
4)

2 ti I 2

,* L

"

Bt
4)

'u
0

1 OC

to

'S-

m U

5.3

Sul

"o o

bD

-J

4)

mft
CD

o g

CO
w

l)

nl

tJ"8

P*

O
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PROTECTIVE COATINGS
T)
C

5-22

CO
CO
4)

U
O

'4-i
X!

O
O

il?
CO'!-!

r-T

ss^
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p,tt ^
H
tn

flj

to

h
xl

C^*
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w
^

tUO

"

^v ^.

!n

b^rfll
0)
-fl 03
4J ^_- .4-i

0
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4)

41

Q
u

S1

w tn

rt

cu

*"O *^'1

^H *~^

XI
rt

<1)
CO

(ti

3&
CU M

CO

j a

4
not

they

PJ

on

vD

>

-^

C0

*J

ff

0-

^*

excess

yellow

acid.

coat

base.
protection.

for

wrought

alloys,

which

Avoid

Long

indicates

bright

time

and

fre

of

but

and

Good

Commonly

following

alloys.

castings

boil

assemblies

good

pickle.

long
castings

tine

noi

stud

alumi:
for
earth

and

steel,

combination

rare

suitable

treatment.

bronze,

inserts,

paint

welded

also

used

chrome

and

or

for

Best

Not

galvanized

wrought

base

Dichromate

most

protection

paint

alloys

manganese

inserts.

affect

brass,

attack

of

cadmium'plated

Attacks

do

or

bearings

Does

5 A

*
rto ld

Notes

00
O

C tti

10 :i

"

XI

"^
cu

m
4-1

S.

^
^

J
2-3

X)

S 0

"S

rt

O j.,

i4
O

Sm

tJ

rt

u o

Si

rt

SC ^jj
5-S's

rt 1^

U
.2

OP
2230

g
CO

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
ELECTROPLATED COATS FOR ZINCATED ALUMINUM
AND MAGNESIUM

Metal

Thickness

mil

Notes

Copper

0.5 to 2.0

For soft soldering, use 1.0 mil.

Chromium

0.02 to 5.0

Best applied over undercoats of 0.1- to

As
undercoat for nickel, use 0.4 to 0.6 mil.

0.2-mil copper and 0.2-

to

3.0-mil

nickel, buffed to attain polish desired.

For abrasion resistance, film should
not be less than 0.5 mil. For hard
chrome (QQ-C-320), ground to
dimensions, allow 3.0 mil excess
for grinding and finishing. Hard coated
metal should be heated to remove
occluded hydrogen.
Porous
chromium

Over 5.0

Plated over zincate or nickel undercoat,

then etched; peaks leveled by honing;
cleaned with hot, mildly alkaline blast
to remove dirt from pores. Adhesion
may be tested by heating to 500F, which
also removes hydrogen. Retains
lubricant when used as a bearing surface.

Brass

0.5 to 2.0

Color ranging from deep bronze to

light yellow obtained by altering
plating conditions and formulations to
match any brass or bronze color.

Nickel

0.25 to 1.0

Applied over zincate or phosphoric

acid anodic coating. Best if 0.3- to
0.5- mil nickel is plated over 0.2- to
4.0-mil copper. Heavy coats give
better corrosion resistance. For
decoration, matching, or moderate
abrasion resistance. Refer to
Specification QQ-N-290 .

Tin

0.7 to 1.0

For soldering, use 0.7 to 1.0 mil over

zincate. For corrosion resistance,
use 0.2 to 0.4 mil over 0.3-mil copper
on

zincate

5-23

OP

2230

ELECTROPLATED COATS FOR ZINCATED ALUMINUM

AND MAGNESIUM - continued

Metal

Thickness

mil

Notes

Zinc

0.2 to 1.0

Over zincate, use 1.0 mil without supple

mentary treatment; 0.2 mil if phosphate.
treated (QQ- Z-325) . For soldering,
use 0.5 to 1.0 mil. The yellow chromate
gives maximum corrosion protection.

Cadmium

0.3 to 0.5

When the cadmium is to be chromated,

use a minimum of 0.3 mil of cadmium;
for phosphatizing, use a minimum of
0.2 mil of cadmium.

Silver

0.5 to 10.0

Silver undercoat over zincate, then

silver plate. For solderability use
0.3 mil; for contacts, 0.5 to 10.0 mils;
for corrosion protection and increased
conductance, 0.5 mil.

Gold

0.2 to 5.0

Nickel, brass, or copper undercoat.

The color of thin gold plating will be

light yellow over nickel, darker yellow

over brass, and dark red over copper.
Heavy gold coating has the color of
pure gold.

Indium

0.1 to 0.5

Silver plate 1.0

Rhodium

0.5 to 1.0

Where hard corrosion-resistant

electrical contact surface is required,
apply copper 0.2 mil over zincate,
0.5-mil nickel, then up to 1.0-mil
rhodium.

Palladium

0.04

Nontarnishing coating for silverplate

on waveguides and electronic
components. Use 0.5 mil silver
over zincate, then 0.04 mil palladium.

5-24

to 5.0 mils over

zincate, followed by 0.1- to 0.5-mil
indium diffused for 2 hours at 350F.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Phosphating solutions and
pretreatment coatings (e.g.,
MIL-C-15328) contain phosphoric
acid to etch the metal, which
provides "tooth" for better
bonding of

5.2.3.1

a coating

primers.

Primers. A primer is

designed to adhere to a

properly cleaned and prepared

surface, aid in protecting metal
against corrosion, and serve
as a bond for one or more
subsequent paint coats . Various
primers covered by
specifications are listed below.

5.2.3.2 Paints. Paints are mix

tures of drying oils, resins,
driers, thinner s, and pigments .
Drying starts with evaporation
of the thinner and continues by
chemical reaction (also called
"drying") of the oils with
oxygen and subsequent or
simultaneous polymerization
of resins and oils. The process
usually requires several hours.
Slow drying precludes use of
most paints on electronic
equipment made on

SPECIFICATION
Spec

No

Title

fast- moving

production lines . Approved

paints for Naval Ordnance
are listed in NAVORD OSTD 52.

PRIMERS
Notes

Primer, Paint;

For galvanized surfaces.

TT-P-664

Primer, Coating,
Synthetic, RustInhibiting, LacquerResisting

Fast-drying, for use on bare

MIL-T-8585

Primer,

TT-P-641

MIL-P-15930

Zinc Dust- Zinc

Oxide (for Gal
vanized Surfaces)

Chromate

Zinc

Primer, Paint,
Vinyl- Zinc
Chromate Type

or chemically treated ferrous

metal surfaces . Suitable for
use under synthetic enamel
or lacquer- enamel top coats.

For general use, particularly

over treated aluminum and
magnesium.
Good undercoat

for exterior

service. Four coats of

primer and two or more top
coats are used for best

protection.

5-25

OP

2230

5.2.3.3

Enamels.

Enamels are

paints that contain relatively large

amounts of resins which impart a
smooth finish. They are often
fast drying, and may be obtained
in various degrees of gloss, from

lusterless to high gloss. Both airdrying and baking types are avail
able. They are preferably applied
to chemically-treated and primed
metal surfaces.
Enamels approved
for Naval Ordnance are listed below.

SPECIFICATION
Spec. No.

Title

JAN-E-480

Enamel, Baking,
Phenol- or
Urea- Formalde

ENAMELS
Notes

hyde

I,

phenol formaldehyde resin

base, primarily for use over steel.
Type II, urea-formaldehyde, for
zinc-coated steel.
Type

MIL-E-74

Enamel, Lustre
less, QuickDrying

Maximum specular gloss,

MIL-E-5556

Enamel, Camou
flage, JuickDrying

Lusterless enamel.

MIL-E-5557

Enamel, Heat
Resisting ,

Gloss black

percent.

Glyceryl

Phthalate
Black

MIL-E-15090

Enamel, Equipment
Light Gray

Class 1, gloss .
Class 2, semi-gloss.

MIL-E-16583

Enamel, Electri
cally Conductive

For grounding static electricity

Enamel; Gloss,
Synthetic (for

For general use on primed exterior

and interior wood and metal. Class
A is brush- or spray-applied.

TT-E-489

Exterior and
Interior

Surfaces)

TT-E-529

5-26

Enamel, Syn
thetic, SemiGloss

only

Class B is sprayed-applied only.

General use semi-gloss

enamel.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Varnishes, Varnishes
contain resins, or resins and
drying oils, in a volatile solvent.
The coatings are transparent or
translucent and usually glossy.
Baked varnishes are usually
harder and more durable than
air-dried types . Varnishes
approved for Naval Ordnance
use are listed below.
5.2.3.4

5.2.3.5 Lacquers. Lacquers

usually contain cellulose
compounds and synthetic resins
in a volatile solvent. They dry
rapidly by evaporation. While
sometimes applied by brushing,
they are generally sprayed.
Hot spraying is used to achieve
rapid coverage . Approved
lacquers are listed below.

SPECIFICATION
Spec

No.

MIL-V-173

Title

VARNISHES
Notes

Varnish, MoistureFungusResistant
and

Phenolic base varnish for

spray, brush, or dip application.
Good moisture resistance and
dielectric strength.

Air-

MIL-V-1137

Varnish, Electri

For electrical equipment.

MIL-V-1174

Varnish, Spar,

For general use. Phenolic resin,

tung oil and linseed oil types .

cal-Insulating

Water- Re sis ting

(Formula No. 80}

drying or baking, black or clear.

Vehicle for aluminum paint.

MIL-V-16399

Varnish, MoisturePro of

Phenolic resin, tung oil type.

TT-V-51

Varnish, Asphalt

For waterproofing.

TT-V-109

Varnish, Spar,
Alkyd-Resin

For general use.

TT-V-119

Varnish, Spar,

Phenolic- Re sin

Clear, air-drying. For exterior

use on metal and wood.

SPECIFICATION
TT-L-31

Cellulose
Nitrate, Gloss

Lacquer,

LACQUERS

For general use,

5-27

OP

2230

5.2.3.6

Heat-Resistant Painted
Coatings . Silicone-base
varnishes resistant to moderately
high temperatures are usually
applied by dipping or spraying, and
must be baked at 350 to 425F.

5.2.3.7

Fire-Retardant Paints.

Alkyd-chlorinated rubber-base
paints are used where fire
retardance is needed. These
paints are covered by
Specifications MIL-P-17972,

MIL-P-17973,

and

MIL- P- 179 74.

5.2.3.8 Moisture- and FungusResistant Treatments.

Most
electronic equipment specifica
tions require the use of materials
which resist deterioration by
moisture and fungus . Most
susceptible to such deterioration
are natural fats, proteins,
callulose, and carbohydrates
contained in such materials as
leather, paper, cork, wood
"fiber", hair, and wool.
Unless protected, these materials
may absorb water , swell, decay,
mildew, or nurture fungi with
consequent deterioration of
electrical and mechanical
properties. Note that
materials of this type are
often used as fillers in plastics
and rubber, or as constituents
of insulation, spacers,
cushioning, packings, and
gaskets. When use of such
materials cannot be avoided,
or when they are not protected
by potting, immersion in oil,
hermetic enclosure, or heat,
they should be treated before
assembly into the equipment
by approved mildew-proofing
treatments, moisture- and
fungus-resistant varnish, or
preservative such as those
covered by the following
specifications:
5-28

O-L-164, Leather Dressing,

Mildew Preventive

TT-W-571, Wood Preservative,

Recommended Treat
ing Practice
MIL-V-173, Varnish, Moistureand Fungus-Resistant

MIL-T-3530,

Treatment, Mildew
Resistant, for Thread
and Twine
MIL-T-20618, Treatment; Fire- ,
Laundry-, Dry-Cleaningand Mildew-Resistant

(For Cotton Fabrics)

5.2.4 Metalizing Nonmetallic

Materials
Various methods of metalizing
the surfaces of nonmetallic
materials are now in use, particu
larly for printed circuits and
components (see 3.7). By means
of stenciling, stamping, or

spraying, a plastic or other

nonconductor can be given a

metalized conducting surface

layer, or necessary circuits for

such as inductors,
capacitors.
Metalizing is also used to provide
solderable connections on ceramic
materials, glass, and quartz.
The most commonly used
metalizing methods are:
a. Chemical reduction
b. Spraying
c . Metal evaporation

hookup of parts,

resistors,

d.

e .

and

Conducting paints
Gas plating

5.2.4.1 Chemical Reduction.

this process,

a conductive
film is formed by chemical
reduction of a metallic salt

In

solution. First, smooth

surfaces of plastics are rough
ened, then sensitized by a
stannous chloride solution,
followed by deposition of the
chemical reduction film. The
latter can then be electroplated.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Silvering and electrolysis
nickel deposition are examples of
the chemical reduction method.

5.2.4.2 Spraying. Under

controlled conditions molten
metals, such as copper, can
be sprayed and deposited on
properly prepared surfaces of
plastics or ceramics.
5.2.4.3 Metal Evaporation.
This process consists of

evaporating heated metal under

low pressure and causing the
metal vapor to deposit on
nonmetallic surfaces . Coats
of lacquer aid adhesion and
protect the metal after deposition.

5.2.4.4

Conductive Paints .
Conductive paints are usually
fine powders with an organic
binder applied to a plastic or
ceramic and then air dried or
baked. For wiring on printed

circuits, conductive silver

paints are applied by methods

such as silk screening or transfer

painting

Gas Plating. Gas plating

is a process of depositing metal
by thermal decomposition of
gaseous metallic compounds such
as the carbonyls, nitrosyls, and
hydrides. This process is quite
rapid and requires little surface
preparation .

5.2.4.5

5.2.5 Other Coatings

In addition to the commonly

used protective coatings treated
in the preceding sections, there
are a number of newer or more
specialized coatings and methods
of applying them. Some of
these which are used in electronic
equipment are discussed in the

following paragraphs.

5.2.5.1 Electrophoretic
Coatings. Electrophoretic
coatings are obtained by the
process of electrophoresis
which is the movement of
charged particles dispersed in
a liquid by the application of
and electrostatic field. For
example, if two electrodes are
immersed in a suspension of
the coating material and a
potential is applied, a deposit
of the suspended material forms
on one of the electrodes . In
practice, the article to be
coated is made one of the
electrodes, and its polarity is
held opposite to that of the

suspended coating material.

The deposition is followed by
bonding or structural unification
of the coating layer with the

substrate. Electrophoresis
differs from standard
electroplating processes since
undissolved particles are
deposited from dispersions
rather than neutralized ions
from solutions.
Many materials can be
deposited by electrophoresis.
Although commercial methods
of electroplating are usually
more economical, electrophoretic coatings may be
preferable when the following
special characteristics are
required:
a. High thermal shock
resistance
b. Reduced porosity of
coatings

c.

Carefully controlled thick

ness, density, and

d.

Greater uniformity of
thickness of coating on
irregularly shaped objects.

adhesion of coatings

Electrophoresis may also be

used for the deposition of

5-29

OP

2230

water -insoluble materials such

as ceramics or refractories to
form coatings with a high degree
of resistance to wear and
chemical attack.
In electrophoretic deposition
of ceramics or refractory materi
als, an additional step is required
to effect the bonding of the
coating to the basis metal.
Bonding is accomplished by
sintering (controlled heating) or
by the deposition of a metal
binder coating between the
final coating and the basis metal.

5.2.5.2 Electroforming . Electroforming or electrofabrication is

a method of fabricating or
reproducing an item by
The shape
electrodeposition.
of the part is determined by
a removable mold on which
metals, such as copper, nickel,
silver, and iron, are deposited.
Other metals such as gold,
chromium, lead, and certain
alloys, can also be used if
desirable.
Electroforming can be used
for the production of intricately
shaped parts, precision parts ,
and other special items, such
as wave-guides and fittings,
as shown below.

and other

5.2.5.3

ELECTROFORMED WAVE-GUIDE
Electroforming
the manufacture

5-30

is also used in
of printed circuits

plastic- metal

combinations .
The process is advantageous
when the following character
istics are desired:
a. Extremely close
tolerances (
.0001 inch)
b. High surface finish
(2 microinches)
c. Intricate shape
d. Precise duplication of
detail
e. Close control of metal
lurgical properties
(hardness, tensile
strength, etc.)
Theoretically, there is no
limit on the size of electroformed
parts and deposit thicknesses
ranging from a fraction of a
mil to over one-half inch are
obtainable. The process is
particularly useful for small
production runs where tooling
costs would be unreasonably high.
Electroforming, however, is
relatively expensive for most
applications and production
times are long. It should not
be used where machining,
casting, stamping, or other
less expensive processes are
satisfactory.
Unwanted scratches and other
imperfections in the mold are
reproduced along with the
desired details, and for this
reason the required mold or
form must be extremely accurate.

Electropolishing.

Electropolishing is the process

of selectively dissolving a metal
treated as an anode under
suitable conditions to effect a
smooth, brilliant surface. The
process is the reverse of electro
plating where metal is deposited
on, rather than removed from,
the work piece.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Electropolishing may be
used as a machining process
because it removes a control
lable amount of metal from
the work piece. As an added
advantage, however, it
produces surfaces free of

scratches, strains, metal

debris, smeared metal (Beilby
layer), and embedded abrasives
which are characteristic of
mechanically polished surfaces.
Irregularly shaped objects and
parts difficult to machine mechanic
ally are particularly adaptable to
electropolishing .
Electropolishing is used not
only to obtain a decorative
surface, but also as a pretreatment
for parts to be plated, to produce
mirror surfaces, for precision
machining, for deburring, and
for relieving sharp corners and
edges . Increased adhesion and
corrosion resistance of a plated
part results when an electrodeposited coating is applied over an
electropolished surface as
compared with the same coating
over a mechanically polished
part. This is due to the
relatively stress-free substrate
of the electropolished surface.

This process cannot replace

operation, if it is
required, since it is impossible
to avoid a very slight peening
effect, or to localize the
finishing action to one area
of work in the barrel.
Although parts weighing from
a fraction of an ounce to as
the buffing

much as

pounds have been

75

barrel finished, there are

restrictions on the size, shape,
and weight of parts which can
be satisfactorily handled by

this method. In general,

intricately shaped parts weighing
more than

ounces and compact

parts weighing more than one

pound cannot be

barrel finished.

satisfactorily

The triple-action barrel is

particularly useful for handling

flat pieces because the inclined

sides prevent the parts from
clinging to the side walls.

5.2.5.4 Barrel Finishing .

Barrel finishing is a surface

finishing operation particularly
useful in the mass production
of small parts .
Some of the advantages of

barrel finishing over other

methods of finishing are:

a. No need for skilled labor
b. Less manpower required

Higher productivity
Fewer rejections
Uniformity of all pieces
in a single batch
These advantages result in
reduction
of manufacturing
a
costs .
c

TRIPLE-ACTION BARREL

d.
e.

The standard horizontal barrel

is available in many modifications
and is particularly adaptable for
use with heavy pieces .
5-31

OP

2230

HORIZONTAL BARREL
The oblique barrel permits
rapid loading and unloading.
This type of equipment can be
adjusted to handle many sizes
and shapes of work by changing
the barrel angle.

extremely high melting points .

The process is relatively simple

will permit, theoretically,

deposition of any material
which can be melted without
chemical break down. Some
of the materials which can now
and
the

be

satisfactorily deposited by

this process are titanium,

palladium, platinum, molybdenum,
tungsten, and alumina (aluminum
oxide). Almost any base
material and any size part can
be coated. Coatings produced
by this method are dense and
highly pure, with good resistance
to heat and wear.
OBLIQUE BARREL
There are various other types
of barrel finishing equipment
designed to meet the needs of a
particular part or process.

Plasma-Arc Torch
Coatings. The plasma-arc
torch process .is a recently
developed method of producing
coatings from materials with

5.2.5.5

5-32

5.3 IMPREGNATION, ENCAP

SULATION, POTTING, AND
EMBEDDING

There are several processes

in which liquids are used to
seal, insulate, or support parts.
The liquids may solidify by drying
or by chemical action, or may

remain in a semiplastic state.

Impregnation is used to seal
pores in materials and to secure
coil windings or other parts.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
With thin liquids , spraying,
painting, dipping, or immersion
methods are used. Vacuum
processing gives greater
penetration and elimination of
air pockets. Impregnation
may be followed by encapsula
tion or embedding.
Encapsulation consists of
dipping in fairly viscous plastics
so that all surfaces are coated
with a protective layer or shell.
Impregnation can be combined
with encapsulation by using a
thinned first coat and allowing
a soak or absorption period,
followed by one or more heavier
coats for encapsulation.
Potting consists of pouring a
molten or liquid material into
a component housing, such as a
transformer case. The container
becomes an integral part of the
component, and the potting
compound prevents shifting of
parts or entrance of moisture
and

dirt.

Embedding is similar to
potting, except that a temporary
mold is used and removed after
casting and curing.
5.3.1 Impregnation.
Impregnating materials include
solutions or dispersions of
bitumens (asphalts), waxes, and
various resins including silicones
and fluorocarbons . Service
requirements, such as operating
temperature range, vibration
resistance, and dielectric
properties, must be considered
in selecting the most suitable
impregnating materials. Some
compounds are friable and

pulverize under vibration. Soft

are apt to run or to

compounds
fail to hold windings

Specification MIL-I-2707
covers a liquid impregnating

varnish. Specification
MIL-V-1137 covers electrical
insulating varnishes for
general use.

5.3.2 Encapsulation

Encapsulation is an excellent

means of protection for

electronic parts, such as
glass tubes and capacitors.
Tubes may be treated by the
following methods:
a. Insertion in resin-tight
tube cans followed by
encapsulation in epoxy

b.

resin.

Coating with silicone

rubber and encapsula
tion in epoxy resin.
c. Coating with silicone
oil and encapsulation
epoxy -poly sulfide
rubber copolymer.
d. Encapsulation in
polyester resin.
Where weight must be kept
low, encapsulation in epoxypolyamide should be considered.
It adheres well to clean
surfaces and does not require
the use of tube cans. The
parts should be given a thin
coat followed by two thick
coats. A release agent should
be used on terminals and
screw holes .

5.3.2.1 Fluidized Bed Coatings.

A recently developed encapsu

lation technique called

"fluidized bed coating" employs
an epoxide or other ther mosetting coating material in
fine powder form. The process
involves placing the object to

be coated in an open- top chamber

in which the coating powder is

suspended by an air stream.
The object is previously heated
so that when the particles of

5-33

OP

2230

plastic powder make contact

with it, they adhere, melt, and
coalesce with neighboring
particles to produce the coating.
When the required coating
thickness has been deposited,
the object is moved from the
chamber to an oven for final
resin cure. The epoxide powder
is formulated so that it will not
drain off during the curing process.
Coatings produced by the
fluidized bed process are rigid and
extremely uniform; they are
moisture resistant and have good
electrical properties . Even
sharp edges and undercuts on
electronic components or small
parts are evenly coated. An
object must be able to withstand
preheating and curing tempera
tures of 250F or higher, if it
is to be coated by this method.

5.3.3 Potting and Embedding

Potting and embedding permit

reducing the number of mounting
attachments required to hold
parts in place, and closer spacing
is also often possible. Metal
inserts may be used for
heat dissipation.

5.3.3.1 Epoxy Resins. Epoxy

resins are useful for potting or
embedding, where parts can
withstand their high curing
temperatures. Specification
MIL-I-16923 covers types for
high-frequency, general purpose,
and shock-resistance applications.
Epoxys have outstanding adhesion
to most clean surfaces, relatively
low shrinkage, and excellent
dielectric properties. By use
of appropriate catalysts ,
hardeners, fillers, plasticizers ,
and diluents, epoxy resins can be
modified to meet a wide range of
operating conditions .
5-34

Epoxy resins may be blended

with other resins, e.g.,
thiokols, polyesters, phenolics,
nylons, and vinyls to modify
properties .
Protective clothing, adequate
ventilation, and a clean working
environment should be provided
for personnel handling epoxy
resins and their curing agents.
These precautions will
minimize the dangers of dermatitis
(a skin irritation) which may
result from prolonged contact
with these materials, and of

irritation of

the mucuous
membranes which may be
caused by breathing the fumes
from the curing agents.

5.3.3.2

Silicones . Silicone
rubber pastes are used to fill
voids and calk terminal outlets.
The pastes form rubbery
solids, protecting lead wires
from vibration and terminals
from moisture and dirt.
Silicone rubbers have better
resistance to heat, oxidation,
moisture, and weathering than
ordinary rubbers. Commer
cially, they are supplied as two
components to be mixed.
Consistencies range from
heavy and putty-like to
viscous fluid. Upon mixing,
the catalysts contained in the
separate components combine,
and the mixture vulcanizes
without heat or pressure to
produce a rubbery solid. Curing
takes about 24 hours, and
optimum physical properties
are developed in 4 to 7 days .
Silicone resins possess good
dielectric properties, and are
particularly desirable for high
temperature applications (up to
500F), although they are
relatively expensive. They are

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
also resistant to fungus attack,
do not crack on aging, and
possess high thermal conductivity
and low moisture absorption.
In addition to their common
usage in potting and embedding,
silicone formulations are now
available for encapsulation of
electronic components and
subassemblies . Silicone
elastomers or rubbers are
also widely used for gaskets,
seals, electrical insulation,
and other similar items. Glass
fiber-filled silicones can be
molded for extra mechanical
strength, although this process
is expensive .
Liquid silicones are available
for use as dielectrics into which
complete electronic assemblies
can be immersed. Some of the
advantages of liquid silicones are:
a. They are void-free
b. They act as good heat
transfer media
c. They eliminate corona
and resultant electrical
interference
d. They afford protection
against humidity and
e.

f.
g.

h.
i

altitude
They permit appreciable
space savings compared
to gaseous dielectrics
They have good thermal

stability

They are more economical

than fluorocarbons and
many other liquid

dielectrics

They are relatively

unaffected by frequency
They have little effect
on

j.

materials with which

they come in contact

Their dielectric properties

are relatively unaffected
by

nuclear radiation

k. They insure

a constant

environment for the

components

and

subassemblies which
they protect
Some precautions which should
be observed in the use of liquid
silicones and other liquid
dielectrics are:
a. Exposure to the atmos
phere should be prevented
b. Even trace amounts of
moisture in the compounds
should be eliminated
c. Allowance should be made
for their expansion at
increased temperatures

5.3.3.3

COPU. Castor Oil

Polyurethane or COPU is a
low- viscosity liquid which cures
without evaporation loss and
with little heat generation or
shrinkage to form a transparent,
pale yellow, rubbery solid. It
is relatively "dead" (without
"bounce"), and thus has
excellent shock-damping
properties. It becomes harder
but not brittle at low temperatures
Its electrical properties are
good except at high frequencies.
5.3.3.4 Cellular Types.
Foamed- in-place plastics or
elastomers, such as polystyrene
and the polyur ethane s , are
used as embedding materials
where weight must be kept
low. When mixed and poured
into place, the materials
generate gas, and the resulting
foam fills the mold. The
cellular structure is advan
tageous where good thermal
insulation is desired.
Another method uses tiny
nitrogen- filled spheres of
phenolic resin added to an
epoxy resin. A mixture of
resin and the preformed

5-35

OP

2230

spheres is poured into the mold,

leveled, and allowed to harden.
This gives a cellular structure
of very low, controlled density.
There is no need to control
volume to prevent overflow, as
in the foamed- in- place method.
Various formulations are
available to meet physical and
electrical requirements . In

the accompanying illustration,

the assembly is first shown ready

Next, it is shown
inside the form with the compound
being poured. The form has
been treated with a release agent
to permit easy removal.
When the
measured quantity has been added
and evenly distributed in the
form, the top plate is bolted
in place with the connector extend
ing through it, and the assembly set
aside to allow foaming. Any

for processing.

excess compound will escape

through the relief holes in the
top plate. The completed unit is
shown in section with all spaces

filled.

5.3.3.5 Problems in Embedding .

In using any of the available
embedding compounds , their effect
on the parts to be embedded must
be considered. Compounds such
as epoxys , which release
considerable heat, may affect
some of the materials in the parts
and cause loosening of adhesive s,
separation of wires and resistor
films, or cracking of insulators.
In such cases, it may be necessary
to use other types of embedding

materials .
Expansion of parts in operation
may cause cracking of rigid
resins. Unequal expansions or
shrinkages of parts and embedding
material may cause loosening of
windings or insulation. The use
of metallic strips for heat

STEPS IN FOAM EMBEDDING

5-36

PROTECTIVE
dispersal is often necessary. In
some cases, it may be desirable to
use encapsulation with a smaller
amount of material rather than
to embed.

Parts which are particularly

sensitive to heat include
germanium diodes and selenium
rectifiers. Such parts, when
used as tubes, are often encased
in soft materials such as plastic
sleeves, prior to potting or
embedding

Dissipation of heat is a problem

in embedded circuits . Marked
increase in the surface tempera
ture of parts such as vacuum tubes
is due to the poor thermal
conductivity of the resins.
The weight of embedded units
may be excessive in some applica
tions and should receive design
consideration.
Most casting resins have low
resistance to strong oxidizing
agents and should not be used in

areas where such oxidants are

present. Special casting resins
are available which resist many
oxidants and should be used to
meet this special condition.
Moisture absorption and

moisture transmission occur

to some degree in all resins

and must be considered in
determinations of deterioration

with time.

Moisture transmission

through the embedding compound

will have a direct harmful
affect on circuit elements . This
difficulty can be somwhat

alleviated by increasing the

thickness of the resin.
Moisture tunneling into the
embedment at the interface with
metal leads can be serious . It
is good practice to lessen the
possibility of moisture tunneling
by using solid, bare, singleconductor

leads at the entry

COATINGS

point, or to locate leads so

that the plastic material shrinks
onto the surface at which a
seal is desired.
Embedded parts should be
considered as expendable and
replaceable as a unit because
of the impracticability of repairs
5.4 PRESERVATIVES
Preservatives are temporary
coatings used to protect
materials during transportation
and storage, and to protect
parts whose functions do not
permit the use of permanent
coatings. Preservatives should
be readily removable by wiping
or use of solvents. Preserva
tion methods and materials are
covered in Specification MIL-P116, and include various films,
oils, greases, waxes, wraps,
barriers, desiccants, and
c ontainers .
5.5 SELECTION OF COATINGS
Selection of a suitable coating
from the types described in
5.2 should be based on the
type of exposure and other
requirements such as abrasion

resistance, surface reflection,

and appearance. It may be
assumed that Naval Ordnance
electronic equipment will be
exposed to the most severe
marine environment. Therefore,
exposed metals, both nonferrous

and ferrous, must be given

the most corrosion-resistant

protection available . Conver

sion coatings of aluminum and
magnesium alloys are covered
in 5. 2. 2. Additional protection
with paints is usually required
for exteriors of equipment.
Ferrous metals, except stain
less steels, should always be
phosphate coated

(5.2.2.2.2),

5-37

OP

2230

and if exposed to the weather,

painted, using one of the systems
given in NAVORD OSTD 52.
Zinc- or cadmium- plated steel
or iron should always receive a
supplementary chemical treat
ment as described in 5.2.2.2
and be painted if protection
against the weather is required.
Various types of platings and
treatments for wear resistance,
decoration, and electrical
purposes, are covered in 5.2.1
and 5.2.2. Metals plated with
nickel, chromium, silver,
gold, or the platinum metals
are usually not painted.
5 . 6
DISSIMILAR ME TALS IN
CONTACT

5.6.1 Galvanic Corrosion

Metals which are far apart
in the electromotive series of
elements, e.g., aluminum and
steel, are subject to galvanic
corrosion when in close contact.
The more active metal, aluminum,
is anodic to the less active
(cathodic) steel and will be
corroded by anodic action or
oxidation. Similarly, iron in
contact with copper will be
corroded rapidly . Galvanic
corrosion is particularly rapid
where moisture or salts are
present, as in marine or tropical
environments . Specific infor
mation pertinent to galvanic
corrosion is included in
Table I of MIL-E-16400. This
table presents a qualitative

guide to what may be expected when

different metals and alloys are

combined with different area

relationships in a sea water

environment

5.6.2 Similar
Metals

5-38

and

Dissimilar

Metals may be grouped to show

similarity.

The metals in any

are least likely to be

corroded when in contact with
one another . Metals in different
groups will tend to corrode if
placed in contact; and the
farther apart the groups, the
greater the tendency to corrode.
This holds true for metal
one group

plating

Group

Group

Group

Group

Magnesium and its

alloys .
Cadmium, zinc,
aluminum, and their
alloys .
Iron, steel, lead,
tin, and their alloys,
except stainless
steel.
Copper, copper
alloys, chromium,
nickel, silver, gold,
platinum metals ,
and stainless steel.

5.6.3 Protection of Faying

Surfaces
Surfaces of metals in contact
are called faying surfaces.
When
such surfaces move with respect
to each other (e.g., steel or
bronze bearings), they are
usually lubricated and require
no other protection.
Galvanic
corrosion of faying surfaces which
are fixed or fastened to each
other depends on whether the
metals are in similar groups
(5.6.2).

Where it is necessary to
assemble a combination of
dissimilar metals, the following
methods are used to minimize
electrolytic corrosion:
a. Interposition of a metal
compatible with each of
the metals involved,
e.g., zinc or cadmium
plating .

PROTECTIVE COATINGS

e.

Interposition of inert
nonmetalic materials such
as gasketing or tape,
Specification MIL-P-2829;
or zincchromate primer,
Specification MIL-T-8585.
Use of relatively large
cathodic and small anodic
metal areas .
Encapsulation or hermetic
sealing to exclude moisture.
Use of a

coated with one of the following

(given in the order of prefer
ence): zinc electroplate;

zinc, hot-dip; cadmium

electroplate. Magnesium
should not be used in contact
with stainless steels, titanium
alloys, aluminum alloys 2024,
3003, and 7075, copper, brass,
or monel .

sacrificial cathode.

5.6.3.1 Methods for Magnesium

Alloys. Magnesium alloy

5056 ALUMINUM

RIVET

MAGNESIUM

assemblies require great care

to prevent electrolytic corrosion,

and the methods employed
illustrate techniques used for
other metals . Although

magnesium alloy surfaces in

contact with each other may show
only slight attack, good practice
requires a coat of zinc chromate
primer on the faying surfaces.

Primers containing lead oxide

pigments must not be used on

magnesium .
Zinc-chromate impregnated tape
or other insulation must be used
"where magnesium is in contact
with dissimilar metals (5.6.2).

5.6.3.2

PAINT AND
SEALING COMPOUND
OR INSULATION
DISSIMILAR

may be used: 5056, 6053, 6061,

5052, 6063. Rivets should be

anodized or chemically treated

before use .
Where magnesium is joined
to steel, the steel should be

TO 1/4"

METAL

5052 ALUMINUM WASHER

CADMIUM PLATED STEEL

BOLT

AND NUT

MAGNESIUM
PAINT AND SEALING
COMPOUND OR
INSULATION

ISSIMILAR

METAL

CADMIUM OR ZINC
PLATED WASHER

Fasteners. Electronic

assemblies should be fastened

with rivets, bolts, and screws of
the same or similar metal as the
parts fastened. Since fasteners
of magnesium alloys are not
available, those of other metals
must be used. Where magnesiumto- magnesium, or magnesium-toaluminum assembly is involved,
the following aluminum alloys
(given in order of preference)

l/8"

MIN. OVERLAP

CADMIUM PLATED STEEL BOLT 8 NUT

CADMIUM

OR ZINC

PLATED WASHER\

SEALING COMPOUND
OR NON-POROUS GASKET

MAGNESIUM
PAINT AND SEALING
COMPOUND OR
INSULATION

l/8"

TO

1/4"

v MIN. OVERLAP
DISSIMILAR METAL

CADMIUM OR ZINC
PLATED WASHER

PROTECTION OF MAGNESIUM
FROM DISSIMILAR METALS
5-39

OP

2230

5.6.3.3

Protection by Paint.
Zinc chromate paint, Specifica
tion MIL-T-8585, may be used to
separate dissimilar metals. Two
coats, each thoroughly dried,
should be applied to each faying
surface.

5.6.3.4

Use of Insulation.
Use
of insulation to prevent corrosion
of dissimilar metals is shown
in the accompanying illustrations .
Generous overlap of the separator
is suggested to prevent bridging
by moisture. Where a plastic
sealing compound is used, it
should be filleted or beaded to
prevent contact at the metal edges,
Increased protection can be
obtained by giving the assembly
an additional coat of zinc

chromate paint. Sufficient

allowance must be made for
variations in thicknesses of
such assemblies.
CADMIUMPIATE

covered in this chapter, are

listed alphabetically.

Corrosion Handbook

Wiley, 1948.

Uhlig

aspects of corrosion; every

type of metal. Sponsored

All

Electrochemical
Society.
by the

Dictionary of Metal Finishing

Chemicals. N. Hall and
G. B. Hogaboom.
Metal

Finishers, Inc.,

1945.

Electroplating . S. Field and

A. D. Weill. Pitman, 1951.
Electroplating
Handbook

editor,

Engineering

A. K. Graham,

Reinhold, 1955.

Finishing Metal Products .

H. R. Simonds and A. Ber g man .
2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, 1946.
Handbook of Industrial

Electroplating . E . A. Ollard
and E. B. Smith. 2nd ed.
Illife Sons, Ltd, London, 1954.
Metal Finishing Guidebook
Metals and Plastics
Publications , Inc. Published

Directory.
SEALING TAPES MUST EXTEND
FAR ENOUGH TO PREVENT ANY
POSSIBILITY OF GALVANIC
ACTION

annually

General information, plating

solutions, operating data,
directory of suppliers and
manufacturers, and trade

Lifting rings or other parts

which may touch dissimilar
metal may require an insulating
membrane, as shown in the
diagrams .

Metallizing Non-Conductors .
S. Wein. Metals and Plastics
Publications , Inc . , 1945 .

5.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reference books to aid
designers who require additional
information on the subjects

Modern Electroplating. A. G. Gray

Wiley, 1953.
Sponsored by the Electro
chemical Society.

5-40

names

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Organic Coating Technology.
H. F. Payne. Wiley, 1954.
Use of oils, resins, varnishes,
high polymeric materials,

plasticizers , driers,
vinyl resins, silicone
resins .

Organic Finishing Handbook.

Metals and Plastics Publications
Inc., Published annually .
Organic Protective Coatings .
W. VonFischer. Reinhold, 1953

Properties of Metallic Materials

P. L. Teed.
at Low Temperatures.
Wiley. 1950.
Protective Coatings for Metals .
W. W. Bradley and R. M. Burns,
Reinhold, 1955.

Protective and Decorative Coatings

J J.
.

Mattielo.

1941-1946

vol

Wiley

Principles of Electroplating
W . Blum
and Electroforming .
andG. B. Hogaboom. 3rd ed.
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
Vapor Plating - The Formation
of Metallic and Refractory
Coatings by Vapor Deposition.
Powell, Campbell, and

Gonser, Wiley.

1955.

5-41

Chapter

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

6.0 GENERAL

This chapter deals with the

selection, marking, location,
inter changeability , and
reliability of parts, and
mounting methods for parts .
6.1

SELECTION CRITERIA

Selection of proper parts is

a controlling factor in ease of
construction since sizes, shapes,
and functions largely determine
the feasibility of layout, mounting,
wiring and clamping.
Space utilization, miniaturiza
tion, and reliability requirements
also must be considered.
The total number and variety
of parts should be held to a
minimum. Use standard parts
whenever possible.
In a particular
model or series of models, parts
should be of the same type and
ratings as far as practicable.
6.1.1 Standard Parts

Federal and military specifi

cations and standards for parts
are issued to establish minimum
requirements, reduce varieties,
and assure interchangeability .
Use of these standard parts is
usually required by equipment
specifications, and nonstandard
parts, if necessary, must be
approved by the contracting
agency prior to use.
Approved electrical and
electronic parts should be
selected from the following:
Coordinated Military Specifica
tions and Standards
Coordinated Federal Specifica
tions and Standards

Limited coordination Military,

and interim Federal
Specifications and Standards

6.1.2 Interchangeability
Mechanical and electrical
interchangeability of parts
must be assured regardless of
supplier or manufacturer .
Dimensions and tolerances
which affect interchangeability
must meet specification and
drawing requirements to prevent
the need for selective fitting and
to assure adequate clearances.
Parts must not require
special selection to obtain
proper equipment performance
within published recommended
ratings . Avoid the need for
special tools, fixtures, or
procedures to replace parts.
Where close control of
performance is required,
special care should be taken
to assure interchangeability or
For example,
adjustability.
capacitors used in critically
tuned

circuits must

be combined
padders to

with adjustable
obtain

correct operating values.

Reliability
Reliability of a part is the
probability that it will operate
6.1.3

within specified tolerances for

a given economic life.
be measured

Reliability may
in percentage

the assumed

of parts surviving

life.

Reliability also involves

compatibility and reproducibility
Compatibility is the adaptability
of a part to efficient operation

6-1

with other components and

devices in the same circuit.
Compatibility depends on both
inherent characteristics and
environmental effects .
Reproducibility is the degree
of uniformity of a part in
manufacture

Economic life is the minimum

life in hours that may be expected
or required for a particular
component or device, with due
regard for practical considera
tions . For components in
industrial products, this time
may be as much as ten years
of daily, two-shift service,
some 40,000 hours or more.
For a guided missile, it may
be only a few minutes more
than testing and warm-up time.
A summary of relative

reliability and failure data on

electronic parts is tabulated

below

requirements or insufficient
care in selection to meet
operational and environmental
requirements.
Parts may
fail because of overloading or
subjection to conditions, such
as temperature, vibration,
humidity, or shock, for which
they were not intended.
Duplication of certain parts
is sometines possible to prevent
failure of the entire equipment.
For example, relays and
connectors used in simple
parallel "redundant" circuits
improve the over-all reliability
of most equipment.

Repairability of Components
Components or subassemblies
may be divided into three

6.1.4

categories:

fully repairable,

partially repairable,
nonrepairable

and

RELATIVE RELIABILITY AND FAILURE DATA

Reliability

Part

percent

Common cause
of

failure

Percent of
total failures

Carbon composition

99

Open

50

Tubular paper capa

citors (125C)

98

Short

80

Wirewound precision

98

Short

96

Open

70
80

Deposited carbon

9Z

Open

80

Connectors

92

Open or

80

Tubes

50
25

Open

or

50

resistors

Transformers
resistors

resistors

Relays

intermittent*

intermittent*

*Including variation in contact resistance

Part failures may be due to

failure to meet specification
6-2

6.1.4.1 Fully Repairable . A

fully repairable assembly should

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

be designed so that all parts
have maximum life expectancy,
are easily accessible, and can
be removed without special
tools. Insulated parts should
be used to eliminate the
necessity of protective coatings.

6.1.4.2 Partially Repairable .

In a partially repairable assembly,
the replaceable parts should be
chosen so that their life expectan
cies are approximately equal.
Covers should be removable
and replaceable without special
tools . Tubes should be
readily accessible.
6.1.4.3 Nonrepairable . A
nonrepair able subassembly
should have parts of approximately
equal

life expectancies

If

casting resins are used, the

entire subassembly should be
readily replaceable.
6.1.5 Nuclear Radiation Effects
As a general rule, organic
materials are more affected by
radiation than are inorganic
materials .
Gas tubes,

particularly those

used in control circuits, voltage

regulator tubes, and oil-filled
or oil-impregnated capacitors,
are particularly susceptible.

Some types of resistors have

been known to change values
while or even after being
irradiated, but most carbon
and wirewound resistors
seem to suffer little damage
up to about 1018 nvt.*

*Total neutrons, per square

centimeter, i.e. neutron flux,
nv (neutrons /cm^/ sec),
multiplied by time, t, in seconds.

The characteristics of
transistors and other semi

conductor devices can be

radically altered by the effects
of radiation.
In selecting
transistors for resistance to
radiation, the PNP Germanium
(Ge) transistor is the least
susceptible to radiation damage.
The damage constant for this
type transistor is in the order
of 4 x 107 nvt.*
Tunnel diodes can withstand
a greater amount of radiation

than the best transistors.

The radiation resistance of
tunnel diodes also appears to
be higher than some tubes,
especially glass envelope
types. Tunnel diodes using
Gallium Arsenide (Ga As)
are better than Ge or Silicon
(Si) diodes in this respect.
Many materials for shielding
components from the effects
of nuclear radiation are now
being developed and evaluated.
For example, epoxy resins
loaded with lead or iron have
been produced for this purpose
and are now commercially
available in rod and sheet

stock, or in liquid form as

casting resins . Platings,
coatings, or dispersions of
boron and cadmium in a
binder material are also
being used for protection
against radiation.
Certain inorganic materials,
such as ceramics and carbides,
are superior in performance
to many organic materials
such as polyethylene,
polystyrene, nylon, neoprene,
polyvinyl chloride butyl rubber,
Kel-F, and Teflon, which are
adversely affected by prolonged
or excessive radiation and
6-3

OP

2230

should not be used for shielding

against radiation.
When nuclear radiation is a
potential problem, components
and shielding materials should
be selected which are known to
be unaffected by radiation, or
which have been tested under

specific service conditions which

involve exposure to radiation.
6.2 USE OF ADVANCED- DESIGN

ITEMS

The preceding paragraphs on

selection criteria recommended

that equipment designers use

specification items wherever

possible, but they are not intended
to discourage the selection of
products of advanced design which,
although not yet covered by
specifications, have distinct
Existing specifica
advantages.
tions may be used as a pattern for
tests to determine suitability.
6.3 LOCATION OF PARTS
The location of parts in
equipment should be determined
by careful evaluation of operating
conditions, such as temperature,
shock, vibration, accessibility,
and circuit requirements.
Heat Transfer
Parts generating heat should

6.3.1

be placed to

allow good heat dissi

Parts subject

to
pation.
deterioration at high temperatures
should be located in the coolest
spots available. A frequent
design fault is to locate
electrolytic capacitors in
proximity to electron

tube

rectifiers.

Sequential

layout of parts in accordance

with circuit diagram often
neglects heat protection. The
result is shortened service life
of the equipment.

6-4

Electron tubes develop con

siderable heat and bulb

temperatures are usually quite
high. Although some of this
heat is conducted from the tube
through the base, the greater
portion is dissipated by
radiation. Electron tubes
should be located near a panel
or at the side of the equipment
enclosure to utilize these
surfaces as a heat sink.
A reflective surface is some
times used as a heat deflector
to protect individual parts,
but decrease of reflection with
age lessens its usefulness.
The internal temperature
of totally enclosed parts such
as transformers may be quite
high, so all possible means for
rapid heat dissipation must be
provided. Electron tubes should
be located no closer to the
housings of such units than is
absolutely necessary.
Coils, tuning capacitors, and
other frequency-determining
elements should be located away
from surfaces which are subject
to large fluctuations in temperature,
Additional information on
heat transfer can be found in 3.1.
6.3.1.1 Cooling Resistors . When
several resistors are located in
close proximity to each other,

the spacing between them should

be as great as possible to allow
for heat dissipation. If the
resistors are mounted on the
vertical plane in a chassis,
as is commonly done to con

serve space, their axes should

preferably be vertical. If
it is not possible to mount them
with the axes vertical, the
resistor bodies should be
staggered to allow adequate
cooling, as illustrated below .

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

<

d
pi

A
&

rA

i^-

k-4

ft

PREFERRED

SATISFACTORY

AVOID
SPACING OF RESISTORS
Additional design techniques
that may be utilized to provide
effective cooling of resistors
are as follows:
a.

b.

c.
d.

Clamp resistors to a

heat sink
Use short leads
Mount resistors in

free-

flowing air
Mount single resistors
over 5 inches in length

vertically

6.3.1.2 Cooling Semiconductor

Devices

Semiconductor

devices are usually required

to operate in small enclosures

with critical parts subjected to

high current densities. The
low thermal mass gives very
little heat storage capacity so
that knowledge and control of
circuit conditions is needed to
stay within the overload
capacities of the device.

Semiconductor devices are

easily damaged by voltage
surges and should be protected
from such transients . In
addition, consideration should
be given to protecting semi
conductor devices in case of
sudden faults elsewhere in
the

circuit.

the

primary side of the power

Voltage Surges : Voltage

surges will occur when either

transformer or the load is

switched on or off. In the case
of power amplifiers, surges
can occur as large currents are
interrupted when either the
excitation or the load is removed
while power is still supplied.
In some cases the interrupting
switch can be selected to be
slow acting . Otherwise, energy
storage and dissipative elements
must protect the semiconductor
device: for example, a

6-5

OP

2230

capacitor-resistor series circuit

or zener diode in parallel with

the device.

Fault Protection: Current

limiting fuses or electronic
circuit breakers should be
provided to protect semiconductor
devices against possible faults
elsewhere in the circuit.
Most semiconductor devices
are able to absorb a definite
amount of transient energy
prior to fuse blowout. This
energy is given by the manu
facturer as an I^t rating. A
fuse with a lower total rating
can then be specified for
protection. For data on specific
ratings, the designer
should refer to curves or other
data published by the fuse
manufacturer .
Power Dissipation:
Inadequate cooling of semi
conductor devices may result
in permanent damage through
melting or temporary malfunction
because of internal crystal

It

changes .
Many high-power devices

are supplied with integrallymounted cooling surfaces (see

illustration) complete with
manufacturer's data giving
temperature rise vs. dissipation
(thermal resistance) for that
particular assembly. The sum
of ambient plus maximum rise
must not exceed the rated
operating temperature of the
device .
In many cases, the designer
may have to attach cooling

surfaces to semiconductors
which do not have built-in
provisions for cooling. Small
transistor cases can be
supplied with heat-conducting
caps; the style with spring
finger and mounting screws in

6-6

is most effective,
typically providing 5 degrees
C/watt thermal resistance
when mounted on a 6 x 7 x
.09 inch aluminum plate, and
40 degrees C/watt on a 2-1/4 x
4-1/4 inch printed circuit board.
the cap

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

At medium power levels the
mounting form is often as shown

in the illustration below.

Here,

electrical
insulating washer is illustrated.

the use of an

All

medium-to-high power semi

conductors have the cooling
surface electrically connected
to one of the terminals to obtain
maximum thermal conductivity.

MACHINE
SCREWS

POWER
TRANSISTOR
INSULATING
WASHER

CLEARANCE
HOLES

HEAT SINK
CLEARANCE
HOLES
SOCKET

TRANSISTOR MOUNTING
At higher levels the device
usually has the form of a
large stud which provides

both the
the

electrical

and

thermal conducting

path.

6-7

OP

2230

If it is necessary to mount
semiconductor on a single
plate or fin to provide sufficient
dissipation of heat and manu
facturer's data is not available,
the following relations can be
used. The rate of heat flow,
q, per unit time from the fin
to the ambient air is given by:
a

hA 7t (Ts - Ta) in watts

the quantity obtained from the

nomogram should be reduced
by 25%, the vertical length
then should be taken as the
average of the side lengths.
The effect of altitude is to reduce
the nomogram result by 25%
at 15,000 feet and 50% at

36,000 feet.

AT

TEMP0>iH.HENCE
TOAIR
SURFACE

COEF
CONVECTION
WTTS

where Ts and Ta are maximum

fin temperature and ambient
temperature respectively in
degrees C; A is the area,
is a "size effectiveness"
factor, and
is the sum of
radiation (hr) and convection
(hc) heat transfer coefficients.
Methods for determining
these factors are outlined

VERTICAL
LENGTH
OF FIN
INCHES

"Jn

rOOT

1.47 x

'T8

Ta

10~10

(1-F)
watts

hr

below .
The radiation transfer
coefficient (hr) for a single
fin of surface emissivity
.9 is given by:

273^3

emissivity,

in2oc

6-8

"

is 0.7 to
0.9 for anodized aluminum,
0.85 to 0.91 for air drying
enamel (any color), 0.92 to
0.96 for oil paints (any color),
0.95 for lampblack in shellac,
and 0.89 to 0.93 for varnish.
F is a shielding factor due to
stacking. For single unstacked
fins, F can be taken as zero.
The free convection transfer
coefficient (hc) can be obtained
from the nomogram for a
vertical fin shown below. If
the fin or plate is horizontal,
The

"2
-IS

If forced convection is used

rather than free convection, the
convection transfer coefficient
(hc) becomes

hc

11.2

JLi

io-4 watts/in2/C

velocity of air flow in ft/min

inches of fin

parallel to flow

This equation is based on

laminar (non- turbulent) air flow
which exists for smooth fins.
In the event the air flow across
the fin surface becomes turbulent,
the heat transfer is improved,
However, turbulent air flow

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

places a higher power require
ment on the main ventilating
system.
Finally, the factor 7^ is
given in the nomogram below with
numbers encircled to indicate the
sequence of solution. After a
point on column "Cis obtained

hr 4- hc deter mined
the line connecting
C and b is projected to the
edge of the TX. chart. A
vertical line from the D/d axis
and h (h

above),

and the horizontal line from

the above mentioned projec
tion on the edge of the 1\ chart
define a value for TV. .

by moving through the columns

8-FIN THICKNESS

-0.8

O.T

-0.5
0.4

o.z
INCHES

8 * FIN THICKNESS,INCHES
h SURFACE HEAT
TRANSFER COEFFICENT
11" FIN EFFECTIVENESS
TURNINGLINE
d EFFECTIVE DIAMETER
OF HEX

ROUND FIN
D-d
b -T-

SQUARE FIN

The heat -sink thermal

resistance (Rjj) can be expressed
mathematically in terms of h,

A,

and

7\.
1

as:

C/watt.

The

hA n.
total thermal resistance
from semiconductor junction
to ambient is the sum of the
device resistance (RD) (confined

to the device case or stud

b 0.564 E
d/2
D-EFFECTIVE DIAMETER
OF FIN- I.I28E

surface), the insulator (if used),

thermal resistance, and the
heat-sink resistance

'

RATIO

D/d

"I

'

10

It is often necessary to
supply electrical insulation
between the semiconductor
case and heat-sink . Common
insulating washer materials
are mica, bonded fiberglass
and anodized aluminum.
Mica is most frequently used.
The theoretical thermal
resistance of mica is 0.067C

in^/watt-mil.

By using a

mica insulating washer the

overall thermal resistance
may be increased up to a
factor of 5 . If specific
6-9

OP

2230

information is not available, the

resistance of the insulator
used should be measured.
Where the possibility of
corrosion exists between the

semiconductor case and the

heat-sink (if directly mounted),
the case should be plated with
nickel or silver and corrosion
inhibitor applied. A pressure
Belleville spring washer should

be used between stud nuts and

the heat- sink to account for

differential thermal expansion

of case relative to the heat-sink.

Care should be taken to insure
that there are no defects to
prevent uniform contact between
heat-sink and semiconductor
case. Nuts should be tightened
with a torque wrench to manu

facturer's specification.

Silicone
grease should be applied to the
interface before joining, since
a dry interface may increase
the total thermal resistance
by 10 to 40 percent.
An example is given below
to illustrate how the principles
discussed above are used to
provide sufficient dissipation
of heat for a typical semi
conductor installation. Assume
that an assembly must be
arranged to properly cool a
stud- mounted semi-conductor
operating at 20 watts continuously
in a 60 degree C ambient. The
semiconductor is to be mounted
by a 2-mil mica washer to an
aluminum he at- sink of unknown
size in free air. The maximum
junction temperature must be
less than 80 degrees C with a
junction-to-stud thermal
resistance of 0.5 C/watt. The
effective hex area is 3 in2
with a 1/2 inch stud.
As previously stated, the
total thermal resistance

6-10

is given by R,p . RI) 4. RI +RH

where RD represents device
to stud, RI insulator, and
Reheat- sink-to- air thermal
resistance. .The temperature
differential, ^ T (maximum
junction temperature minus
ambient temperature) is given
by AT . PRx Solving for
RT yields RT = AT =20 C

watts
lC/watt. Since RQ is given
as 0.5C/watt, Rj + RH must
p~

20

0.5oC/watt. Using the

theoretical thermal resistance
for mica (0.067C in2/watt-mil)
and assuming a well greased, tight
be

joint,
=

2mil x .067C-in2
mil
watt- mil

.05C/watt.

Thus RJJ must be iO.45 C/watt.

Assume that available
space permits the use of a
horizontal 4x4 inch aluminum
plate, 0.25 inch thick. To
obtain the best

emissivity, the

fin will be painted black except

under the washer. To compute
hr, the surface temperature
(T8) must be known.
This is- given by T8 = 80 C - 20
watts x (0.5C/watt) = 70C . The
radiation transfer coefficient
(hr) is then .0055

From

watts/in2C.

free convection
nomogram hc a .0027 x 75% s
the

.002 watts

/in2C.

The

total h = .0075 watts/ in2C.

To enter the TV, diagram, the
values for b and D/d must be
calculated as defined on the
diagram. From the diagram,
b . 2.26 - .25 . 2.0 in. and
D/d s 1.13 x 4 - 9. The h column
T5~~

is entered at .0075 and a line

is drawn across / - 0.25 in. to
B 0.1 in. From b = 2.0 inch,
ex.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

another line is drawn back
through tx. - 0.1 to the T\ chart
where the point of intersection
with the left edge of the chart
is noted and a horizontal line
drawn across the chart through
the point. A vertical line is
drawn up from D/d - 9 (off the
chart in this case) and 1\ 0.96
is taken as the estimated
crossing point of the horizontal
and vertical lines just drawn.
Using the above determined
values, the heat-sink thermal
resistance can be calculated:
1

hAT\.
i
.109

too

.0074 x

16

x .96

- 9.2C/watt.

This value is about 20 times

large. An acceptable solution

could be obtained by one of the

following expedients -- increasing
the size of the plate, employing
forced convection, stacking
additional fins thermally bonded
to the first, or choosing a
semiconductor with a higher
allowed junction temperature .
6.3.1.3 Cooling Electron Tubes
Cooling to prevent overheating
will considerably increase the
life of electron tubes .

6.3.1.3.1 Natural Air Cooling.

heat more efficiently than

the so called JAN shield.

DC

MTTU

CONDUCTION SHIELD
The shield illustrated below,
(known as a JAN shield)
although intended to absorb
the heat and conduct it away
from the tube, actually raises
the operating temperature above
that of the tube operating
without a shield.

The conduction shield, illustrated

below, has vertical slots equally
spaced around the periphery to
allow air to contact the surface
of the tube . Heat is removed
by convection from the portion
of the tube exposed to the air.
Part of the heat emitted by
the tube is removed by conduc
tion through the metal shield.
This type of shield dissipates

JAN SHIELD
As illustrated below, to
provide satisfactory cooling,
JAN shields in existing electronic
equipment may be replaced
during maintenance or overhaul
with type R shields specified
in MIL-S-19786A (Navy).
6-11

OP

2230

FINGERS

TYPE

SHIELD

RADIATION-CONVECTION

6.3.1.3.2 Forced-Air Cooling.

A. Cross-Flow Cooling - A
tube shield for cross-flow

cooling must have slots or windows

around the periphery to allow the
air to contact the tube surface, as
illustrated previously by the
conduction shield. Otherwise,
the shield must be fitted with
a metal liner or fingers, similar
to the type R shield shown above,
in order to insure adequate

glass-to-metal contact for

the

removal of heat by conduction

to the air stream. However,
during operation, conduction
shields radiate heat to
surrounding objects and should
not be used near other tubes or
temperature-sensitive parts.
Radiation-convection shields,
illustrated below, should be used
on tubes which must be mounted
near temperature- sensitive
components since they do not
as hot as conduction

become

shields

6-12

SHIELDS

B. Parallel-Flow Cooling Shields with metal liners

(conduction, JAN, and radiationconvection) serve efficiently for
parallel-flow forced- air cooling

because they guide the air

around the tube surface and
increase the turbulence of the
air stream. An example of
this type of cooling is shown on
page 6-13 . Slotted plastic
inserts in the miniature tube
sockets act as nozzles for the
cooling air. The chassis must
be

closed and relatively air

tight to serve effectively as a

plenum for the forced air .
All types of tube shield designs
should have the inner surface
which contacts the tube envelope
blackened to produce a high
absorbent surface. Blackening
is important to prevent the
rise in plate temperature which
results from reflection of radiant
energy back to the plate . All
shield designs should be
checked to insure that plate

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

TUBE SOCKET
TOP VIEW

FORCED COOLING SOCKET

FORCED AIR

LOUVERED

7 V
i

V^

v*

U
3

1 1

*i

r/

MAIN CHASSIS

i
!
I

i
i
i

\\
i
i

COVER

BLOWER

SERVES AS AIR PLENUM SUPPLY DUCT

FORCED- AIR COOLING SOCKET ON

CONVENTIONAL PAN CHASSIS TYPE EQUIPMENT

6-13

OP

2230

temperatures of shielded tubes

are lower than corresponding
temperature in bare-bulb
operation.

6.3.2 Circuit Considerations

A satisfactory parts layout
is more readily achieved if the
circuit is sectionalized. Location

of the individual sections is

determined by operation, wiring,
and heat dissipation requirements.
Associated parts should be
located adjacent to each other
in a functional sequence

consistent with temperature

considerations.
If separate
sections are used, the cabling
requirements will be limited
to input, output, and supply
leads . Leads within each section
will be short; common coupling
impedances will be reduced;
stray fields can be minimized;
and a more satisfactory ground
return will be provided. Inputs
and outputs of subassemblies
should be of low impedance for
easy interconnection.
A direct-current power
supply section might be
arranged as follows: transformer
and choke oriented for minimum

hum

fields;

the

rectifier tube

placed close to the side of the

enclosure; filter capacitors,
voltage dividers, and resistor
mounting boards placed close
together. Suppressors and
line filters would also be
included.
In a manually tuned oscillatoramplifier arrangement, the
section usually contains coil
switches, coils, and variable
Tubes
and fixed capacitors.
are mounted independently;
short leads connect to the
variable capacitors .
Undesirable circuit coupling

6-14

may be minimized by proper

spacing or by the use of

individual shields .
In general, transistor
circuits are more tolerant of
wiring capacitance than tube

circuits because of the

considerably lower impedance

levels normally employed.
Circuit layout to minimize
capacitance is still desirable
for high-performance computer
switches. Usually, the most
important area in which to
maintain low capacitance in
layout is the path between
collector and base. High
performance transistors in the
emitter-follower configuration
may oscillate because of the
above mentioned feedback path
if the collector by-pass

capacitor is too far from the

collector or has high rf
impedance, and the emitter
drives a capacitance or tuned

circuit.

Other undesired modes are

possible with emitter-follower

circuits, some depending on

excess capacitance between

collector and emitter. One
effective means of removing all
modes has been to thread one or
more small ferrite cores around
the emitter lead. The cores have
a large damping characteristic
at high frequencies .
In high-current, high-frequency
applications, transistors may

show such a low impedance

that short, heavy wire runs to
minimize lead inductance are

generally required. It is
possible to degrade the perform
ance of certain r-f power
amplifiers by an extra inch of
unbypassed wire . A single
lead above ground plane may have 30
to 50 nanohenries /inch inductance.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

Tunnel diode performance
depends strongly on series
inductance and shunt capacitance
presented to it by the external

circuit. For this reason, UHF

circuits must be
carefully positioned, usually in
and microwave

stripline configuration.

For

the same reason, tunnel- diode

low-frequency circuits often

oscillate in an uncontrolled
fashion because the layout did
not include a local rf circuit
around the tunnel diode.

6.3.3 Clearances

Equipments are required to

be as compact as possible,
consistent with reliable
performance and ease of
servicing. Small compact
units usually withstand shock
and vibration better than

larger units

Parts may be
closely spaced if access to

leakage and corona must be

guarded against. Means should

provided to eliminate any

corona which is detectable at
voltages up to 25 percent
above normal. Shields in
the form of rounded, polished
metal caps or balls are
frequently effective in
eliminating corona.
be

6.3.4 Accessibility
The following criteria for
accessibility should be
considered in locating

components . Components
should be placed so that:

a.

b.

soldering irons, and

other required tools

fastenings and mountings is

provided. Mountings should
not be obstructed by wiring
unless such wiring can be

readily moved without

detrimental effects.
Close spacing of components
is usually possible in lowimpedance circuits . With highimpedance circuits, undesirable

electrical coupling between

components prohibits close
spacing unless parts are

properly oriented or
electrostatic and magnetic
shielding is provided. Shields
are provided on many parts,
but for resistors and capacitors,
simple electrostatic shields
usually suffice.
Parts which carry high
voltages require adequate
separation. Surfaces of
conductors should be polished
and well rounded. At potentials
greater than 5000 volts, both

They are accessible

without removing other

parts and subassemblies .
There is sufficient space
to use test probes,
.

c. Structural members of

do not prevent
access to these components,
d. They will not be damaged
during maintenance.
Internal controls, such as
switches and adjustment
screws, should not be located
close to dangerous voltages .
If "blind" screwdriver

units

adjustments must be made,

safety guides should be

provided.

6.4 MOUNTING OF PARTS

Lead-Supported Parts
Resistors and capacitors

6.4.1

should be mounted by their

leads on terminal boards
whenever circuit impedance
and

mechanical strength

permit. Component leads should

not be attached to tube- socket

lugs unless such mounting is

mandatory for circuit

performance .

6-15

OP

2230

Rectangular capacitors mounted

on edge should be adequately
spaced to enable easy reading of
code markings .
Bending of component part
leads can be a critical factor
in the mounting of parts . Leads
should always be bent using
round nose pliers or other tools
having a rounded edge. Sharp
edged tools or overly sharp
bends can cause nicks or other
defects on the surface of the
lead, which may result in
A
breakage under vibration.
minimum bend radius of approxi
mately 0.03 inch should be used
on all leads .
Component parts associated with
printed wiring should be mounted
singly on the side of the board
opposite the conductor pattern
and in either the vertical or
horizontal plane to reduce the need

for circuit cross-over. If

cross-overs are required,

however, to achieve the required

component layout, wires may
be used. Such wires should be
treated as electronic components .
(See also 3.7 .2.2) .
If several part leads terminate
at a common junction, each lead
should be mounted individually
in one of the holes which are
grouped on the board to form the
junction. This eliminates the
necessity for unsoldering
additional leads when only one
part requires replacement.
Part replacement should not
call for special tools . Flushmounted or multiple- contact
parts should be avoided, as
they are difficult to replace.
The component part lead
spacing specified in MIL-P-21193
(NOrd) is on a grid system of
0.1 inch. Where high part
density is required, the grid

6-16

system may be reduced in

increments of 0.025 inch. When
mounting axial-lead parts, it
is often advisable to allow for
additional length in the over-all
mounting dimension to compensate
for component body variations.
Special care is necessary to
prevent the altering of part
values while straightening,
cutting, bending, inserting,
or clinching component leads .
When the leads of axial-lead
or pigtail parts must be clinched
to a printed wiring board, the
following procedures are recom
mended:
a. The clinched end on the
opposite side of insertion
should follow the direction
of the conductor pattern.
b. At least 1/16 inch of the
clinched end should lie
on and in the direction of

c.

d.

e .

conductor.
Minimum required con

the

ductor spacing should be

maintained between
clinched lead ends and
non- connected conductor
patterns .
The clinch should give the
part enough rigid support
and mechanical bond to
permit a good solder joint.
The minimum length of
straight lead required,
measured from the part

body to the first bend,

should be sufficient to
prevent physical or
electrical damage to

axial-lead parts

The component body should

never be mounted so that it is in
contact with printed conductors

or the following serious

difficulties may arise:
a. Current leakage may occur
since some component

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

b.
c

markings, such as
tolerance bands on carbon
composition resistors,
are relatively conductive.
Harmful capacitive or
inductive effects may

result.
Circuit operation may

be impaired by entrapped
flux and other contaminants

6.4.1.1 Axial- Lead Type. Parts

weighing not more than 1/2 ounce

may be mounted by the leads

In this case the distance
between the body of the part and
each terminal should be from 1/4
to 1/2 inch.
Leads should extend straight
out at least 1/8 inch beyond the
body since most vibration failures
occur at the junction of lead and
body where flexure stress is

Heavy parts mounted in

fuse-type clips should not
be snapped into place in the
clips because this may damage
the parts. A screw driver
or other appropriate tool
should be used to spread the
clips to facilitate insertion
of the parts without
exerting excessive force

on them,
below .

as

illustrated

alone.

greatest. This practice will

also prevent breakage of the
seal between the lead and body.
A small smooth loop free of
nicks, near the terminal, is
satisfactory for limiting
tension in leads.

MOUNTING IN FUSE-TYPE CLIP

Parts should not be mounted

on other parts unless circuit

requirements so dictate.
Approval is generally required

for such practice.

MOUNTING BY AXIAL LEADS

6-17

OP

2230

MOUNTING OF RESISTORS AND TUBULAR CAPACITORS

PREFERRED

a. One-quarter to one-half
inch distance between body of
part and terminal
b. Tight, 3/4 to one turn
lead wrap
c. Small loop present in
component lead
d. Maximum of three
connections per terminal
e. Component resting on

board

PREFERRED

a. One-quarter to one-half
inch distance between body of
part and terminal
b. Tight, 3/4 to one turn
lead wrap
c. Small loop present in
component lead
d. Component connected at
top of terminal; hook-up wire
connected at bottom
e. Part numbers visible
f. Component resting on
board

6-18

AVOID

a. Distance between body of

part and terminal not within
limits of one-quarter to onehalf inch
b. Insufficient wrap of
component lead
c. Small loop omitted in
component lead
d. Too many connections

per terminal

e. Component not resting

on board
AVOID

a. Distance between body of

part and terminal not within
limits of one-quarter to onehalf inch
b. Insufficient wrap of
component lead
c. Small loop omitted in
component lead

d. Component connected at
bottom of terminal; hook-up
wire at top

e. Part numbers obscured

f . Component not resting
on board

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

AVOID

PREFERRED

Heavy component mounted

Heavy component (over one-

without clip

half ounce) mounted with clip

RIGID INSULATING

MATERIAL TO RIGID
INSULATING

RIGID INSULATION
TO CONDUCTING
SURFACE

MATERIAL

RIGID
INSULATING

MATERIAL

TO NON-

INSULATED
HARDWARE

NON-RIGID
INSULATION
TO CONDUCTING
SURFACE

resistors

and printed- circuit

assemblies of the radiallead type require mechanical
clamping .

The poor mounting practices

used in the terminal board
shown above should be avoided.

6.4.1.2 Radial-Lead Type.

Radial-lead mounting is

characterized by low mechanical

resonant frequencies. It is
not recommended unless the
leads are rigid enough to raise
these frequencies above 100 cps

Certain miniature parts with

short leads and small body mass
Large
meet this requirement.
parts such as wire-wound

CLAMP IMPROVES MOUNTING

6-19

OP

2230

6.4.1.3 Semiconductor Type.

Transistors and other semicon
ducting devices

may be mounte

with standard subminiature

transistor or tube sockets, or
may be soldered permanently
in the circuit .
The long leads usually
supplied with transistors must
be clipped when using sockets,
as shown.

Transistors, solid-state
diodes, and other heat- sensitive
components must be soldered
carefully to prevent damage.

The leads may be cut to any

convenient length, but normally
should be left as long as
practicable. Sharp bends in
the leads close to the component
body should be avoided. A hot,
clean, well- tinned soldering
iron with a small tip should be
used, and should not be over
heated. A heat sink is required
to minimize heat transfer to the
component during soldering.
The use of a metal clip as a
heat sink is illustrated. Another
equally satisfactory method of
dissipating heat during installa

tion of semiconducting devices is

grasp the lead being soldered
with a pair of long-nose pliers
to

at a point between the body of

the component and the connection

terminal. The part should be

MOUNTING TRANSISTORS
IN SOCKETS

clamped (by any approved

means) after soldering if the
equipment is to be subjected to

vibration.

SEMICONDUCTOR

METAL CLIP
SOLDERING
IRON

TERMINAL
BOARD

6-20

SOLDERING TRANSISTORS

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

Most soldering irons have
enough

leakage voltage to damage

For this reason,

frame of a soldering iron

transistors.
the

should be grounded to the equip

ment chassis when transistors
or transistor circuits are being

soldered, or a three-wire
soldering iron or gun with the
third wire grounded should be
used. Alternating-current test
equipment should be grounded for

reasons when transistor

circuitry is being tested.

the same

As an additional precaution,

the leads of the transistor

should not be held in the hand
because the capacity of the
human body may be charged
through the transistor and
result in permanent damage
to the

part.

Mounting
below .

of diodes is shown

MOUNTING OF DIODES
AVOID

PREFERRED

a.

Leads dressed to clear diode

can

a.

b. Service tab present on lead

c. Diode mounted lead side up

b.
c.

e.

e .

d.

Leads connected at top of

terminal
Polarity marked on board

d.

Tight leads; touching diode

can

Service tab omitted on lead

Diode mounted lead side down

Leads connected at bottom
of terminal
Polarity not marked on board

6.4.1.4 Mounting Boards and

Terminals. Mounting boards,
used for mounting lead- supported
parts, are usually rectangular

and equipped with mounting

terminals for ease in connecting

.wires or components . Mounting

terminals are spaced to provide
at least 1/8 inch between adjacent
components to provide for circula
tion of air about the parts .

MOUNTING BOARDS
6-21

OP

2230

Shock and vibration require

ments necessitate closely spaced
board-to-chassis mounting studs.
Adequate clearance must be
provided between board mounting
screws and circuit components.
Mounting terminals should be
of solid metal suitably annealed
for secure seating of material
into terminal boards . An
adequately shouldered shank with
a double- shouldered or split
stem is recommended.

Where a board of molded

material is mounted flat against
a chassis, a compliant nonmetallic sheet gasket between
board and chassis will minimize
stress concentrations around
the holes .

SATISFACTORY

MOUNTING TERMINALS

Mounting boards should be

fastened with machine screws
threading into tapped spacers
affixed to the chassis. Spacer

studs should be long enough

to permit maximum accessibility

during servicing, and circulation

of air. As a rule, vertical or
cantilever mounting should be

AVOID
MOUNTING BOARD INSTALLATION

avoided.

Screws of ample size, with

flat washers, are used at board
edges. Where a board is long
or flexible, additional supports
are necessary to prevent
warpage and damage by vibration,
Mounting holes should be located
at least three times the screw
diameter from the edge of the
board. No. 8 screws are the
minimum size for most
applications .

6-22

Where ceramic or other

stiff material is used

as a

mounting board, two-point mounts

are usually satisfactory, unless

large areas are to be supported.

Three-point mounts may be
used, providing undue stresses
are not introduced.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

where torsional stress is
low but long slender parts so
mounted are subject to severe
strain under shock and

METAL SPACER

>

CERAMIC

vibration.
Mountings with
resonant frequencies below
100 cps should be avoided.

SOFT WASHER

METAL WASHER
MOUNTING CERAMIC MATERIAL

Properties

to be considered
selection of materials for
mounting boards are strength,
water absorption, softening
temperature, dielectric strength,
power factor, arcing products,
fungus resistance, warpage,
and resistance to aging.
Melamine-bonded glass
cloth, Specification MIL- P- 15037,
is preferred for component mount
ing boards, especially where
high-impedance circuits are
involved. For high temperatures ,
silicone-glass laminate,
Specification MIL- P- 997, is
preferred. The use of phenolic
materials should be limited to
low-voltage, low-impedance
applications . For high voltages
(over 500 volts) and radio
frequencies, ceramic materials
are more reliable.
Insulation that is not moisture
and fungus resistant should not
be used. Cotton, paper, or woodfilled materials are particularly
susceptible, and their use
should be avoided.

in

the

6.4.2

Body-Supported Parts

6.4.2.1 Single-Hole Mountings.

Single-hole

mountings

are adequate

SINGLE -HOLE MOUNTING

To withstand torsional stress,

bolt and nut sizes must be

much larger than for multiplepoint mountings. Switches,

controls, and similar parts

which require rotary motion
for operation must be provided
with positioning lugs.

CONTROL WITH POSITIONING LUG

Mounting rods on rotary

controls should be of adequate
length and area. The panel hole
should be made to fit the panel

bushing without too much play.

A double lock nut provides
the most secure fastenting.

6-23

OP

2230

Accommodation for variations

in panel thickness should be
made by means of bushings

or flat washers . Toothed

lock washers should be avoided.

CLAMP MOUNTINGS
Large capacitors and other
parts not provided with
satisfactory mountings should
be firmly secured by auxiliary
clamps

CONTROL AND SWITCH MOUNTINGS

6.4.2.2 Clamp Mounting . Axial

or radial lead parts weighing more

than 1/2 ounce must be constrained

by suitable clamping.

6-24

SATISFACTORY
(AUXILIARY CLAMP)

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

are used, additional clearance
should be provided to allow
for variations in hole, stud,
or nut location.

v
A
PREFERRED
(MOUNTING PROVIDED)
6.4.2.3 Machine-Screw Mounting,
Mounting of parts with machine
screws facilitates disassembly
under service conditions . Care
fully selected fasteners , properly
tightened, improve resistance to
shock and vibration. Mounting
studs integral with the part are
recommended, but nuts attached
to the part or the chassis may
be used.
A bolt, nut, and washer
assembly is often used,
particularly where holes and
mating parts are difficult to
align; but assembly is more

difficult because these are

separate from other parts, and

additional faying surfaces are
introduced. Screws should be
large enough to prevent motion.
Clearance should be adequate
for alignment, location, and
replacement of parts and
fasteners. Hole sizes should
be ample, and where mating
holes, studs, or secured nuts

AVOID INACCESSIBLE MOUNTINGS

Where holes are greatly
oversized, or mating surfaces
are irregular, the bearing
surface may not withstand
the forces exerted by the
screws. In such cases, larger
washers may be used. Parts
should have smooth,

rigid

clamping surfaces. In
bolting soft plastic and
similar materials which may
cold-flow under stress,
ample bearing areas should
be provided.
Mounting two items by one
screw makes disassembly
difficult. A part held by one
small screw will usually
loosen, and such mounting

does not have an adequate

safety factor. See chapter 4
for design of threaded fasteners,
and chapter 2 for additional
mounting practices .

6.4.2.4 Special Mountings.

Twist lugs, tabs, or ears

6-25

OP

2230

should not be used for mounting

parts except in expendable
equipment. Such projections
are easily broken during
replacement of parts.

Sheet metal nuts and selftapping screws are apt to

loosen easily, and should not
be used in military equipment.

Rivets are excellent fasteners,

but should not be used to fasten

parts likely to require replacement.

place during shock and vibration.

Large pins and sockets are
The parts, compo
preferable.
nents, and supports should be

readily accessible for removal.

Piloting guides or pins are
required to aid in proper
positioning .
JAN tube shields provide
adequate retainers for miniature
tubes. Unless closely fitted,
tube shields have a tendency
to increase the envelope
temperature . Post and "tophat" types of retainers allow
free dissipation of heat and
a more positive retention of
tube

TUBE SHIELD AND RETAINER

AVOID TAB OR TWIST-LUG MOUNTS

6.4.3 Plug-In Mounting

Plug-in parts include vacuum

tubes, electrolytic capacitors,

and relays . Modular units,
plug-in amplifiers , and
similar devices containing
subminiature tubes are
finding increased use because
To
they are easy to replace.
allow for manufacturing devia
tions , some "float", or
looseness in plugs and sockets,
must be provided.
Plug-in items should have
auxiliary supports to reduce
lateral stresses in plugs and
sockets, which keep them in

6-26

The comparatively large

mass of hermetically sealed
plug-in units necessitates the
use of mounting studs or posts
and

top-hat clamps.

PLUG-IN UNIT WITH STUDS

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

Parts having ferrule or
threaded ends, such as fuses
and resistors , require clamps
similar to fuse clips. Such
mountings should be carefully
evaluated for behavior under
shock loads . Large parts
having ferrule ends should be
secured by auxiliary locking
devices .

PLUG-IN UNIT WITH CLAMP

Base-gripping clamps may
used for cylindrical items,
such as capacitors, vibrators,
and crystal holders, if the
center of gravity is located
near the chassis. The positive
clamp holds securely, but the
spring type should engage a
shoulder or rib on the

be

component

APPROVED

FUSE MOUNTINGS

6.4.4 Standoff Mountings

Standoff mountings provide

clearance between chassis and

circuit elements

.
Such
mountings are used in highvoltage circuits to reduce
unde sired capacitance and
to minimize magnetic coupling .
Standoffs are base mounted
and usually have low mechanical

POSITIVE CLAMPS

resonant frequencies .
Mechanical resonance can
be raised above 100 cps by
using short pillars and broad

base mounts .
Conical standoffs of
relatively large base diameter
are preferred. The larger
base distributes stresses
over a greater area and raises

UNACCEPTABLE
6-27

OP

2230

the

resonant frequency.

Various

shapes and sizes are described

in applicable military standards.

TAPPED HOLES
MULTIPLE-HOLE STANDOFF
Pillars for coil mounts should
be as short as possible for
reliable performance since
their mechanical strength is
low.

GASKET

In most applications,

not exceed the radius of the

coil. Unless quite short, pillars
should be mounted horizontally
and supported at both ends .

CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL

STANDOFFS

Standoffs having multiple hole

mountings resist torsional
loosening better than do singlehole mountings .

AVOID

CEMENT

MULTIPLE-HOLE STANDOFF
MOUNTING

6-28

the

coil-to-chassis distance need

PREFERRED

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

When vertical standoff is required,
as for a shield-can application, a
wafer, fitting closely inside the

shield-can, should

be used

for

stiffening. Pillars made of

inorganic materials, such as
mica-filled phenolics , should
have metallic mounting
bushings molded into the ends.

In mounting materials such as

ceramic and glass, stress-relief
washers of such materials as
soft copper, mica, or treated
fiber, are required to prevent
rupture. Lead washers must
not be used because cold-flow
may cause loosening of the
part. Appreciable bending
stresses should be avoided.

WAFER
LOCK NUTS

METAL

STANDOFF

WASHER
CUSHION

CERAMIC

STIFFENED VERTICAL STANDOFF

Ceramic posts are used exten
sively as supports for electronic
parts .
CERAMIC

METAL

INSERT

MATERIAL

MOUNTING CERAMIC MATERIALS

MARKING OF PARTS

6.5
6.5.1
and

Reference Designations

Part Identification

For maintenance purposes,

it is necessary that all parts in
an equipment be identified so
they may be readily located.
Each part shown on a
schematic diagram should be
identified by a designation
referring to parts descriptions
given elsewhere on the diagram.
The wiring diagram prepared
in accordance with the schematic
diagram^ should

carry designa

tions for wires, sockets, plugs,

receptacles and similar parts.
Standard designations given
in military standards consist
of various combinations of
letters and numbers .
CERAMIC POSTS
6-29

OP

2230

terminals of an enclosed
assembly are marked, and
complexity of the assembly
warrants, a concise wiring
diagram affixed to the unit is
desirable in servicing.

QQQQQQ
LIOI

Terminals

on

all apparatus

parts, except those for which

connections are self-evident,
should be suitably marked. The
wiring diagram should include
all terminal markings.
Mechanical parts which may
require replacement should
carry standard designations .
Frames, brackets, levers,
bearings, pulleys, and similar
parts may be marked by molding
or stamping during manufacture.
Fastenings are seldom marked.
and

LIO

IOI

RIOI
CRIOI

VW
RIO2

VIOI
CIO3
QQQOQO

TIOI
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

REFERENCE DESIGNATIONS

On semifixed items like fuses

and resistors that are ferruleclip mounted, the electrical rating
should be shown in addition to the
standard designation. On items
having critical polarity or
impedance ratings, these rating's
should also be shown.
Large compone'nts separately
mounted should be identified by
manufacturer's catalog and
serial number or code, or by a
stock number . Where individual

6-30

6.5.2 Location of Markings

Designation marks on equipment

are placed immediately adjacent
to the parts, with markings
indicating the location of the
part. This is important when
the part is removed since many
parts are not marked with full
identification. Ease of identifi
cation consistent with servicing
requirements determines the
best location .
Small parts such as resistors,
capacitors, and terminals,
affixed to mounting boards or
terminal strips , should be
identified by markings on the
boards. Items which are not
board- mounted should be
identified by markings o/i the
chassis. Multiple terminals
should be identified by markings
on the component or adjacent
chassis .

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

R2O9

RI37

rMETER

RECEPTACLE

MARKING OF TERMINALS
Above-chassis apparatus
with wiring cabled through to
the underside should be marked
on the top, adjacent to the

wiring.
CONTROL
DESIGNATION OF PARTS

Where a part projects through

the chassis, the marking should
be made on the wiring side.

Receptacles for plugs,

modular units, and similar
parts, operable from the top
side should have both bottomand top- side identification.
Large enclosed assemblies
are usually identified by a
nameplate or case marking.

LI5

ZI3

Terminals of transformers,
relays, capacitors, and all socket-

mounted items except standard

vacuum tubes require marking
adjacent to each terminal. If
terminal markings on parts are
too small for ready identification,
additional markings may be
placed on the chassis.

TI09

PANEL AND PART MAKING

6-31

OP

2230

The following criteria should

be followed in the marking of

Orient markings so that they

can be read with the chassis
in the installed position
Mark stacked parts and

part designators:
a. Make markings legible,
correct, and sufficient
to identify the referenced
part
b. Locate markings adjacent
to referenced parts, in a
consistent manner which
will eliminate any possi
bility of confusion

modules

so that they can

individually recognized
Identify individually
enclosed or shielded
parts on the outside of
the enclosure

be

GOOD

h.

Place identical markings

on both the chassis and the

removable part of a plug-

in subassembly

POOR

PLUG-IN

SUBASSEMBLY

Make markings permanent

enough to last the life of
the equipment
Place markings so that they
are visible without moving
other parts

SOCKET

Identify clearly individual

sections of dual parts

MIDDEN
MARK

AVOID

6-32

I N 6 8

INDICATES
DUAL PART

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

6.5.3 Marking Processes
A marking process should

be

selected after consideration of

type of surface,

legibility of

characters, location, accuracy,

engineering change requirements,
visibility, water resistance, and
fungus resistance.
Several processes are avail
able, including photoetching, silk
screening, rubber stamping, en
graving, steel stamping,
molding, and use of decals .

6.5.3.1 Photoetching. The

photoetching process is often
employed for nameplates , flat
panels , or circuit diagrams .
Either the characters or the
background may be raised by
means of a photosensitized acid
etching process . Raised
characters on an aluminum

plate- are

preferred.

Silk Screening. Silk

screening involves the use of a
stencil or screen from which
certain areas have been removed
to allow passage of colored
paints or inks . With such
screens, it Is possible to secure
good detail. Characters are
usually raised, but the same
process can be used for
raised background. The
screens tend to become clogged
with usage and eventually
produce imperfect characters.
Viscosity of the paint or ink
affects the depth of color and
perfection of characters .
Lettering should be as large as
practicable . Durability can
be improved by improving
adhesion (chapter 5). Location
of characters can be controlled
by using multiple screens for
larger areas. The screens are
6.5.3.2

easily made at low cost and any

necessary changes are easily
made.

Silk screens which have

uniformity of weave, freedom
from flaws, full mesh count,
and unusual fiber strength
are currently available . Wire
cloth screens made of
copper, brass, phosphor
bronze, monel metal, and
stainless steel are particularly
useful for printing on metals
and for precision work. These
improved materials permit
longer use of screens without
cleaning or replacement, and
afford better character
definition. Vinyl inks,
enamels, and lacquers
especially prepared for silk
screening have also improved
the results of this process.
Some of the advantages of

screen process printing

for marking part locations are:
a. The equipment for silk
screening is relatively
inexpensive to install
and maintain
b. A wide variety of materi
als and items can be
marked
c. Almost any size
object can be narked
d. This process is
particularly suitable
and economical for
small and medium size
production runs
e. No skilled labor is
required (for simple
chassis and panel
marking) .

6.5.3.3 Rubber Stamping .

Rubber stamps are widely used
for markings, but legibility
may be affected by smudging.

6-33

OP

2230

The application of lettering

is awkward when the length of
the stamp is greater than eight
times the height. Low viscosity
inks, carefully rolled out on a
smooth surface, provide a thin

film that may

be

transferred

without extensive squeezing or

smudging. This type of marking
does not have the durability of
screening. Water soluble inks
should not be used.

Engraving. Precision
is usually engraved.
Durability is excellent . The
characters may be filled with
colors to improve legibility.
Small characters are costly
and difficult to produce
accurately.

6.5.3.4

apparatus

6.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reference books to aid
designers, who may require
additional authoritative informa
tion on the subjects covered in
this chapter, are listed below .
Design Manual of Methods of

Forced Air Cooling Electronic

Parts . Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory, Inc. 1958.
Electronic Components Handbook.
Henny and C. Walsh, editors.
1957,
3 vol. McGraw-Hill,

K.

1958, 1959.
(Originally
as WADC Report 57-1,

I, II,

and

III).

issued

Vols,

Electronic Designers Handbook.

R. W. Landee, A. P. Albrecht,
andD. C. Davis. McGraw-Hill,
1957.

6.5.3.5 Steel Stamping .

Stamping dies providing depressed
characters may also be used
for marking . This method
provides identification of
mechanical parts at low cost.
Care must be exercised in
hand stamping to avoid defor
mation of parts . Letters may
be

filled

6.5.3.6

to

secure contrast.

Molded- in
markings may be depressed or
raised. This method may be
Molding.

all types of molded

materials, including glass.

used on

6.5.3.7 Decalcomanias .
Decalcomanias are undesirable
unless lacquered after application.
They should be of the waterresistant type .

6-34

Electronic Engineers Master.

Technical Publishers, Inc.
Published annually.

General Electric Rectifier

Manual '. General Electric, 1961.

Industrial Electronics Handbook.

R. Kretzmann. Philips'
Technical Library, 1956.

Mechanical Design for Electronics

Production .
. M . Carroll.

McGraw-Hill,

1956.

NEL Reliability Design

.
Naval Electronics
Laboratory, San Diego, Calif.
1961. (This handbook is
distributed by U. S. Department
of Commerce, Office of
Technical Services and kept
current through loose-leaf
revisions) .

Handbook

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PARTS

Reliability Factors for Ground
Electronic Equipment. K . Henny
and others . McGraw-Hill, 1956.
(Originally issued as WADC

Report 56-148).

The designer should also refer

to current issues of applicable
technical serial publications to

obtain up-to-date information on

the subjects covered in this
chapter .

6-35

Chapter

WIRING AND CABLING

7.0 GENERAL
Interconnecting conductors in
military equipment are subject
to severe conditions of usage
and therefore the standards of
workmanship and design must
be correspondingly high. Test
and inspection procedures used
are intended to determine the
adequacy of equipment

for

its potential service use.

Mechanical design problems
include resistance to shock
and vibration, placement of
wires, making of connections,
servicing, marking, replacement
of parts, climatic protection,
separation, and insulation.
Environmental factors to be
considered are temperature,
humidity, abrasion, fungus ,
wind velocity, shock, and
vibration .
Electrical problems include
current-carrying capacity,
impedance, voltage, rf
interference, personnel
protection, and placement
of components. These problems
are best solved by cooperative
efforts of both the electronic
and mechanical engineers.

SELECTION OF CONDUCTORS
Conductors play a vital role
in reliable electronic equipment.
With advances in equipment design,
conductor variations have become
as complex as the electronic
components they serve, and
requirements have become
correspondingly exacting.
Conductors are generally
selected for their current-carrying
7.1

capacity, mechanical strength,

and properties of their
insulation. However, unique
conditions may require the
use of wires having special
characteristics, and several
types of special purpose
conductors may be needed
for a single electronic assembly,
7.1.1

Types and Uses

Electrical conductors are

commercially available as
solid or stranded, bare or
insulated, individual or
cabled wires .
Soft, annealed copper is
most commonly used in making
wire because of its high
conductivity and ductility,
resistance to corrosion and
mechanical fatigue, and ease
of soldering.
Aluminum is
sometimes used where weight
is a primary consideration,
and various other materials
are used for specific purposes .
Solid wire of round, square,
or rectangular cross section
is commercially available to
suit particular applications .
Advantages of solid wire include
rigidity and efficiency at the
higher frequencies . Solid
wire, when per mitted, maybe
used for jumpers up to 3 inches
long, and for longer lengths
where leads are securely
mounted and not subject to
vibration. When used, bare
wire can be insulated by
covering with external sleeving .
Untinned, solid copper wire
is most efficient at high

7-1

OP

2230

frequencies, since tinned or

stranded wires exhibit grea.ter

losses. A disadvantage of
solid wire is its susceptibility
to stress concentrations . A

slight nick on the conductor,

which may result when insulation
is stripped, can become a
breaking point when subjected
to flexing .
Stranded wire should be used
in preference to solid wire
because of its greater flexibility.
It can be easily bent and formed
Also,
into wire assemblies.
stranded wire is less apt to
break if unsoldered and unwrapped
during servicing. Most frequently
used is wire consisting of seven
strands twisted together.
Multiconductor cables are
selected according to the same
factors governing selection of
individual conductors, with
special attention given to
interwire insulation. Cables
may take countless forms.
Special wires and insulation
are formed into cables to be
used for low-, medium-, or
high-frequency applications .
A variant of the mult iconduc tor
is the coaxial cable used where
distributed capacity must be held
constant over the length of the
line. Here one conductor
follows a precise concentric
path through another and the
space between is filled by an

insulating material. It is
important that concentricity
be maintained; if the space
relation between outer
shielding and inner wire is
permitted to vary, circuit
efficiency will be affected.
When coaxial cable is bent,
minimum bend radius should
be no less than ten times the
outside diameter of the cable;
otherwise, cold flow of the

7-2

dielectric can cause creeping

of the inner conductor at the
bend. Coaxial cables should
be selected with regard to
impedance and attenuation at
design frequencies . Various

forms are available. Typical

is the cable consisting of a
solid or stranded inner
conductor, dielectric other
than air , outer conductor of
braided shielding, and protec
tive, insulating material
covering the braid.
In the coaxial low-capacity

line, air is used

as the

dielectric.

Inner and outer conductors are

separated by means of widely
spaced insulators. Effect of
this construction is to lower
effective capacitance. RG-62/U
is an example of an air- dielectric
cable .
In the coaxial delay line, high
impedance is achieved by

spiraling the inner conductor.

A foot of this cable may have

an impedance equivalent to 15
feet of standard coaxial cable.

7.1.2 Size
Wire size is most commonly
designated by American Wire
Gage (AWG), by circular mils,
or by diameter of the wire in
mils. Size to be selected
depends on current to be carried,
permissible temperature rise,
power loss, and physical
requirements such as space
limitations and mechanical
strength.
Hook-up wire for military
equipment should be no less than
AWG No. 26 to minimize the
danger of wire breakage. AWG
Nos. 22 through 24 are suitable
for general chassis wiring.
Filament wiring, particularly
where heaters are wired in
parallel, should consist of AWG

WIRING AND CABLING

20 wire or larger, depending
upon current consumption.
Conductors intended to carry

No.

only audio-frequency or direct

currents are chosen primarily
with voltage and current ratings
in mind. In choosing conductors
for rf applications, the size also
depends somewhat on their
impedance

7.1.3

Insulation

A wide variety of insulating

materials, each characterized

by individual properties , may be

used to cover conductors.

Electrically,

insulating materials
are rated according to dielectric
strength, dielectric constant,

resistance, and capacity-to-"Q"

ratio. Physically, insulating

materials are rated according

permissible operating
temperatures, mechanical
strength, ease of stripping,
effects of aging, and resistance
to abrasion, vibration, moisture,
flame, oils, alkalies, and fungi.
Thermal properties, to a
great extent, determine the
applicability of insulation. Some
materials deteriorate rapidly
at high temperatures; others
soften and tend to lose their
shape. At low temperatures,
insulation tends to become brittle
and easily damaged by flexing .
Temperature limitations must
be carefully considered,
especially where leads must
be dressed close to heatgenerating components.
Particular requirements are
usually governed by the detail
specification. In general,
conductors in military elec
tronic equipment are required
to withstand storage or
nonoperating temperatures
ranging from -62 to +85C .
Operating temperature limits
are determined by the application.
to

Voltage breakdown require

ments depend upon application,

operating temperatures,
altitude, and humidity . When
voltage is low, insulation
resistance is not usually an
important factor, nor is
capacity-to-Q ratio; however,
capacity changes can appreciably
affect performance of highfrequency circuits.
Insulation usually consists of
solid waterproof material
which may be covered with a
braid. The primary solid
insulation can be made of such
materials as rubber, vinyl,
polyethylene, or fluorocarbon.
The braid affords additional
protection against abrasion
and may carry the color code
or identification.
Polyethylene
and similar materials are
used extensively without
braided coverings. Outstanding
properties of insulation
commonly used for wiring
military equipment are listed
in the table on page 7-4.
a

7.2 CODING OF CONDUCTORS

Color coding not only
facilitates wiring, testing,
and localizing faults in
manufacture, but also greatly
aids servicing in the field.
7.2.1

Color Codes

A single color code must

be

used continuously throughout

a series of equipment models.
Solid colors should be used
wherever possible, as these
facilitate tracing leads .
However, if the number of
circuits required to be coded
exceeds ten, multiple tracer
colors may be used.

Colors should be readily

distinguishable under incandescent

7-3

OP

2230

light and should resist fading,

running or discoloring due to
heat. Violet is usually omitted,

since it is difficult to distinguish

under certain adverse lighting

conditions

PROPERTIES OF INSULATION MATERIAL

Notes

Applications

Cellulose Acetate

Moisture and abrasion resistant.

Combustible, poor flexibility.

Solid insulation

Cotton

Low resistivity in humid

environments .

filler

Cotton,
Impregnated

Relatively high dielectric strength

Braided insulation

Fluor ocarbon

High melting point, no appreciable

moisture absorption; excellent
flexibility despite low temperatures

Solid insulation
for use up to 200C
(Teflon) and 135C

Non-inflammable,

Braided
insulation

Insulation

(Teflon, Kel-F)

Glass Fiber

fungi and heat

to fray and
absorb moisture at ends; subject

resistant. Tendency
to

Cable interwire

(Kel-F)

abrasion.

Excellent abrasion, flame, solvent

resistance. High surface

Braided
insulation

Polyethylene

Low loss at high frequencies,

chemically stable, moisture
resistant, excellent flexibility .
Subject to abrasion, softens at
comparatively low temperatures.

Solid insulation

Rubber, High
Temperature

and

dielectric strength, moisture

abrasion resistant. Subject
to aging; impairment upon contact
with oils .

primary solid

Vinyl

Chemically stable, moisture and

abrasion resistant, flameproof.

General purpose
solid insulation

Nylon

resistivity.

Good

Fair dielectric .

7-4

Cable jacket;
insulation

for use
100C.

up to

WIRING AND CABLING

In contrast to the point-to-

7.2.2 Identification Tags

Interconnecting cable leads

are easily identified by means of
adhesive wire markers. Pre
printed, self- sticking markers
offer a simple solution to
identification.
Markers may
be used permanently or can be
detached when no longer needed.
Also available are permanent
thermosetting adhesive tapes for
coding heat-generating components
These are resistant to any changes
in environmental conditions
over the ranges specified for

point routing used in most

commercial equipment, wires
in military equipment are

military equipment.

7.2.3 Coding of Noninsulated Leads

Noninsulated solid wire leads

can be color coded by means of
colored lacquer spotted on the
wire near connecting terminals.
No coding is required if
terminals are otherwise
identified, if leads are less
than 4 inches in length, or if
placement permits obvious
identification
7.3

WIRING PROCEDURE

Whether an assembly is a
single unit or a composite of
subassemblies , the basic steps

of wiring are essentially the

same. These include routing
and dressing, harnessing and
cabling, and preparing wire
ends for connection. Proper
procedure insures wiring which
.will withstand severe conditions
and facilitate any maintenance

required.

7.3.1 Routing and Dressing

Routing is the layout of wiring
to secure the most efficient and
direct order throughout an
assembly .
Dressing is the arrangement
of wiring within a localized area
to secure neat and orderly
appearance

usually run either parallel or

at right angles to each other,
thus presenting a more
orderly appearance. The
manner of routing and dressing
wires is determined by the
nature of the circuit, anticipated
service life, and cost. However,
it is important that critical
dressing of leads or cables
should not be required to
maintain circuit stability .
Proper routing and dressing
should accomplish the following:
Wiring and cabling should be
neat, sturdy, and as short as
is practicable; arranged to
permit easy inspection and test
of the final unit; and arranged
to prevent damage to assembled
parts by additional wiring and
cabling operations.
Wiring and cabling should
not cross sockets or those
openings which permit access
to adjustments, nor interfere
with normal operation of
equipment or replacement of
electronic components .
Lugs and terminals should
be arranged for easy access
during assembly and service
operations and to prevent
damage to components during
wiring and soldering. Proper
application of all connectors
should be considered in the
final wiring layout.
General practice in dressing
is to place insulated wires flat
against the chassis or base to
provide compactness . Bare or
bus-bar wiring is usually
dressed high to prevent short

circuits to the chassis.

Resistors, capacitors, and
similar components are

usually mounted flat against

7-5

OP

2230

insulated terminal boards to

limit movement during shock
or vibration.
In making a layout for the
placement of wires and cables,
the following factors should be
considered:
a. Size, type, and number
of wires routed between
various components.
b. Location of runs with
respect to framework
and clamping .
c. Isolation of critical
wiring to reduce intercircuit interference.
d. Protection of personnel
against radio frequency
or high voltages.
Proper placement of wire
connections facilitates fabrication
and replacement of components .
Removable subassemblies, such
as component mounting boards,
should be interconnected with
the main assembly after subassembly components have been
mounted; interconnecting wire
ends should be wrapped onto

terminals above component

leads. However, when the
harness or cable is an integral
part of the sub assembly,
interconnecting wire ends
should be wrapped on terminals

below component leads to

facilitate subsequent wiring

and maintenance.
Wires and cables should be
located to minimize inductive
and capacitive effects . Improper
placement of wires or cables
may cause serious operating
difficulty due to spurious
oscillations or other electrical
Clearance for
interference.
movement of mechanical parts
must also be provided. Wiring
should be firmly supported to
prevent undue strain on the
conductor or terminal and to

7-6

eliminate possible changes in

equipment performance resulting
from any shifting of conductors .
Conductor pairs carrying
alternating current should be
twisted wherever possible to
minimize undesired magnetic

flux.

To prevent deterioration of
wire insulation due to heat,
care must be taken to provide
sufficient clearance between
conductors and heat-radiating

components such as vacuum

tubes, resistors, and trans
formers as shown on the
following page .
All wiring must be protected
against abrasion. Wires and
cables should not be routed
over sharp edges, screws,
nuts, lugs, or terminals and
should not be routed or bent
around sharp details that may
cause abrasion under normal

service conditions.
When it is necessary to pass
wiring through holes in thin
metal, the conductors should
be protected by grommets .
To protect and isolate
conductors carrying radiofrequency or high voltages, it
may be necessary to cover the
entire length of the conductor
with insulating beads; thus
avoiding a sharp bend and
assuring adequate clearance
between conductor and metal
parts .
Ceramic, nylon, Teflon or
similar grommets should be
employed to protect conductors
carrying radio-frequency
potentials unless coaxial
cables are used. The cables
are already provided with outer
sheathing, and rubber or metal
grommets furnish sufficient
additional protection. If the
metal is more than 1/8 inch thick,

WIRING AND CABLING

DRESSING OF LEADS

PREFERRED

AVOID

Lead dressed away from hot

component (preferrably 1/2
inch or more)
and electrical requirements
permit, the edges of holes may

be rounded to a radius of

one-half the metal thickness

as shown on the following page.
Synthetic rubber tape or
varnished cambric sleeving
(spagetti)

must not be used to

protect wires. Fiberglass or

high temperature vinyl sleeving
is recommended.
Wiring should be performed in
the following sequence: select
wire, cut to proper length,
strip insulation, tin ends, place
in position, wrap, crimp,

solder,

and

dress. Terminals

should be wired in a definite order

First all wiring required between
adjacent terminals should be
connected, then nonadjacent
terminals should be wired, and
last, small components .
Sufficient slack equal to at
least the length of the stripped
and tinned portion of the wire
should be left to permit limited
movement of parts and

Lead near hot component

subassemblies during inspection

maintenance.

and

7.3.1.1 Inspection of Routing

and Dressing. The following
are considered to be major
defects:

a. Broken strands likely to

result in nonf unction
or malfunction.
b. Space between conducting
movable elements

and

fixed bare conductors

less than 1/16 inch.
c. Improper placement of
wiring which may result
in shortened service life of
equipment or interfere
with normal operation.
d. Wire pinched, frayed, or
burned to the extent that

break or short circuit

could result .
e. Improper termination
which could result
in an eventual loose
a

connection

7-7

OP

2230

MIN.
RADIUS

1/16"

GROMMET

LESS THAN
1/8" THICK

MORE THAN
1/8" THICK

USE OF GROMMETS OR ROUNDED EDGES

f. Improper support which

may

result in breakage of
conductor

due to fatigue

The following are considered

minor defects:
a. Broken strands not likely
to result in nonfunction or

to be

malfunction

b. Spacing between conducting

movable elements and fixed
bare conductors greater than
1/16 inch, but less than 1/8
inch.
c. Improper placement of wire
or cable which could result
in reduced efficiency but
will not render equipment
inoperative .
d. Wire insulation chafed but
unlikely to cause short circuit
e. Wire drawn taut, introducing

7-8

excessive stress on wire,

components or terminals .
Insulation back more than
1/8 inch from a connection
but cannot result in a short

circuit.

7.3.2 Harnessing and Cabling

Grouped wires are usually

harnessed or cabled to form a
sturdy compact unit which can
be dressed more neatly than
individual conductors and
installed as a single assembly.
Chassis wiring is usually
laced to form what is commonly
termed a "wiring harness", or
"harness". These are usually
fabricated by the equipment
manufacturer to suit the
particular wiring layout.

WIRING AND CABLING

Harnesses should be located
circuit tracing can be
readily accomplished, and
accessibility to parts or
components which may require
replacement is not limited.
so that

Individual wires of a harness

should be arranged to run
parallel or at right angles to
each other wherever possible.
Sharp bends which may damage
conductors or insulation are
avoided.

to be

Harnesses are usually fabricated

"harness jig" or "forming
board". The board may be
marked with numbers and symbols
to indicate wire sizes, color
coding, routing, terminations,
Pegs or
and wiring sequence.
nails, placed in a pattern which
follows a pictorial wiring diagram,
serve to locate wire runs.
on a

Conductor ends may be

anchored to the board by
wrapping them about nails or
pegs, or may be fanned out

for easier dressing if holes

to accommodate

are provided.

wire ends

A typical application for a

forming board is shown below

Another method of anchoring

conductor ends on a harness
jig is to attach springs on the
board near the termination
point of the wire. The pitch
of the spring should be
determined by the size of the
wires to be held in place.
The wire may be pushed into
the spring, where it will be
held firmly. This method is
rapid and minimizes drilling

\
HARNESS

FORMING BOARD

7-9

OP

2230

of holes and placing of pegs

or nails in the board. Harness
jigs may thus be reused many
times . A typical application of
a forming board utilizing springs
is shown below .
Harnesses may be laid out
on a jig bottom-side-up for

When this is
harness is
installed in a given unit, the
lacing knots and splices will
ease of lacing.
done and the

not be

and the

visible from above

harness will have

neat, workmanlike
ance .

appear

SPRINGS

HARNESS

7-10

FORMING BOARD WITH SPRINGS

WIRING AND CABLING

Forming boards are some

times equipped with electrical
checking

devices to speed

harness testing, as shown below

If round cord is used, sizes

should be as follows:

PRINCIPAL CABLE
DIAMETER

Ribbon-type lacing cord

should be used in preference to
round cord to reduce the
possibility of cutting into wire
insulation. One- eighth inch
nylon or similar ribbon is
best suited for this purpose.

CORD SIZE

Up to 3/8"

5/16 to 3/4"

5/8 to

12

1"

7/8" and over

HARNESS FORMING BOARD WITH ELECTRICAL CHECKING DEVICES

THE HARNESS IS LACED AFTER ALL WIRES HAVE BEEN CUT TO

LENGTH, STRIPPED, TINNED, AND PLACED IN POSITION
7-11

OP

2230

The process of lacing or

binding a harness can be started
at one end with a "starting tie".
Alternatively, lacing can be
started at the center with a

CORD

END

"lock stitch," and a terminating

wrap can be used at each end.

Lacing is started by cutting

a length of cord two and one-half
times the length of the proposed
harness. One end of the cord is
laid alongside the principal cable
pointing into the harness. The
cord end is secured as approxi

LOCK STITCH

mately four turns of cord are

wound over it, and wrapping is
continued until a total of twelve
turns is wound about the principal
cable .
The wrap is secured by a lock
stitch. This is made by forming
a loop, passing the cord over the
loop, then through the loop, and
finally pulling the cord tight.

Secure stitches can be formed

only by lacing the cord over the
loop, never under, to form the
so-called lock stitch. The cord
is thus locked under each loop.
Lock stitches at approximately
1/2-inch intervals thereafter
secure other loops in the same
fashion.
The foregoing describes the

RUNNING STITCH

LOCK STITCH

WRONG

LOCK STITCH

"regulation cableman's knot",

which is self locking .

As lacing is advanced, the

wires should be re-formed to
insure a neat and firmly bound
cable; conductors should be
arranged to lie parallel without
crossovers except when twisting
is required.
7-12

RUNNING STITCH
RIGHT

WIRING AND CABLING

Lacing is terminated by the
following procedure. Four turns
of cord are wrapped adjacent to
A separate
the last lock stitch.
piece of cord is formed into a

2 inch-loop and laid alongside the

cable as shown. Eight turns
of lacing are wrapped about
the loop and the end of the lacing
cord is then drawn through the loop.

CORD

PULL FREE

ENDS

LOCK STITCH
FOUR TURNS
EIGHT TURNS

PULL THROUGH

END

LOCKING
LOOP

WIRE BRANCH

AND

TRIM CORD END

Both ends of the loop are

then pulled to carefully draw
the cord end underneath and
out of the wrap. The cord end
is then pulled tight, locking
the wrap, and finally the end
is cut to approximately 1/8
or 1/4 inch .

Branches and sub-branches,

including single leads, are
usually referred to as "breakouts"
Single-lead breakouts should
be preceeded by a lock stitch
without variation in the distance
between stitches.

7-13

OP

2230

LOCK STITCH
SIX TURNS

REAR BRANCH
CONTINUATION
START NEW CORD

LOCK STITCHES

Any breakout of two or more

wires should be laced. When a
group of wires is branched from
a cable, a lock stitch is made;
six turns are wrapped firmly
about the principle cable adjacent
to the new stitch, and finally,
another lock stitch is made
adjacent to the new turns . After
a branch is thus secured, the
running stitches are continued
along the main cable.
All lacing should follow the top
of the harness. All knots, splices,
or other irregularities should be
hidden from view when the cable
is installed in the equipment.
When laced, the cord should
be sufficiently tight to minimize
slippage but should not cut into
the insulation.
Lacing may also be started with
a square knot, followed by two
lock stitches .

Lacing is then performed as

previously described, and terminated
by a lock stitch and a square knot.
7-14

FRONT BRANCH

Another procedure for lacing

consists of making a series of
individually bound wraps at points
along the equidistant points
along the cable, as required.
Lacing cord, 2 inches longer
than the length required to make
twelve turns about the harness,
is cut. One end of the cord is
formed into a 1-inch loop which
is placed flat on the harness,

parallel

to the

wiring.

Twelve turns are wound

tightly over this loop and, at the
last turn, the cord end is pushed
through the loop which extends
from under the wrap.

WIRING AND CABLING

The end of the looped cord is
then pulled until the loop is
under the wrap, but only so
far that the two loops intersect
at the approximate center of
the

wrap.

Loose cord ends are

then trimmed.

A carpet needle or shuttle

facilitates feeding of the cord end
and may be used to speed lacing.
Should lacing break or require
splicing, a square knot should
be used to connect the ends.

Any of the following defects

should be noted during harness
and cable inspection.

a. Frequent cord splices

indicate that the cord was
pulled too tight or that the cord
size was too small for the
diameter of the cable.
b. Lacing cord should not
become frayed. If fraying occurs,
the original length of cord
was excessive.
c. Knots and splices should
be concealed from top view.
d. Wire insulation should not
be broken, split, or frayed at
its ends

principal advantages of using

zippered tubing are that

it is much less time-consuming
than lacing and tying, permits
repeated access to work
points, and allows the rapid
addition or extraction of
circuits. The jacket may be
easily removed, the necessary
the

changes made in the wiring,

and the tubing rezipped in a
matter of minutes. In contrast,
if it is necessary to make
changes in a conventional wiring
harness which has been laced
and tied, the cable may have
to be replaced or extensively
reworked. Zippered tubing
also presents definite
advantages in external wiring
applications, where cables
between equipment are too
stiff when laced and tied, and

where protection against

abrasion is required. A
typical use of zippered plastic
tubing is illustrated below .

e. Lacing should not be spat

tered by solder or scorched as a
result of a soldering operation.

7.3.2.1 Zippered Tubing .

Another method for forming a
wiring harness is to twist, bunch,
or interlace the wires and
enclose them in a commercially
available zippered plastic tubing.
This method is especially useful
for custom cabling or in applica
tions where a replaceable
The
cable jacket is desirable.
ZIPPERED TUBING
7-15

OP

2230

Zippered tubing is very useful

when wires are to be soldered
to a connector.
The tubing can
be unzipped and folded back of
the connector to expose the work
area, then zipped shut to cover
the soldered area and sealed.
The tubing can be easily and
effectively terminated by using
one of the following:
a. AN or other type connectors
in conjunction with two
matching ferrules
b. Pressure-sensitive tapes
.
Potting
Termination of the tubing by
is illustrated below

a. Vinyl
b. Vinyl-coated fiberglass
c. Vinyl-saturated fiberglass
laminated to aluminum foil
d. Vinyl-backed butyl rubber
e. Lead-saturated vinyl
f. Mylar
Polyethylene
g .
h. Aluminized asbestos fiber.
Zippered tubing is available
in compositions which can be
used at temperatures ranging
from those normal for electronic
equipment up to approximately
2000F.
Zippered tubing is made in
a variety of shapes to meet
special needs. Two of the
more commonly used shapes,
the "Y" and the "T", are

illustrated below

are available
which will effectively seal the
zippers of zippered tubing in
applications where a high degree
of waterproofing is essential.
Compounds

TERMINATION WITH

CONNECTOR

Zippered tubing is available

which will shield cables and
harnesses from electrostatic
and electromagnetic radiation.
Its installation is a one- step
operation which eliminates the
laborious hand wrapping or
expensive braiding necessary to
shield conventional types of
cables and wiring harnesses .
The tubing can be terminated
and grounded by:

a. Grounding adapters which

fit

the back of a

connector or plug
b. Grounding wires or tabs.
Perforated zippered tubing is
available for use where wire
branchouts are necessary or where
localized moisture condensation
must be avoided.
Zippered tubing is generally
available in the following compo
sitions ;
7-16

Y- AND T-SHAPED
ZIPPERED TUBING

WIRING AND CABLING

7.3.2.2

Tie Straps.

A recently

developed method of binding

wires to form a cable or harness
involves the use of plastic tie
straps, such as those illustrated
below .
The tie straps are made of onepiece molded nylon, and are able
to withstand temperatures between
-65 and 350F . They permit

lightweight, rapid, and effective

lacing of wire bundles and

harnesses, and are available

in sizes from 1/16 inch to 1-3/4
inches in diameter. These
straps resist fungus and

corrosion,

do

not support

combustion, and have good

dielectric characteristics.
Each strap has two ribs
running lengthwise along the
inside surface to prevent
lateral movement of the strap
along the harness.

STANDARD STRAP
RIBS

LOCKING

CLIP

SELF-CLINCHING STRAP

1.

Slip strap around wire

bundle, rib side inside

2 .

Pull tight and clip off

excess

INSTALLATION OF SELF- CLINCHING STRAPS

7-17

OP

1.

2230

Slip strap around wire bundle,

rib side inside

3.

7-18

Apply pliers; twist

120

2.

Thread tip through eye and

draw up tight

4.

Clip off excess

WIRING AND CABLING

Larger bundles may be tied
by using two straps together,
inserting the tip of one strap
through the eye of the other,
and locking both straps.
The shoehorn-type tool
shown below may be used

for

installing the tie straps in

close quarters.
The use of tie straps in serv
ice is also illustrated below.
Tie straps may also be used for
clamping bundles of wire and har
nesses as discussed in 7.3.8.5.

SHOEHORN-TYPE

USE OF

TOOL

TIE STRAPS IN SERVICE

7-19

OP

2230

7.3.2.3 Cable Clips. Another

recently developed method of
harnessing or strapping wires
involves the use of two-piece
cable clips which are quickly
and easily installed either by
hand or with a special tool. Each
clip consists of a flat or U-shaped
base and a flexible strap which
cinches across the open end of
the base and locks under inverted
lips .
The straps are made of
neoprene which is flexible,
tough, and relatively inexpensive.
They are also available in cer
tain molded fluorine-base
elastomers for high-temperature
(above 400F) and other special
applications. The base is molded
of nylon. The neoprene straps and

7-20

nylon bases are usable in the

temperature range of -76 to
212F .
The bases and flexible straps

are available in several sizes

and can accommodate cable or
wire bundles from 3/16 inch to
2-1/4 inches in diameter .
Larger diameter cables can
be strapped by using two or
more bases and clips together.
These cable clips are quicker
to install, neater, and easier to
disassemble than standard lacing
methods . An example of the
use of the clips in service is
illustrated below.
The cable clips may also be
used to clamp cables and bundles
of wire, as discussed in 7.3.8.5.

WIRING AND CABLING

7.3.2.4 Band Clamps. The band

clamps illustrated below are
similar to the tie straps discussed

in 7.3.2.2, and are used for the

same purposes. They are available
for cable sizes from 5/16 to
1-1/4 inches in diameter .
The band clamps are non

conducting, corrosion resistant

one-piece molded nylon. The

ratchet-like teeth across

the

inside of the flexible band engage

the teeth of the loop when

installed to form a tight bond
around the cable or wire

bundle.

Two or more clamps

can be used together, as

shown, if bundles of wire
larger than 1-1/4 inches in
diameter are involved.

BAND CLAMPS

USE OF BAND CLAMPS

FOR LARGE WIRE BUNDLES

7-21

OP

1.

2230

Select right length band clamp

2.

Insert tab through loop so tab

wires and clamp

is between

3 .

Push clamp together until it

fits snugly around the wires
and the ratchet teeth engage

INSTALLATION OF BAND CLAMPS

A special tool is available for
installing the band clamps if more
than hand-tightness is required.
The clamps can be removed
by inserting a hard flat strip

7-22

through the loop to force the

ratchet teeth apart. The clamps
can also be mounted on a
chassis or panel with standard

fasteners

WIRING AND CABLING

7.3.3 Preparing Connections

7.3.3.1 Stripping of Insulation.
Insulation may be stripped from
wire ends by means of either
hand tools or automatic machinery.
In short production runs, a
hand stripper is usually employed.
It bares conductors more easily
than does a knife, and is less
likely to damage wires .

is sufficient to wrap most

turret or flat terminals .

RIGHT

WRONG

To insure uniform wire ends,

insulation can be stripped back
further than required; wire
ends

may then be grouped

together, aligned, and cut to

a single length.
Broken or nicked strands
should not project beyond wire
insulation unless strands are
long enough to be secured by
proper tinning. The number of
short, untinned strands should
not exceed the following:

STRIPPING TOOL
Automatic machinery,
performing cutting and stripping
separately or combining these in
a single operation, is often
used for high production runs .
Care must be exercised in
either manual or automatic
stripping to prevent cutting,
nicking, scraping, or otherwise
damaging conductors . Ends
should be stripped clean of all
foreign materials to prevent
insulation particles or frayed
ends from becoming twisted
among wire strands .
In general, insulation should
be stripped back about 3/4 inch
from each wire end. This length

. Strands
in Conductor

No

7-15

16-18
19-25

Allowable
Clipped Strands
1

2
3

26-36
37-40

41

or more

7.3.3.2

Cleaning of Wire . In
routine of preparing
connections for soldering,
some wires may require
additional cleaning . The
methods used are also employed
for initial removal of some
insulation. They are alternately
called stripping methods .
the

7-23

OP

2230

Insulation may stick to bared

wire after the stripping operation,
or perspiration may contaminate
metal surfaces, if overhandled,
and impair or slow the soldering
operation. Before soldering
enamel-covered wire, all enamel
must be removed from the portion
of wire to be soldered.
There are four widely used
methods of cleaning wire.
a. Mechanical scraping. A
knife can be used to restore the
conductor surface to a bright
appearance but is least effective
and care must be taken not to
cut, nick, or abrade the wire.
Sandpaper is more effective
especially for cleaning stranded
wire. Strands should be spread
apart and cleaned individually.
b. Heating. Insulation and
foreign material can be burned
off and the wire then easily
cleaned of the residue by chemical
or mechanical means. Care
must be taken to avoid burning
of the wire especially in the
case of small diameter wires.
c. Chemically dissolving. Most
effective cleaning method for
magnetic and resistance wire
is to dip the wire' end into a
solvent and then wipe off the
foreign deposit .
Practically any type of wire
insulation can be removed by
means of chemical solutions .
They will remove enamel, fiber
glass, Formvar, chrome oxide,
silicones and hardbaked varnish
insulations. Dissolution times
range from 2 seconds to 2
minutes. Precautions must be
observed when employing the
caustic solvents.
Often when chemical solvents
are employed, the wire will be
cleaned sufficiently to permit
soldering without the use of flux.

7-24

d. Abrading.
Effective for high
production runs is an arrangement
of two abrasive wheels, usually
fiberglass, which serve to scrape
off enamel or other insulating
material. The wire end is inserted
between the wheels which rotate
This method
at high speeds.
works well on either stranded
or solid wire.

ROTATING BRUSHES

7.3.3.3 Tinning. Tinning, the

process of coating metal surfaces
with a uniform layer of solder,
is necessary for several reasons
which include ease of soldering,
strengthening of stranded wire ,
cleaning, and retarding of
oxidation .
Although conventional
hook-up wire after stripping
is usually clean enough to be
soldered, stripped ends can be
retinned to insure quicker, more
thorough bonding .
Stranded conductors should
be twisted before tinning to keep

individual strands from

spreading when the wire is
crimped to a terminal.
To quickly tin a large number
of conductors, a handful of
stripped wires are evened up

WIRING AND CABLING

and dipped into a

dish of liquid

flux. Excess flux is then shaken

off and leads are immediately
immersed in a solder pot heated
to a temperature between 420

460F

and

A stranded conductor

when tinned is equivalent in

rigidity to a single, solid wire.
Suggested tinning length
is as follows .

AWG Wire Size

Maximum
Tinning Length

wire and
smaller

2/3 of stripped
length

wire
larger

1/3 of stripped
length

#18

#16

and

Coaxial cables
and shielded
conductors

3/16 inch

7.3.4 Permanent Wire Connec

tions . Permanent wire connec
tions are those unlikely to be
disassembled during equipment

life

7.3.4.1 Mechanical Connections .

No connection should depend upon
the strength of soft solder alone
for security. All electrical

connections should be mechanic

and secured prior
to soldering by wrapping or
crimping the wire tightly around
the terminal. This helps to
prevent disturbing the joint while
A good
the solder is "setting".
mechanical joint is also
necessary because solder,
although solidified, is relatively
soft, and if subjected to continual
tension may "cold flow" and
increase the electrical resistance.
A desirable connection to a
terminal is made by wrapping
the stripped end of the wire around

ally supported

terminal 3/4 to one turn.

Wrapping the wire more than
3/4 turns does not add
materially to the strength
of the joint and makes subsequent
removal of the connection
difficult. Care should be
taken to bring the end of the
insulation as close to the
terminal as possible without
allowing insulation to interfere
with the soldering operation.
The wire should be wrapped
around the terminal so that
tension on the wire will be
transmitted to the terminal
and not to the solder .
A good mechanical joint
sometimes requires crimping.
This may be accomplished

the

by using
the wire

pliers to squeeze

wrap tightly against

the terminal. In many cases,
particularly with stranded wire,
crimping is not necessary if
sufficient pull is exerted upon
the wire while making the wrap.
When wrapping more than
one wire on a terminal, the
proper wrapping procedure
is generally the same as for
one wire. If the terminal
size or shape does not permit
proper connections, an
auxiliary terminal should be
used.

7.3.4.2 Terminals. There

are four basic types of
terminals to which mechanical

connections can be made. The

best wrapping technique varies
with each type of terminal.
Type 1, the turret or stud
terminal, is used primarily
on component mounting
boards (see 6.4.1.4).

7-25

OP

2230

TURRET

OR STUD

TERMINALS

The wire is led directly to

one side of the

terminal, wrapped

On
and crimped if necessary.
this type of terminal, the
component lead is preferably
wrapped on the upper portion
and the connecting

wire

on the

lower portion. To facilitate

maintenance, it is best to wrap
the wire over the terminal
post from the bottom up and
to be consistent in either
clockwise or counterclockwise
wrapping. However, clockwise
wrapping is preferred because
of the natural tendency to
attempt unwinding in a
counterclockwise direction.

CORRECT

INCORRECT WRAP

(Wire pulls against solder)

Type 2, the flat, perforated
terminal, is used on most
tube sockets, variable resistors,
wafer switches, etc.

WRAP
FLAT PERFORATED TERMINALS

WIRING AND CABLING

The wire is secured by

inserting through the hole and
wrapping around the body.

CORRECT WRAPS

When using heavy wire or

space does not permit
proper wrap (such as with most

"where

miniature tube sockets), a

mechanical connection may be
made by feeding the wire through
the hole in the lug, bending
around the lug 180 and firmly
crimping .

Crimp
MINIMUM WRAP
(For limited space only)

Type 3, the hook or eyelet

on most relays

terminal, is used

HOOK OR

EYELET TERMINALS

A recommended mechanical
connection may be made by
feeding the wire through the
loop and wrapping one full turn
on the shank

CORRECT WRAP

7-27

OP

2230

Type 4, the split terminal, is

used on transformers and heavy
components .

SPLIT TERMINALS

and

The wire is laid in the slot

wrapped around the body.

CORRECT WRAP

7.3.4.3 Soldering Lugs. Small,

lightweight soldering lugs,
available in many types and
sizes, are extensively used
for terminating conductors . The
principal types used are flatperforated and crimped-tab
lugs. The important difference
between these are the provisions
for supporting the wire insulation.

TO BE AVOIDED

(These lugs not to be used

on terminal boards)
7-28

To connect flat-perforated
lugs, the insulation is stripped
approximately 1/2 inch from the
wire end. The bared end is
inserted through the hole and
wrapped around the lug, clipped
and crimped. In production,
the wire is usually previously
cut to the right length for
wrapping and soldering . Insu
lated sleeving should be used
to mechanically support the
wire insulation as shown. The
sleeve may

carry lead

identification marking.

WIRING AND CABLING

PREFERRED LUGS

When multiple connections

are required, all conductors

should be wrapped prior to
soldering .
To wire crimped-tab lugs,
stripped end is positioned
on the lugs so that when crimped,
one tab grips the bared wire and
the other grips the insulation.
the

The wire should be clipped

close to the inner tab so as not
to interfere with proper seating
of the eye when secured.

WRONG

Insulating sleeving is then

drawn over the barrel of the
lug previously shown.
TO BE AVOIDED

7.3.4.4 Braided Shielding.

This
section discusses shielded wire,
other than the coaxial type,
which is described in 7.3.9.1.
Wires covered by bare
metallic shielding must be
mounted securely in position to
prevent contact with other
exposed conductors or terminals .
All shielding must be terminated
a safe distance from the exposed
inner wire ends and secured
by an approved method of

The shielding is slipped over

the

inner conductor until the

point through which wire

will

protrude is positioned just

beyond the end of the inner
conductor as shown. A pointed
tool is used to carefully
separate the shielding strands

form the opening .

The wire end is pushed
through this opening and
then stripped.
and

grounding .
Any one of several methods
can be employed to terminate
the shielding. Of these methods,
unbraiding and twisting together
shielding strands, although widely
used, is least desirable. Some
shielding strands are likely to
be broken, thus resulting in sharp
disconnected strands and
possible short circuits.
When the shielding can be
slipped over the length of the
inner conductor, the following
procedure is recommended.
7-29

OP

2230

After each end of the shielded

wire has been processed in this
manner, the shielding is held at
its extreme ends and stretched
lengthwise. This last operation
draws the shielding tightly about
the wire, binding it, and prevent
ing slippage.
The following procedure for
terminating the ends of shielded
wire is an alternate method used
when the shielding cannot be
slipped over the inner conductor.
A pointed tool is used to form
an opening in the shielding . Then
the tool is inserted underneath the
exposed inner conductor. The
conductor is flexed as its end is
carefully drawn through the opening

A satisfactory method of
terminating shielded wire and
coaxial cable is to cut shielding
back and then solder a separate
length of conductor onto the
cut end. This method is

sometimes applied to production

runs for which special dies
are improvised.
The following
figure illustrates a braided,
shielded conductor prepared
in this manner. A lead
collar is formed which
securely bonds both original
and terminating conductors .
7-30

A preferred method of

terminating shielded wire and

coaxial cable makes use of
a two-piece compression type
of solderless connection.
When crimped, inner and outer
tubular sleeves connect the
braided shield to the grounding
wire or terminating lug. Special
hand and production tools are
available for pressure forming
the connections

In certain applications at
higher frequencies, it may be
necessary to ground compara
tively long cables at points
along their lengths . Ground
wires can be satisfactorily
soldered to shielding if great
care is taken to minimize
soldering time in order to
avoid overheating the cable
dielectric. Another method
of

satisfactorily grounding

shielding is by means of mechan

ically firm grounding clamps .

WIRING AND CABLING

7.3.4.4.1

Grounding Shielded
A grounding disc,
illustrated here, may be used
to ground two or more conductors
Conductors.

A recommended method of
securing this disc to the chassis
is illustrated below.
Additional discs may be used
illustrated below, if one disc
is not sufficient.
as

HOT TIN DIPPED

BRASS GROUNDING DISC

MACHINE SCREW

GROUNDING DISC

NAS

CHASSIS

43

SPACER

LOCKWASHER
NUT
ATTACHING GROUNDING

DISC

MACHINE SCREW

GROUNDING DISC
GROUNDING DISC

NAS

43

SPACER

NAS

43

SPACER

LOCKWASHER

CHASSIS

NUT'
ATTACHING

GROUNDING

DISCS

7-31

OP

2230

7.3.4.5 Solderless Connections.

Solderless connections depend on
mechanical pressure rather than
the fusion of metal.
Advantages of solderless
connections include high operating
temperatures, ease of fabrication,
relatively great mechanical
strength, and resistance to
mechanical fatigue.
However, solderless connec
tions should not be used unless
approved

for

the

particular

application by the government

bureau or agency concerned.
Solderless lugs and terminals
are manufactured within
necessarily close tolerances.

"Barrel" design depends upon

wire size, type, insulation,

space limitations, operating
temperature, vibration, and
corrosion resistance.

Strict tolerances are observed

in dimensions of barrel length,
inside and outside diameters.

The inside diameter of the barrel

is considerably larger than the
diameter of the wire to allow
for deformation of the barrel
when subjected to forming

pressure .
"Tongue", or mounting
end design is available in
closed, perforated types as
shown or in open spade-tip
configurations.
Design should
be selected to suit the
particular application.
Size and type of crimping
tool, terminal, and wire must
conform to the manufacturer's
recommendations or weakened
and defective connections are
almost certain to result.
The condition of the tool
should be

periodically checked

careful examination of
several completed connections.
Care must be taken when
crimping to insure that the
solderless terminal or lug is
fitted properly into the socket of
the crimping device, that the
stripped wire end is fully
inserted into the barrel of the
terminal or lug, and that jaws
of the crimping device are
completely closed. If the
terminal or wire is misaligned,
a poor joint will result.

by

CRIMPING SOLDERLESS CONNECTIONS

7-32

WIRING AND CABLING

When released from compres
sion wire expands slightly.
Expansions are additive in
stranded conductors, each
strand contributing its own
expansion. Total expansion of
all strands exceeds expansion
of the barrel. When external
pressure is removed, wires
continue to exert pressure
against the inner wall of the

barrel

The type of

barrel depends

on whether the wire is solid or

stranded. Solderless connectors
are specifically designed for
either solid or stranded wire
and are not interchangeable.
Crimped, solid conductors,
when released, do not expand
as much as stranded conductors.
If the same type of barrel were
to be used for both solid and
stranded wires , pressure between
the inner wall of the barrel and
solid wire would be lost. A
different type of barrel is
therefore used for solid wires .

Crimping of the barrel

mechanically supports insulated
wire connections by gripping
the end of wire insulation.
Strength can be increased
further by using commercially
available terminals equipped
with vinyl sleeving covering the
barrel. After crimping, vinyl
sleeving is secured to the
barrel, and provides protection
against possible contact with
a bare wire .
In a recently developed type
of solderless connection, solid
wire is tightly wound about a
terminal. Sufficient tension
is exerted on the wire, when
wrapped, to assure a lasting
electrical and mechanical bond.
Both wire and terminal
are inserted into a special
drill-like tool which automatic
ally wraps the wire about the
terminal .

Tests show that joints

fabricated in this manner are
reliable in some applications.

7.3.5 Solders

and

Fluxes

The solders and fluxes

treated in the following sections
are in the main intended for
use in fabricating electrical

connections. Soldering, as
applied to structural assembling
techniques, is discussed in

4.4.2.

7.3.5.1 Fluxes. Wire

connections are "fluxed" to
7-33

OP

2230

remove oxide films and to prevent

further oxidation due to heating.
Often invisible, these films form
on most metal surfaces exposed
to the atmosphere and prevent
molten solder from fusing with
the metal. Thickness of the
oxide film increases with time
of exposure, and formation is
accelerated by increased heat
or moisture .
Fluxes are classed as corrosive
or noncorrosive.
Noncorrosive
fluxes, having a rosin base, are
commercially available in
powder, paste, liquid, or solid
form. Often flux is incorporated
in the core of wire solder, and
is made available to the joint
when the solder is melted.
Sometimes, as in resistance
or induction soldering, it is
convenient to use flux in paste
form or mixed with powdered
solder for application directly
to a connection. Since rosin
flux minimizes metal corrosion,
it is well suited for removing
oxides from electrical
connections. Rosin residue
is characterized by high
insulation properties in
contrast to corrosive fluxes
and their by-products .
Corrosive fluxes, including
muriatic acid, zinc chloride,
ammonium chloride, and
sal-ammoniac, should never
be used in making electrical
connections. These are only
used when soldering metals
which are otherwise difficult

the type of metal to be soldered

and for the characteristics of
the flux residue.
They may be
judged according to their

corrosive fluxes, it is
absolutely necessary to
remove the residue after
soldering. Mechanical and
chemical cleaners are
employed successfully for
this purpose .
No "all-purpose" flux exists.
Fluxes should be chosen for

connected metals. If any doubt

exists, a flux, even if termed
noncorrosive, should first be
tested.

to bond.

7-34

When using

melting point, liability

corrosion, permanency,

activity,

to

odor, and physical consistency.

Soldering in electronic work
requires a flux which will not
leave a corrosive residue.
Rosin flux intended for wiring
leaves a residue which is
relatively inert, noncorrosive,
nonconductive, and nonhygroscopic.
The rosin content of core
solder may be specified as a
percentage of solder weight, in
three ranges: 1 to 3%, 3 to 6%,
and 6 to 12%. Solder core flux
must completely fill the solder
wire leaving no voids . Special
flux configurations in some
solder cores are intended by
the manufacturer to furnish more
uniform flux distribution.
Fluxes vary in their degree
of corrosion. Types available
range from plain or activated
rosin to strong acid. Products
are sometimes vaguely identified
as "neutral" or "nonacid" flux,
but if truly neutral, a solder
flux could not perform its
intended function. Nonacid
does not mean that such

equipment by setting up

flux is noncorrosive.
Soldering
salts are nonacid, yet their
residues are strongly corrosive.
These residues absorb moisture
and will corrode electronic
galvanic action which generates
a voltage

and eats away the

7.3.5.2 Solders. Used to join

metals (and nonmetals) at
comparatively low temperatures,
solder alloys include various

WIRING AND CABLING

combinations of tin-lead, tinlead-bismuth, lead-silver,
and indium with tin, lead,
and

silver

"Soft" solders melt at

temperatures below 700F .
These include the widely used
tin-lead mixtures and special
purpose additives such as bismuth
and antimony. Soft solders are
used to bond metals having
low melting points and are
almost exclusively used when
soldering electrical connections .
They are easily applied and
can withstand considerable

bending without fracture.

Principal disadvantage of
soft solder connections is their

low mechanical strength as

compared to that of the metals
joined. Soft solder joints
cannot be employed at greatly
elevated operating temperatures,
since at 212F they will have
lost 50% of their strength at
room temperature, and at 300F,
will have lost 70%. Special
consideration must be given
to the mechanical strength
of soldered connections
when subjected to service at
extremely low temperatures .
"Hard" solders are used
where greater mechanical
strength or exposure to high
temperature is required.
These include common brazing
red and silver solders melting
at temperatures above 700F .
Reliability, ease of applica
tion, and wetting properties
are of major importance when
selecting tin-lead solders for
soldering electrical connections.
Maximum joint strength and
maximum wetting action is
obtained with tin contents from
As the tin content
40% to 60%.
increases to 60%, the melting
point is lowered and the plastic

or cooling range of the solder

becomes shorter.
If economy is the prime
consideration, a solder of low
tin content (40%) may be
desirable. When a solder is
required for joints which should
not be overheated, a 60% tin
solder is commonly used.
The higher tin content alloys
set up faster, are easier to
use, and are particularly
recommended for maximum
reliability in high-speed,
low-temperature soldering
applications .
Solder alloys do not
immediately liquify as their
temperature is raised, but

first

become plastic, then

semi-liquid, and finally
completely liquid. Upon

heating, most tin-lead solders

undergo transformation to
the plastic state at 358F,
but become wholly liquid at

various temperatures,
depending on individual
composition.
A tin-lead solder containing
63% tin and 37% lead changes
from solid to liquid at a single
temperature point, without
an intervening plastic state.
This single temperature is
the "eutectic" point and the
solder is known as the
eutectic alloy. Completely
eutectic solders are not
generally desirable because of
their lack of any plastic range
and consequent susceptibility
to fracture from even slight
vibrations while solidifying.
The user should make
certain that only the best
materials are incorporated
in solder utilized for military
electronic equipment.
There
is no substitute for virgin

7-35

OP

2230

Percent
Composition

Tin

Lead

96
90
85
70
67
62
60
55
50
40

10
15

30
33
38
40
45
50
60
63
72

37

560 to 600
515 to 575
435 to 515
360 to 495
360 to 485
360 to 465
360 to 460
360 to 440
360 to 415
360 to 370
360

25

360 to 380

metals, since
progressively
with repeated
Soft solder
to
to
be

Melting Range

tin-lead mixtures
lose strength
heatings.

should not be used

resist unusual stresses.

Prior

soldering, wiring must always

firmly secured to provide
needed mechanical strength.
Tin-lead solders, over the
course of time, suffer loss of
joint strength which reaches its
maximum after one year and

may amount to as much as 25% .

The ability of solder to resist
fracture is defined in terms of
tensile and shear strength
measured in pounds per square
inch; and in terms of strength
to resist impact, measured
in foot-pounds . Forces acting
on a soldered joint are not
usually pure tensile or shear
stresses, but a combination
of both.

Impact strength is the ability

resist fracture and
indicates its ability to withstand
sudden shock ranging from 12
foot-pounds per square inch
of solder to

7-36

Typical

(F Approximate)

Use

Coating metals and

differential soldering
Coating and joining metals

General use
Special applications
Low-temperature soldering
Eutectic solder of fixed
melting point
Special applications

for solders of low tin content

to

foot-pounds per square

inch for eutectic compositions.
The following table lists
composite strength of a copper
lap joint when bonded by solders
of various compositions.
about

15

Composition

Tin

Lead

95

15

85

25

75
65
55
50
38

35

45
50

62

Joint Strength
Lbs/inch
3730
5300
5700
6100

6420
6510

6850

Rosin-core solders are usually

available in diameters ranging
from 1/32 to 1/8 inch. The
thinner diameter can be applied
at a slower rate and affords
closer control over the amount
of solder applied, particularly
on smaller terminals .
Special forms of solder are

WIRING AND CABLING

sometimes used for particular
applications.
Paste-alloy
solders consist of finely
powdered solder mixed with
flux, which are applied to the
work in a single operation and

then heated by any convenient

means. For high production
runs, solder is sometimes
preformed into washers, rings,

or slugs, for placement on

junctions before heat is applied.
Most commercial soft solders
contain a small percentage of one
or more special purpose elements.
Antimony is often added to
strengthen the solder; bismuth
and silver are used to facilitate
spreading. For solder pots,
about 1 percent of indium added
to the solder reduces dross.
For aluminum and its
alloys which tend to corrode
rapidly when heated, solders
containing from 50% tin-50%
zinc to 75% tin- 25% zinc are
suitable , although an alloy
composed of 60% tin and 40%
zinc is most frequently used.
When silver-coated ceramic
terminals are to be soldered,
2 to 3 percent of silver added
to a tin-lead alloy improves
bonding, and prevents the
tin-lead mixture from absorbing
the silver coating.
So-called "liquid" or "cold"
solders are in reality glues or
cements which bear little or
no relation to solder alloys and
the fusion of metals.
When antimony is added to
common tin-lead solders to

improve the strength of the

solder, the ratio of antimony
to tin must not be greater than
0.075:1, or the solder will be
too hard and brittle for use.
Antimonial solder should not be
used on zinc or brass, because
the formation of antimony- zinc

may embrittle the

The presence of
antimony, even in a minute
quantity, reduces the galvanic
stability (corrosion resistance)
compounds

joint.

of

tin-lead solder.

Cadmium, zinc, or aluminum

should not be present in tin-lead
solder unless aluminum is
being soldered. These metals,
even in minute quantities,

increase the working tempera

ture of the solder, making it slug
gish and porous. Their presence
in tin-lead alloys is evidenced
by a frosty appearance of the
solidified alloy.

7.3.6 Soldering Methods

7.3.6.1 Hand Soldering Irons.
Hand soldering, using the
conventional electrically heated
iron, is the most widely used
method of joining electrical

conductors .
Soldering irons should be
chosen with regard to the size
of the work being soldered,
production rate, and worker
fatigue . In addition,
selection of the soldering
iron tip is a crucial point of
consideration and demands a
detailed study with respect to
its application with the type of
iron to be used in performance
of the soldering operation.
Specifically, five related
parameters must be considered.
These are: wattage rating of
the iron; amount of voltage
to be applied to a particular
operation; resistance of the heat
transfer unit in the iron; cross
sectional area of the tip; and
the metal used in tip construction.
For example, the wattage
rating of the iron determines
the power that

will be generated

with a constant current.

This,

7-37

OP

2230

coupled with the resistance of the

iron heat transfer unit, governs
the amount of heat that will be

to the tip. In turn,

tip cross sectional area and
the metal used will determine

transferred

the

whether the heat

will

be

effectively retained (heat storage)

or rapidly dissipated. From
this relationship it can be seen
that the tip temperature and its
retention time are directly
proportional to the tip cross
sectional area and the metal
used in tip construction.
Tip diameter and length
should be large enough to

conduct adequate heat to the

yet small enough to
reach connections in congested
layouts . Physical size and
weight of an iron, which depend

joint,

in part on the manufacturer's

design, should permit easy
handling. The soldering iron
shape, for example, a
straight or right- angle barrel
should be selected according
to the work being done.
Selection of a soldering iron
must of necessity be a
logical compromise of tip
diameter and length, heating
capacity, and ease of handling.

HEATING ELEMENT
CASING

HANDLE

TIP

CORD

COMPONENTS OF THE SOLDERING IRON

The diameter, length, metal
used, and shape of the tip
should be suitable for the
application involved. They
determine the amount of heat
available and rate of heat
flow to the work. The copper
mass acts as a heat reservoir
when the soldering iron is idle,
and serves to dissipate excess
heat to the surrounding air .
The temperature of the tip

is usually maintained approxi

mately 200F above the melting

point of the

solder.

Tips, generally made of solid

copper or special copper alloy,
7-38

can be obtained in various shapes

including pointed, chisel, bent,
blunt, and concave shapes for
general or specific use. The
pointed or chisel shape serves

for general-purpose soldering

where a large variety of work

is handled.
The flat, narrow
tip is particularly suited for
soldering the terminals of
multipin connectors; the
bent tip for soldering connec
tions difficult to reach with
a straight tip. For rapid
heating a long, small-diameter
tip will not conduct heat as rapidly
or maintain its temperature as
evenly as will a short, thick tip.

WIRING AND CABLING

POINTED

CHISEL

BENT

BLUNT

CONCAVE

TYPES OF IRON TIPS

The soldering iron wattage
rating determines the rate at
which heat is generated by the
element. Production soldering
depends to a large degree on
wattage rating and the efficiency
of heat transfer . A heating
element of proper rating will
deliver a steady and sufficient
flow of heat to the tip without
overheating or rapid corrosion.
When a soldering iron is
applied to a connection,
outgoing heat reduces
temperature of the tip. The
heating element tip size and
metal used in tip construction
determines the length of
time taken to restore the tip
to the temperature required.
Soldering irons in general use
are rated from 20 to 500 watts
and have tip diameters ranging
from 1/8 to 2 inches. For
general electronic work, irons
rated from 75 to 150 watts and
having 1/4 to 3/8 inch diameter
tips are popular.
Size, weight, and shape of
the soldering iron must be
chosen with a view toward
minimizing worker fatigue.
Where a high production rate
is desired, one or more small
irons may be used to replace
or supplement a larger iron.
Soldering irons of special shapes
sometimes permit easier access
to connections .

The soldering iron should be

properly prepared before use.
The working surface of the tip
should be cleaned thoroughly,
then heated and tinned.
Tinning consists of applying
solder to the tip until its
working surface is completely
covered and bright; then
wiping off excess solder. A
clean, tinned surface assures
rapid heat transfer from the
tip to the work being soldered,
and assures well-bonded,
smooth-appearing solder
connections

Ferrous plating is sometimes

used to protect copper tips

from rapid oxidation.

The
manufacturer's instructions
should be observed when
these "armored" tips require
cleaning . Such tips must
never be filed or forged as
either operation will ruin the
thin protective coating . Dull
spots can usually be restored
to brightness by applying flux
and solder, then wiping off
any excess solder with a
clean cloth.
Plain copper tips oxidize
quickly, and therefore, must
be frequently cleaned and
retinned. A fresh working
surface can be obtained by
filing or sanding the working
faces of the tip and then
tinning. If the tip has been
7-39

OP

2230

TYPES OF HAND SOLDERING IRONS

permitted to deteriorate, it may
be necessary to repeat the tinning
process until an even, shining,
solder-coated surface is obtained.
The soldering iron should be
properly maintained during use.
A clean cloth or wiping pad used
at intervals will remove excess
solder and slag which otherwise
speed erosion of the tip. Whenever
the working surface becomes dull
or tarnished, the tip should be
retinned. Any small spots on the
tip should be lightly scraped in
compliance with the manufacturer's
instructions , then covered with
rosin core solder.
If abused, an iron will require
greater effort on the part of the
operator to produce good work.
If permitted to overheat, a
pitted and burned soldering
tip will result. Overheating may
occur when a tip which is too
short to provide sufficient
radiating surface area is used.
Such a tip must be replaced.
A hot soldering iron left idle
will gradually overheat, since

7-40

heat is generated too quickly to

dissipated through radiation
alone. Various measures may
be employed to avoid overheating
An idle soldering iron can be
disconnected from the line
or a metal-flanged stand may
be used which will dissipate
heat at a rate which is roughly
the same as that due to usage
be

iron. Alternately, a
soldering iron or a stand
equipped with a thermostat or
variable resistor which controls
line voltage will greatly
increase the life of the iron.
Poor heat transfer from the
heating element to the tip may
of the

cause the heating element and

casing to retain excessive heat.

Oxides are formed which cause
"freezing" or improper seating
of the tip, and may necessitate
replacement of the complete
soldering iron. The soldering
iron tip should always be
inserted to the full depth of the
casing, and should be seated

firmly against

the heating

WIRING AND CABLING

element. The tip should
occassionally be removed and
cleaned of oxides. An anti-seize
lubricant may be applied to the
seated end of the tip before
inserting to prevent sticking
and to increase heat conductivity.
Besides the conventional hand
soldering iron, other soldering
tools include the pencil iron and
soldering gun. The pencil iron
is recommended for precision
soldering of small electrical
units, intricate instruments, and
subminiature assemblies. Except
for their small size, pencil irons
are similar to conventional hand
irons . Threaded tips are avail
able in a variety of shapes which
are easily interchangeable.
These irons are available with
low wattage ratings and cannot
therefore be used in
applications where a consider
able, steady heat flow is
required. The quick-heating
soldering gun is excellent
for intermittent use and
diverse applications, but is
unsuited for high-speed
production work; a 4- to 5second warmup period being
required each time the
trigger is depressed. The
soldering gun usually
contains a transformer built
into the pistol handle. Its
tip must be kept clean and
"well tinned, although oxidation
and erosion are minimized by
the high proportion of OFF
time for the unit.

7.3.6.2

Dip Soldering . Dip

soldering, the process of
immersing connections in
molten solder, has gained
wide acceptance in the manu
facture of electronic equipment.
This method usually results in

only a fraction of the number

of rejects normally occurrent
in conventional hand soldering.
In dip soldering, one or
more connections can be
bonded in a single operation.
It is often practicable to carry
a group of terminals, as on a

connector or tube socket, to

the solder. Special machinery

has been developed for
multiple- connection, mass
production dip soldering.
The process is well adapted

to soldering printed circuits,

where all conductors and
terminals are mounted on one
side of a terminal board, and
all components are mounted
on the other. The wired
terminal side may be immersed
in the solder pot, thereby
soldering all terminals in a
single operation.
In this process, all joints
are secured mechanically in
position, dipped in liquid flux,
and then immersed in liquid
solder . Square mounting eyelets
are often used since these tend
to draw more solder into
openings than the conventional,
round types. Where removal of
flux is desired, terminals may
be dipped into a suitable cleaner
after soldering.
A "drossy" surface will form
on molten solder which has been
heated for a considerable length
of time. To reduce this dross,
terminals are sometimes pretinned,
and also, one or two percent of
indium added to the solder .
For simultaneous application
of flux and solder, some fluxes,
usually fats, may be floated
on the molten solder surface.
This also serves to reduce
formation of dross.
If properly controlled, dip
soldering produces connections

7-41

OP

2230

least equal in appearance and

workmanship to those formed
by individual operations with
a hand soldering iron.
at

To maintain the proper

temperature, the power source
for the heating element should
be able to supply sufficient
power at a voltage recommended
Under
by the manufacturer.
the varying temperatures
usually found in a shop, solder
temperature differences as
great as 40F may be caused
by a supply voltage

volts

drop of

10

The solder pot must be large

enough to accommodate the
work and hold enough solder
to maintain a uniform
temperature. The thermal
capacity of the solder should
be sufficient so that there is
immediate wetting of the

DIP SOLDERING
To maintain good quality in
dip soldering, it is imperative
to control solder temperature
and amount of contamination.
Solder pot temperature is an
important factor in producing
good soldered connections and
maintaining a clean solder pot.
For most dip soldering
applications, the pot should be
approximately 100 to 150F
above the liquefaction point
of the particular solder used.
It is advantageous to use higher
temperatures for some
applications, such as printed
wiring boards and tube sockets.
At higher temperatures solder
dross forms rapidly and must
be removed frequently to
insure a clean dip. If the
temperature is too high, a
bluish film forms very quickly
over a freshly skimmed surface,
If the temperature is too low,
the solder does not flow
properly and a cold solder dip
results .

7-42

work and no measurable

temperature drop when the work
is dipped into the solder .
Congealing of the solder as
the work piece is lowered into
the pot is evidence that the
solder capacity of the pot is
too small, that the solder is
not hot enough, or that the heat
source is not adequate for the

rate of soldering.
During initial heating, the
solder should be completely
melted and then stirred before
any dipping is started. Dipping
too soon robs the soldering
pot of its tin- rich portion
unbalancing the alloy and
resulting in a lower tin content
solder for later work.
To assure a clean dip, remove
the film of oxide and burnt flux
frequently from the top of the
molten solder with a dry shingle,
a piece of cardboard, or some
other similar material. Never
use a solder able material.
Alloying of the solder and the
metal being soldered contaminates
the solder bath. To minimize
this contamination and to delay

WIRING AND CABLING

renewal of the solder bath,
avoid prolonged immersion
of the work pieces in the
solder pot by preheating the
work pieces, using a hot flux,
and selecting the proper solder
pot size and operating
temperature .
Tin-lead solder 60/40 or
63/37 should be used for dip
soldering printed wiring
boards. The temperature of
the solder bath should determine
the dip time. A minimum
dip time of 8 to 10 seconds is
required for solder bath
temperatures of approximately
475 F . At higher tempera
tures , the dip time should
be shorter to avoid warping
the boards .
The printed wiring boards
must be clean prior to soldering.
When a board has been handled or
stored under normal room
conditions, the areas to be
soldered should be cleaned by
burnishing. A suitable material
for burnishing is a pencil-style
typewriter eraser. In extreme
cases, 4/0 steel wool may be
used, but it is important to
remove all particles of the
steel wool that may become
embedded under eyelets,
fasteners, cr pads. The
board should be washed and
dried thoroughly after
abrasion cleaning to remove
any foreign materials .
Flux may be applied by
dipping the board into a
container of a liquid flux.
Before the board is dipped
into the solder, excess flux
must be drained off. Sufficient
time should be allowed for the
flux to thoroughly wet the
surface to be soldered.
The board should be dipped
into the solder bath at such
an angle that only one edge

touches the solder. The angle

is then decreased until the
flat face is in contact with the
solder. This method permits
vaporized solvents to escape,
helps remove decomposed
flux, maintains the surface of

solder at an appropriate
temperature, and makes the
solder flow smoothly onto the
circuit pattern. Vibrating the
board may be used to remove
excess solder.
Flux and other residues
should be removed as soon
as practicable after the
dipping operation is complete .
The board may be placed for
about 20 to 30 seconds in a
shallow container of flux
remover, such as toluol,
ethyl alcohol, or trichloroethylene to soften and loosen
the residues . The board should
be brushed and redipped into
the

the solvent

to complete

the

cleaning, then dried with

filtered compressed air.
Inadequate cleaning is evidenced
by streaks on the board after
drying. Vapor degreasing
with chlorinated hydrocarbon
solvents may also be used to
remove flux, but care must
be exercised to prevent
component markings from
being defaced or dissolved by
the solvent vapors .
Solder may be applied to
printed circuit boards by the
fountain or wave method, as
shown in the

illustration.

Instead of dipping the board

into the solder pot, the level
of the solder is raised to
that of the board by pumping
it up in a wave. This method
permits more favorable angles
of insertion, better control
of the duration of contact, and
a reduction in the amount of heat
applied to other parts of the board.
7-43

OP

2230

Masking tape or solderresistant varnishes are used

to keep the solder from adhering

to component mountings and

other areas where the presence
of solder is not desired.

FOUNTAIN
OF SOLDER
10C

SOLDER
BATH

WAVE OR FOUNTAIN METHOD OF DIP SOLDERING

7.3.6.3 Induction Soldering .

Induction soldering utilizes eddy
currents generated in connecting
elements to heat junctions to
soldering temperature. When
placed in a strong high-frequency
electromagnetic field, a metallic
material is heated by induced
currents which follow closed-loop
paths within the metal. These
paths are generally predictable
and depend upon the shape of
the energizing coil and the
geometry of the metal.

For induction soldering, as

in all other methods, surfaces
must be relatively free of oxides .
Solder is usually applied in
prefer med rings , washers, and
similar shapes which fit about
the junction to be soldered.
Alternately, parts may be coated
with solder prior to joining.
7-44

Induction coils should be

designed to heat joints as evenly
and uniformly as possible without
affecting nearby components.
The comparatively large size
of the induction soldering
device and its coil requires
that work be brought to the
machine and that sufficient space
be left around the work to

permit proper coil placement.

As a general rule, each type
of work piece to be soldered by
induction heating requires its
own specially shaped coil.
The shape of the work piece and
the heat pattern required determine

coil. A number
of coils are shown in the illustra
tions on pages 7-46 and 7-47.
The effectiveness of the coil
varies inversely as its distance
from the work piece, but the
the shape of the

WIRING AND CABLING

coil must

be insulated or the
distance great enough to prevent
arcing to the work.
With small parts made of
magnetic material, a coil
designed with a close coupling
should not be used because
the strong magnetic field may
prevent the proper seating of
the parts . A coil that has a
loose coil coupling and a large
turn pitch should be used to
minimize this magnetic pull on
the parts .
Merits of induction soldering
include precise control of
temperature and rate of heating.
This reduces the risk of over
heating connections. Essentially,
there is no practical limitation
to the size of connection, large
or small, which can be soldered
by this method. It is readily

adaptable to automatic

and

mass production process . A

typical induction soldering set

up is shown below .
Induction heating is very

efficient in the soldering

of light and heavy gage assemb
lies of regular shape. The
clearance between parts
to be soldered should be
small enough to become
completely filled with molten
solder which is drawn in
by capillary force as the
solder wets the metal. Where
practicable, maintain a
clearance of 0.003 inch.
Insufficient clearances which
may prevent the solder
from penetrating properly
should be avoided. Even
temperatures should be
maintained throughout the
work piece. Hot spots which
will tend to make the solder
flow away from the joint
should be avoided.

INDUCTION SOLDERING
Too short a heating cycle
should be avoided. The
induction energy can destroy
the soldering flux before it
has had time to dissolve the
metallic oxides on the surfaces
to be joined. Gradual build
fastest satisfactory
soldering cycle is highly
recommended .

up to the

Nonconductors, such as
slate, plastic laminates,
porcelain, glass, asbestos,
or mica, should be used
for building jig fixtures to
hold the work pieces . Metal
fasteners used on the jig
should be at least 1/2 inch
from the coil so as not to
heat up or interfere with removal
of work pieces from the coil.
wood,

7-45

OP

2230

ROUND

MULTI-TURN TYPE

FORMED HELICAL

MULTI-TURN COIL

RECTANGULAR

MULTI-TURN COIL

SPIRAL HELICAL
MULTI-TURN COIL

COOLING
TUBE

SINGLE INDUCTOR TYPE

EXTERNAL COIL

(FOR HEATING TUBULAR MEMBERS)

x
PANCAKE COIL

7-46

INTERNAL COIL

WIRING AND CABLING

CONVEYOR TYPE COILS

7-47

OP

2230

7.3.6.4 Resistance Soldering .

In resistance soldering, heat
is generated when a low-voltage
electrical circuit is completed
through contacting electrodes
and the junction to be
soldered. Heat is concen
trated only at the junction

since this is the circuit

element of greatest resistance.
Two electrodes, which may
also serve as clamps, are used
to make electrical contact with

junction. Solder is applied

directly to the work and as the
junction is heated, melts and
flows onto the cleaned surfaces .
Equipment consists of a lowvoltage, high-current source of
the

power such as a transformer,

and contacting electrodes .

Hand-held and bench-mounted

types are available. Selection

of the correct size of the tool
is as important for this process
as for conventional hand -iron

soldering .
The variety of designs
available makes this method
adaptable to either small lot
or mass production runs.
Resistance soldering is well

adapted to bonding connections

in limited spaces, for example,

multiconduttor , miniature cable
connectors. Other designs
permit soldering of large
terminals and lugs . No
warmup period of the tool is
required.
Certain faults apt to occur
during conventional hand
soldering operations are
averted when resistance solder
ing is employed. "Cold" solder
joints are minimized since
solder must be applied directly
to the heated connection. The
danger of overheating nearby
parts with resultant resistance

7-48

or capacitance changes is

reduced by the localized heat

and soldering speed.
Resistance soldering is
illustrated on the following page.

7.3.6.5

Although

Ultrasonic Soldering

the equipment

required is rather complex,

ultrasonic soldering is
especially applicable to
aluminum and other hard-tosolder metals . The oxide
skin normally present on
aluminum and its alloys is not
easily dissolved, but by
ultrasonic methods, it can be
readily removed while solder
is applied without the use of
flux. In general, this method
may be applied to advantage
wherever the use of flux
presents difficulties.
Ultrasonic soldering equipment
operates on the principle that
a high-energy sound wave
passing through liquefied solder
sets up voids which rapidly
collapse. This action produces
local pressure differences
thousands cf times greater than
atmospheric pressure eroding
away surface oxides and
promoting "wetting" of the
surfaces by the molten solder.
The junction is caused to
vibrate at the same time that
heat and solder are applied.

Vibration and heat must

be

applied and terminated

simultaneously. This is
usually achieved by employing
a specialized vibratingsoldering iron.
One variation of ultrasonic
soldering is related to the
A special
dip soldering process.
is
vibrated
of
soldering
type
pot
while the connection is immersed

WIRING AND CABLING

RESISTANCE SOLDERING
7-49

OP

2230

in the molten solder . No

fluxing operation is required
with this method.
Although useful in many
applications, ultrasonic
soldering is not applicable to
fragile materials such as thin
wires or foils which are easily
ruptured under such action.

7.3.6.6 Roller-Coat Soldering.

Roller-coat soldering, a process
similar to dip soldering, was
developed primarily for soldercoating printed wiring prior to
mounting of hardware and
component parts .

This soldering technique,

in the accompanying

as shown

illustration, employs two

counter-rotating rollers.
The lower roller is made of
copper and revolves in a molten
tin-lead solder bath which
is thoroughly mixed and
thermostatically maintained
at an appropriate temperature

(usually 500F 10) . The

upper roller is adjustable to
compensate for variations in
board thicknesses . A thin
coating of flux is applied to
the conductor pattern of the

printed wiring board, and the

board is inserted between the
rollers. The solder coat is
deposited by the lower roller
on the board in the conductor
pattern. Pressure of the

upper roller and roller speed

are adjusted to give optimum
performance. A pressure of 5
to 10 Ibs per inch of board
width usually results in an
adequate deposit without damage

conductor pattern. After

solder coating, the board is
cleaned to remove flux residue
and dried.

to the

7.3.7 Hand Soldering.

The importance of establishing

and maintaining a high standard
of workmanship for all soldering

ROLLERS

PRINTED WIRING BOARD

CONDUCTOR PATTERN

MOLTEN SOLDER BATH

ROLLER-COAT SOLDERING

WIRING AND CABLING

operations cannot be over
emphasized. Faulty solder
joints are a major cause of
equipment

failures despite

considerable effort expended

by the Armed Forces to
improve soldering techniques .
Quality rather than quantity
should be the principal objective.

Military reliability can be

achieved only by strict
conformance to correct soldering

Whenever over
.
emphasis is placed on
accelerated production, the
percentage of rejects rises
techniques

rapidly,

and a high percentage

of poor connections escapes

detection. Statistics show

that when the percentage of

plant rejects is low, the number
of failures in the field is

correspondingly low.
Arrangement of the production
line is an important factor.
Highest rate of production, as
well as greatest equipment
reliability, has resulted
when each worker performed
only one operation such as
wrapping or soldering, when
the number of repetitive
operations per unit was reason
ably limited, and when work was
drawn from a stationary "pileup"
Notable difficulty has been
experienced when work was
moved continuously on an
assembly line or when workers
were obliged to follow other
workers rate for each unit
operation.
Despite its seeming
simplicity, correct soldering
entails care, experience, and
a knowledge of fundamentals.
Each operator should be
thoroughly trained before
being assigned to production
of military equipment.
Operators who have already
acquired agility in handling

soldering equipment should

recruited from experienced,
competent soldering personnel,
and retrained to concentrate
on precision rather than
production speed. The
production line for military
equipment is not the place
to indoctrinate new soldering
operators since such workers
cannot consistently produce
joints which will serve
be

reliably throughout the life

Every
of the equipment.
item produced, whether

first or last "off-the-line"

must be equally reliable.

When best practices are
observed, connections are

produced wherein the solder

actually alloys with the
metals of mating surfaces .

7.3.7.1 Procedure.

This
section discusses hand
soldering procedure and covers
recommended practices as
well as difficulties which may
be encountered.
Many factors contribute to a
well-bonded solder joint.
Operations preparatory to actual
soldering (See 7.3.3 and 7.3.4)
include selection and care of
the soldering iron, selection of
solder and flux, and proper
assembly of connections.

Applying the iron: The

soldering iron should be held
properly to avoid fatigue.
Two widely used methods of
clasping the iron for production
soldering are shown on the
following page .
7-51

OP

2230

of the connection

should be

quickly raised to soldering

temperature in a single operation,
On flat terminals, the tip
of the soldering iron is usually
applied to the flat portion of
the wire wrap; on turret
terminals it is applied to both
the wire wrap and the terminal .

HOLDING THE SOLDERING IRON

IRON APPLIED TO

TURRET TERMINAL

Where components on small

assemblies must be soldered,
it is sometimes advantageous to
mount the soldering iron in a
jig and move the part by hand to
make contact with the iron. By
using a jig, the operator has
both hands

free, one

to hold

assembly and the other to

hold the solder. By touching
the terminals to the fixed
soldering iron, one at a time,
and simultaneously feeding
solder to the joint, the operator
can work more rapidly with
less fatigue. The illustration
on the opposite page shows this
method of soldering.
the

The iron should be applied

to contact maximum surface
area of both the wire wrap and
the

terminal.

7-52

All members

IRON APPLIED TO

FLAT TERMINAL

WIRING AND CABLING

SOLDERING BOARD- MOUNTED PARTS

7-53

OP

2230

The soldering iron tip should

lightly placed against the
junction. If it is found necessary
to exert greater pressure, heat
flow to the junction is inadequate,
indicating that the soldering iron
is either too small or in poor
working condition.
be

improvised, spring-loaded,
aluminum clips. Excess heat
is then conducted away from
the component by the relatively
large mass of the pliers or
clips .

The iron must be correctly

tinned to produce a sufficient
heat-conducting area. Heat
conduction can be further
increased by lightly touching
solder to the intersection of

soldering iron and junction.

However, solder thus applied
to promote heat transfer, should
not be used for bonding the
connection.

HEAT CONDUCTING CLIP

Applying the solder and flux:
After all connecting parts have
been heated to proper tempera
ture, the junction should be
coated with flux, and solder
should be touched to the upper

part of the junction, on the

side opposite the soldering iron.

TINNED IRON
CONTACTING TERMINAL

The joint should be rapidly

raised to temperature and
solder applied quickly to avoid
prolonged heating which may
interfere with proper fluxing and
cause damage to surrounding
components and insulation.
Damage to temperature-

critical components can

be

prevented by gripping connecting

leads between component and

terminal with pliers or

7-54

SOLDER APPLIED TO
TURRET TERMINAL

WIRING AND CABLING

Solder should melt and flow
smoothly upon contact with the
heated junction. If solder
fails to melt rapidly, it should
be withdrawn until the junction
has reached correct soldering
temperature. If solder
sputters excessively or a
black residue appears, the
soldering iron should be
removed from the overheated
junction.
Optimum amount of solder

SOLDER APPLIED TO

FLAT TERMINAL

flux-core solder is
to
the heated joint,
applied
flux melts and coats the joint,
When

cleaning the metals and

preventing further oxidation.
Flux-core solder, for bonding,
is applied directly to the joint,
never to the iron. If applied
to the iron, the flux
decomposes before it can
remove oxides from the base
metal surfaces .

When all connecting parts are

clean and heated to proper
temperature, the solder melts
rapidly, instantly flowing and
""wetting" all members of the
junction. Solder spreads over
the surface cleaned by the flux,
boils flux out of the joint, and
forms alloys with connecting metals
Concave fillets form at
boundaries of the junction and
"feathered", thin, tapered edges
blend into a continuous metal
surface .

will have been applied when

concave fillets form in the

recesses between wire

wrap and terminal while the
outline of the wire wrap
remains evident.
Application of excessive
solder is wasteful and results
in joints difficult to inspect.
It is relatively difficult to
recognize a poor solder joint
obscured by excessive solder.
Extreme excesses of course
may cause short circuits
between adjacent terminals .

Flux should be completely

boiled out of solder and forced
to the surface, where it will
float and harden. If the
iron is removed before all
rosin has been forced to the
surface, flux trapped in the
solder will form a "rosin"
joint. Such a connection may
prove to be a high-resistance,
poor mechanical bond.
Clean parts free of dirt and
oxides should be used. Dirty or
oxidized terminals may result
in lack of a good bond as evidenced
by the solder not flowing properly.
This is known as a "cold" solder
joint; it can be caused by

7-55

OP

2230

Convex

Convex

"COLD" JOINT

"COLD" JOINT

WIRE INSUFFICIENTLY
CLEANED OR HEATED

TERMINAL INSUFFICIENTLY
CLEANED OR HEATED

"FeatheredEdge"
Concave

Fillet

Solder Coating
(Cross Section)

GOOD

SOLDER JOINT

insufficient heat or absence of

flux as well.

flux may result in insulation

Flux applied when using a

rosin-core solder is generally

When contaminated terminals

are encountered and solder
does not readily flow after
the joint has reached proper
temperature and flux has been
applied, the connecting wire
should be removed and the
terminal cleaned by lightly
scraping with a small knife or
piece of fine sandpaper. The
terminal can then be retinned,
rewired, and resoldered.

sufficient to clean oxides formed

on metal surfaces , but additional
flux may be required if the oxide
film coating is unusually heavy .

If necessary,

a separate,
noncorrosive flux may be
used. However, best practice
is to thoroughly clean the
joint prior to soldering.

The joint should be warmed

slightly before applying such
flux. Flux should be applied
sparingly, using only a quantity
sufficient to cover the entire
surface of the joint. It should
not be permitted to seep onto
insulation, since excessive

56

breakdowns

and leakage

Removing the Iron: The

soldering iron should be removed
as soon as solder has coated the
connection and the solder
permitted to cool, solidify,
and "set". If disturbed while

WIRING AND CABLING

EXCESSIVE SOLDER JOINT

COLD SOLDER JOINT

UNACCEPTABLE

ROSIN SOLDER JOINT

DISTURBED JOINT

SOLDER JOINTS
7-57

OP

2230

cooling, solder will crystallize

and exhibit a dull, granular

appearance .

It is important to solder the

joint correctly the first time.
If a joint must be reheated
more than once, the solder
should be removed, the joint
completely disassembled, and
the soldering procedure repeated.

WELL-SOLDERED

TURRET LUG

Residues of rosin fluxes are

usually considered to be
noncorrosive and nonconductive.
Removal is unnecessary except
where such residue might affect
equipment performance, as in
high-frequency circuits .

Connections and wiring should

be so supported and protected
as to obviate breakage and

Reliable solder joints are

the product of precise workman
ship and good materials, not
the result of chance. They
are neat in appearance, electric
ally stable, and mechanically

7.3.8.1 Sleeving.

sound.

7.3.8 Wiring Protection

minimize any changes in

performance due to vibration,
inclination, shock, or environ
ment under severe service
conditions .

Insulated
sleeving or "spaghetti" is
utilized for added wire protection,
such as, preventing short circuits
at the terminals of multiconductor
connectors and stress relief at
the solder lug barrels.
When used, sleeving is
slipped back over each wire prior
to the soldering operation. Its
length must be sufficient to
cover the terminal, and to
extend at least 1/2 inch over
the wire insulation. After the
soldering operation, sleeving
should be fitted tightly over the
terminal. If required the ends
may be sealed to prevent
moisture or other contaminant
from entering and accumulating

WELL-SOLDERED

58

FLAT LUG

within the sleeving.

Glass braid or plastic sleeving
such as vinyl or nylon should be
used. Although glass braid ends
may fray, this material is not
adversely affected by elevated

WIRING AND CABLING

temperatures.
Where high
temperatures are encountered
and certain electrical properties
are desired fluorocarbon
sleeving may be used.

7.3.8.2 Serving. Serving is

the process of binding loose
ends of insulation to prevent

unraveling. Serving is usually

accomplished by wrapping a
cord about cable ends then
applying a coat of nonhygroscopic
lacquer or equivalent.
SERVING

7.3.8.4 Taping. Electrical tape

should not be used to insulate
soldered joints , to bind wires,
or to secure a harness in lieu
of a clamp. Where specifica
tions permit the use of tape,
only vinyl electrical tape
should be used.
7.3.8.5 Clamping. Long wires
or cables should be securely
anchored to the chassis by
means of clamps which
distribute pressure over a
wide area of the wire or cable
surface. Clamps must not
cut, pinch, or abrade the
wire or cable .

Serving of a cable end is

started by laying one end of the
wrapping cord alongside the
wire insulation and binding
it by wrapping with at least
two turns . Wrapping is
continued as desired, pulling
each turn tightly, and slightly
compressing the insulation.
It is terminated by loosening
the last two turns, slipping
the cord end through, and
pulling up tightly. The end of
the cord is cut close to the
wrap and a light coat of
lacquer is applied to the serving,

GOOD

The size of the clamp must

be

7.3.8.3 Lacing. Grouped

individual wires are often laced
together to form neat, easily
supported assemblies . A
discussion of the lacing
operation is included in 7.3.2.
Lacing should not be used to
fasten harness or components
to a chassis in lieu of a clamp.

POOR

selected to fit the diameter

of the cable or wire group.

Correct size centers the

conductors and prevents
stressing individual wires
or soldered connections.

Clamps should also be

employed to support cables
or wires at plugs or receptacles,
7-59

OP

2230

Clamps are used to secure

harness assemblies where there
is any possibility of damage due
The
to shock or vibration.
harness is usually clamped at
every branch or breakout and
at intervals along the cable .

GOOD

POOR

Clamps should be tightened until

they cannot be twisted by hand
so that they will hold cables
tightly enough to prevent them
from being pulled loose. When
a rubber cushion is supplied
with the clamp, it should
completely enclose all the
wires in the bundle, as
illustrated .

GOOD

CLAMPING HARNESS ASSEMBLY

POOR

7-60

Various types and sizes of

plastic clamps for cables are
illustrated on the opposite page,

WIRING AND CABLING

CABLE CLAMPS

CABLE CLAMPS

USE OF

MOUNTING
HOLE

KEY SLOT

RIBS

LOCKING CLIP

MOUNT

ABLE TIE STRAPS

7-61

OP

2230

These cable clamps are

available in a number of materials
which have good dielectric
properties, do not support
combustion, and are resistant
to rust, moisture, fungus, and
corrosion. The openings vary
from 1/8 inch to 3.0 inches in
diameter. Choice of the proper
material allows use of these
clamps at temperatures ranging
from -60 to 275F.
Examples of the use of these
clamps in service are shown on
the preceding page.
Certain of the tie straps and
cable clips discussed in 7.3.2.2
and 7.3.2.3 can also be used to
clamp cables and bundles of wire.
The mounting straps illustrated
on the following page have the
same features as the tie straps
discussed previously.
Mounting straps may be
mounted with standard threaded

fasteners in any of the positions

shown below .
The mounting straps may be re
used if the strap is installed
so that the tip of the strap is
threaded through the eye and
then returned through the key
slot of the mounting hole. The
head of the screw prevents the
free end from slipping back, but
the

strap is easily disassembled

when the mounting bolt is removed.

REUSABLE MOUNTING STRAPS

An example of the use of these
mounting straps in service is
shown on the following page.

OVERHEAD

FLAT

NT
INSTALLATION OF MOUNTING STRAPS
7-62

WIRING AND CABLING

USE OF MOUNTING STRAPS

The cable clips discussed in

7.3.2.3 are also made with a
recessed hole to permit mounting
of a cable or wire bundle. These
mountable cable clips possess
the same features as the cable

clips discussed previously,

and can be used with a wide
variety of fasteners.
These clips may also be
mounted back-to-back, to
support two or more parallel
cables . In addition, largediameter cables and wire bundles
(over 2-1/4 inches) may be
clamped by using two or more
clips and bases together.

projections or other sharp

edges which might abrade the
coverings of conductors.

Various devices such

as

feed-through and U-types

of clamps are available to
suit given applications such
as standard Navy terminal
tubes . The degree of enclosure
required by the specifications
will govern the type of tube or
clamp to be used.
the

7.3.8.6 Strain Relief . Strain

relief provisions are required

where mechanical stresses would

otherwise be transmitted to
terminals by taut wires or
cables. Sufficient slack should
be allowed in the length of

wires and cables

to prevent

undue stress upon

terminals.

Where flexible cords feed

through the overall enclosure,
stops should be provided. The
surface against which each stop
rests should be free of

STRAIN RELIEF DEVICE

7-63

OP

2230

7.3.9 Separable Connectors

Connections in electronic

equipment that are intended to

be readily made or broken for

STRAIN RELIEF DEVICES

TYPICAL CONNECTOR

THREAD-COUPLING

7_64

RING TYPE

testing, maintenance, or
replacement of components
are referred to in this manual
as separable connections.
This
includes a wide variety that is
further classified as external
and internal, or rack and panel
connectors. Other separable
connections, such as tube
sockets, tip jacks, telephone
jacks, etc., are grouped as
miscellaneous connections .
In selecting a connector,
first determine if the connector
must meet Military Specifications
and second, determine the most
critical or important considera
tions or limitations that tend
to restrict selection such as:
number of contacts, size of
contacts (amperage rating),
style of contacts, arrangement
of contacts, shape of plug
(round or rectangular), type of
plug (cord, printed circuit, etc.),
mounting space (ampule, restricted),
coupling methods, insulation
qualities, and environmental
conditions .
One of the major restricting
elements' of a connector is the
number of circuits it must
handle. Where a large number of
leads are to be accommodated,
several separate connectors may
prove more satisfactory than a
single connector.
Except for power supply
connectors, spare terminals in a
quantity of ten percent should be
provided. Care must be taken
to avoid use of identical connectors
at any one location to prevent
accidental misconnecting .
However, due to development in
miniaturization in recent years,
the number of contacts is not as

WIRING AND CABLING

it might first
miniature
connectors
seem. Many
of current design carry an
unusually large number of
contacts. To illustrate, a
comparison of miniature and
standard plug insert sizes is

restrictive

as

shown.

In determining the minimum

Size of contacts and the

resultant spacing is important.
The controlling factor in this
case is the amperage a particular
contact must carry. The

illustrations below show

typical relative increase in

contact size as amperage
ratings and wire sizes are
increased. Be sure to note,
in the selection of a connector,
not only the number of contacts,
but also the amperage and
wire size each contact is
to

carry.

spacing between contacts and

contact shell, allowance
must be made for possible
accumulation of dirt, humidity

effects, or reduced pressure

at high altitude .
The voltage drop across
mating contacts and contact

resistance which will

probably increase with time
must also be carefully
considered for possible
effects

The following table

the average

lists

current carrying

capacity of connector

contacts

7-65

OP

2230

Contact Size
or Wire Gage

Max. Allowable
Current (Amps)

1/0

160-200

115-120

80-87
60-65

6
8
10
12
14
16
18

20

by

40-48
30-35
22-26
15-20
10-15
8-11

5-7

Connectors are primarily

distinguished by the method of
coupling connector halves. You
will find standard MS coupling
threads, easy-operating Acme
coupling threads, reverse Acme
threads, bayonet type, latchlock,
quick- disconnect, and contactfriction couplings . Application
and operation determine which
is usable or desirable.

LATCH TYPE
Mating halves are secured by
suitable latch incorporated in
the

MS AND

Connector halves are secured

the spring contacts

friction of

shell.

ACME COUPLING THREADS

TWIST LOCK OR BAYONET TYPE

FRICTION TYPE

Lugs on the plug side of the

fitting fit into grooves on the
receptacle. A 20 degree twist
locks or unlocks the
connector.

WIRING AND CABLING

Another factor in selecting
plugs is a consideration pertinent
to

the type of contact

for

specific requirement. In the

figure, from top to bottom, are
examples of various contacts:
a solder pot terminal pin contact,
a

crimp type terminal,

terminal,

an eyelet

leaf type spring

contact, a coaxial, and a twinax.
Besides these, there are
thermocouple types, high
voltage types, and taper pin
terminal types .
a

In many instances, a

critical item for consideration

is the insulation material

separating the contacts. A
wide variety of insulators
have been developed and
each has a long list of

electrical and mechanical

properties any one of which
might be the dominant

Dimensional limitations are

often the basic factor in the type

of plug selected. Normally, the
receptacle is the mounted
portion, although in some lines
the plug may be the mounted
portion, and in some types of

rack-panel-chassis installations

both the plug and receptacle will

be mounted on a structure.
The
the
and
size
of
and
type
shape
the mounting flange are the

factors to be considered.
Typical configurations and
sizes are shown in the
figure .

characteristic for the applica

tion. Some of the common
materials used for insulators
are: melamine, phenolic,
diallylphthalate, nylon,
synthetic rubber, ceramics,
or glass. Each is particularly
adaptable to certain
environmental operating
conditions such as moisture,
heat, vibration, pressure,
humidity, corrosive atmosphere,
stray electric and magnetic
fields, low and high frequency
noise, and oil resistance.

all of the above factors

considered in selecting
connectors are necessarily
important in each instance,
but one or more can easily
be critical items .
Not

to be

7-67

OP

2230

Soldering Procedure. Soldering of wires to connector

terminals is an exacting
procedure because of limited
working space. Procedures

used

will depend upon

the

condition of the parts to be

joined. Commonly used
methods are described.
When soldering wires to a
captive connector, in a jig or
in a panel, the starting point

should be at the side away

the iron. The start can
be made at the top if the cable
enters from that direction and
there is no interference with
subsequent operations . If

from

soldering proceeds from the

bottom, a heat resistant shield

should be used to prevent contact

of the iron with previously
soldered wires . When the
connector is held vertical or
at an angle, the start is best
made at the center.
When the connector is held
in the hand and can be moved,
it is advantageous to solder with
a stationary iron with the captive

iron tip facing the operator .

Soldering can then proceed by
holding the terminal and wire
against the tip. When this
method is used, it is advantageous

CUP

BARREL

7-68

start at the center, since the

connector can be rotated as the
work proceeds .
Regardless of the method
used, wires which have been
previously soldered should not
interfere with the soldering
iron or the operator's view. The
operator must be able to place
the iron in firm contact with
the terminal without touching
other wires . A bent soldering
tip is advantageous for some
operations .
Pretinned wire and terminals
should be used. Additional
solder is not usually required.
Soldering must be performed
rapidly to prevent damage to
insulation, and therefore, a large
Lack
tapered tip is required.
of flux or sufficient heat will
produce a cold solder joint.
AN connectors of the multipin
type are equipped with cable
clamps . The cable is often
smaller than the size for which
the clamp was designed. To
provide a more suitable means
of anchoring cables of small
diameter, adapters should be used.
The adapter should center the cable
and insure anchorage without padding.
Sleeving is slipped over the
wires before soldering, and when
to

WIRING AND CABLING

all joints have cooled

and have
been cleaned, the sleeving is
slipped over each joint. The
sleeving should fit snugly over
each soldered terminal and
wire to adequately support the
wire and prevent sharp bends.
The use of high-temperature

wire presents special problems,

and the following procedures
should be used for soldering
high-temperature wire to
connector terminal cups:
a. Fill the connector pin
solder cup with enough
solder so that the solder
will be level with the top
of the cup when the wire

The wire will later become

completely tinned to the top
of the connector pin cup
when the wire is inserted
into the cup.

WIRE
INSULATION
STRIPPED,
WIRE

CONNECTOR PIN
SOLDER CUP

is inserted.

the hot soldering iron

on the back of the cup
until the desired temperature
is obtained. This will be
evidenced by the solder
turning a bluish, lustrous

b. Hold

color.
c. When the desired solder

temperature is obtained,
insert the wire all the way

to the bottom of the cup.

d. Remove the iron immedi
ately to prevent overheating
of the solder. If the solder
is overheated, it will expand
upward toward the gap and

result in a stiff joint.

PRECAUTION - Do not allow

solder to make contact with
portion of the wire .

the gap

The insulation of high-tempera

ture wire should be stripped back
a distance equal to the depth of
the connector pin cup plus an
allowance for a 1/16 to 1/32 inch
gap between the stripped end of
the insulation and the top of
the cup, as shown.
The stripped end of hightemperature wire should be
initially tinned for 1/32 inch.

High-temperature wire should

soldered with a solder
consisting of 95% tin and 5%
antimony. This solder will
provide a good electrical and
mechanical connection and
withstand temperatures up to
300F.

be

7.3.9.1 External Connectors .

External connectors are
generally used for inter
connection of cabling and
electronic equipment, or
joining cables external to
electronic equipment. These
connectors have a strong
outer shell, usually metallic,
which houses the dielectric
or insulating material. These
shells are designed for maximum
protection of the enclosed
dielectric and electrical contacts
and usually feature some means
of locking members together.
AN Connectors - AN connectors
are widely used on electronic
equipment designed for use in
severe environmental conditions.
Military Specification MIL-C-5015
7-69

OP 2230
and

Military Standard Drawings

through MS 3108 cover

the basic design of this type
MS

3100

connector .
AN connectors feature sturdy
aluminum shells which are
locked together by a threaded
coupling ring either resilient or
hard plastic dielectric inserts
and various sizes and arrangements
of individual electric contacts.
The following six standard styles
of aluminum shells are available:
wall receptacles MS 3100, cable
receptacles MS 3101, box
receptacles MS 3102, straight
plug MS 3106, quick disconnect
plug MS 3107, and angle plugs
MS 3108. Examples of these

are illustrated below.

The suffix letters appearing

illustration identify the
shell construction as follows:

on the

7-70

1.

Standard purpose

connectors

A solid shell construction

split back shell

construction
2. Special purpose connectors
C pressurized construction
E environmental resistant
R lightweight environmental
resistant
B

In addition to the standard

styles of connectors, a number
of special connectors designed
to mate with the standard AN
connectors are also available.
AN .connectors are manufactured
in 16 shell sizes. A number of
standard dielectric insert
arrangements can be obtained
for each standard shell size.
They differ in the number, size,
arrangement, and spacing of
electrical contacts. Five sizes
of contacts are made with current
capacities between 20 and 245 amps.
Contact spacing is divided into
six groups with minimum creepage
distances varying from 1/16 to
1 inch.
The major disadvantage of AN
connectors is their inadaptability
to crowded or miniaturized
units . Only a fraction of the
current capacity provided in the
smallest socket contact is 'required
As
by most electronic circuits.
a result of this newly designed
miniature connector, AN connectors
have been made available to the
electronic industry . These
miniature connectors will be
discussed later in this chapter.
Rectangular Connectors Rectangular connectors suitable
for external are so numerous
in design characteristics that
the description of any one distinct
type would be difficult
if not impossible.
The outer shell of these
connectors are either stamped

WIRING AND CABLING

sheet metal or die cast aluminum.
Due to the wide variety In design,
the weight of these shells varies

considerably.
Mating members
of the connector are locked
together by screws located at
the center, ends, corners, or
other appropriate positions .
Wing nuts or knurled knobs are
frequently used for tightening.
Dielectric inserts are manufactured
from any of the common plastic
materials . Electrical contacts
are of the pin and socket type.
However, other specially designed
contacts are available.
This type connector is
suitable for a wide range of

applications although it is less

suitable for severe environments
than the previously described
AN connector. Prior to
selecting rectangular connectors
for external use, consideration
should be given to the environ
ment and the ability of this type
of connector to give continued
satisfactory service in the
environment. The shell or
hood must have the ability to
withstand any mechanical
service conditions that may
be encountered.

A typical connector of this

illustrated below.

type is

7.3.9.2 Internal Connectors .

Internal connectors are those
connectors used entirely within
electronic equipment.
They
differ from external connectors
in that they do not have an outer
metal shell and, frequently, no
provisions are made for locking
plug and receptacle together.
Mounting holes or mounting
screws are provided in each
dielectric and the plugs are
held in their receptacles by the
lugs and fasteners that support
the respective chassis units.
Some typical internal connectors
are described in the following
paragraphs .

Rectangular Connectors Rectangular connectors suitable

for internal use, unlike those
for external use, are somewhat
consistent in their design
characteristics . In some
cases the plugs of one
manufacturer will mate with
the receptacle of another.
Mounting holes or studs are
provided in either end of the

dielectric. Positive polariza

tion is accomplished by reverse
male and female guide pins .
Internal rectangular connectors
are available with 5 to 104
contacts. Current rating of con
tacts vary from 10 to 20 amperes,
7-71

OP

2230

connectors have a distinct

plug and socket shape and the
electrical contact ribbons
are mounted ax i ally on the
mating surfaces of each.

Rectangular internal, or
rack and panel connectors,
are used extensively in electronic
equipment. In a typical installa
tion, the receptacle would be
mounted with the mating face
up on a chassis . The plug

would be mounted at the

bottom of a small removable
plug-in unit which would be
held in place on the chassis.
For many designs, these
connectors are available with
metal hoods equipped with
cable clamps .

Circular

and Hexagon

Connectors - These connectors

are made with electrical contacts
and dielectrics that are similar
to those of rectangular rack
and panel connectors . This type
of connector is mounted in a
circular chassis hole by means
of a jam nut or rubber grommet.
It is occasionally used as a
termination for small internal
cables .
Ribbon Connectors - Ribbon
connectors of the internal or
rack and panel type are popular
with some manufacturers of
electronic equipment for service
under severe environmental
conditions . The mating

dielectric units of these

7-72

Miscellaneous Connections Many of the separable

connections commonly used
in electronic equipment are
not usually classified as
connectors. Some of these
are tube sockets, test points,
and terminal boards . Tube
sockets are used to provide
both physical support and
electrical contact with the
tubes. Tube sockets incorporat
ing a molded phenolic
dielectric are generally
preferred for use in electronic
equipment for industry and the
military. Design and
performance characteristics
of molded tube sockets are
found in Military Specification
MIL-S-12883.
Test points, tip jacks, and
banna jacks might be described
as single connectors of the
internal type. These are circular
in construction and are mounted
in circular holes in the chassis
by means of jam nuts . Styles
and qualities of these units
vary a great deal and therefore
should be selected for a specific
application .
Terminal boards consist of
a row or rows of terminal
posts, usually screw lugs,
mounted on a

strip of molded

insulation material. Military

Drawing MS 25123 can be used
as a guide in selecting terminal
boards. Design consideration
should be given to such factors
as insulation barriers, voltage
breakdown, creepage distance,
warpage, terminal material
and plating, mounting
provisions, etc.

WIRING AND CABLING

7.3.9.3 Miniature Connectors

Miniaturization in electronics,
often a result of increasing
circuit complexity, has

introduced miniature,
subminiature, and micro
miniature connectors as new
electronic hardware. These
newly designed connectors are
widely used in guided missiles,
telemetering equipment
computers, aircraft instrumenta
tion, and precision instruments for
radar tracking.
These three classifications
of connectors are similar in
most respects to their larger
prototypes but usually incorporate
only small electrical contacts
(5 or 10 amp capacity) and
feature only smaller contact
spacing. Because of this smaller
contact spacing, the majority
of miniature connectors have
an average flashover voltage
of 1700 volt at 60 cps ac rms
at sea

level. For high

altitudes, flashover values will

average even lower . More
detailed comparisons between
the three sizes of miniature
connectors and standard
connectors will be made in
the description of specific
types of connectors.
Miniature AN Connectors Miniature AN connectors are
similar to the standard
connectors. They were

developed to meet the unusual

demands of the aircraft and

missile industry for connectors

that would withstand the rigors

of high altitudes and increased
speeds while at the same time

contributing to the decrease

in instrumentation space and
weight requirements . These
connectors are available as
plugs, cable and panel

receptacles, and single hole

mounting receptacles.
Novel shell styles , such
as receptacles for mounting in
a single large hole by means of
a jam nut rather than by the
square flange and four
mounting screws of the
military AN 3102, are popular
with those who use miniature
AN connectors .
To date, standardization
of AN type miniature
connectors has not been
completely accomplished by
any recognized military
specification or other industry
wide standardizing activity.
Each connector manufacturer's
shell sizes and styles, insert
arrangements and locking
means are different, and
interchangeability is limited.
Conformance to electrical and
environmental requirements
of MIL-C-5015 is claimed
for most miniature designs,
but some manufacturers of
electrical equipment require
that back shells of these
connectors be filled with
sealing compound (MIL-C-8516)
as added protection against low
resistance in the presence
of moisture .
One AN type miniature
connector has been designed
for use in extremes of
humidity and barometric
pressure .
Design characteristics of
the dielectric insert to be
considered are voltage
breakdown, creepage distance,
and corners in which foreign
matter might collect. In
addition, contacts should
be examined for size, ruggedness of design, actual contact
area, suitability of finish,
etc

7-73

OP

2230

STRAIGHT CABLE
SOCKET

9tr ANGLE CABLE

PIN

STRAIGHT CABLE
PIN

BOXMOUNTING
SOCKET

W ANGLE CABLE
SOCKET

BOXMOUNTING
PIN

The shells of these miniature

connectors usually incorporate
either a bayonet lock, a single
acme thread, or a snap-lock
coupling ring to facilitate
rapid connection and disconnec
tion. Shell sizes are
approximately half those of
comparable AN connectors .

STANDARD AN CONNECTOR

7-74

MINIATURE AN CONNECTOR
Subminiature Metal Shell
Connectors - These connectors
are similar in appearance and
construction to standard and
miniature AN connectors. To
illustrate relative size, a
comparison is made below
between a standard connector
and a submlnlature connector.

STANDARD SIZE CONNECTOR

WIRING AND CABLING

clamp or protective shells to

prevent physical damage to

molded dielectric and protruding

SUBMINIATURE CONNECTOR
These connectors are designed
to withstand moderately severe
handling and environmental

conditions, and to incorporate

a shell which has maximum
strength within its volume limits.
Sealing has been accomplished
by interfacial compression of the
resilient insert which provides a
high degree of vibration resistance.
The strong coupling nuts utilize
a rugged Acme thread to permit
fast and simple engagement and
disengagement

contacts. These connectors

are similar in construction
to the standard rectangular
connector. The major
difference is lower electrical
and mechanical ratings of the
miniaturized connectors . A
comparison of electrical and
mechanical ratings of these
three miniaturized connectors
is given in the table on the
following page .
A comparison of the actual
physical size of these miniaturized
connectors is illustrated below.

Two connector sizes are

available; inserts are inter
changeable for a given connector
size; two alternate insert
positions are provided; and a
total of eight receptacles and
plugs can be furnished at this
time. Other layouts and shell
sizes are still in the design phase
of development.
Miniature, Subminiature, and
Microminiature Rectangular
Connectors - These connectors
are used in guidance systems, radar
equipment, transmitters, ampli
fiers, instrument panels , memory
drawers, control instruments ,
and a wide variety of other
electrical and electronic devices
which require plug-in type
subassemblies or chassis. They
can be used as either external
or internal connectors. For
external use, the connector
is usually equipped with
aluminum hoods with a cable

MINIATURE

SUBMINIATURE

MICROMINIATURE

7-75

OP

2230

CHARAC TERIS TIC

Breakdown voltage at sea
level
Breakdown voltage at
70,000 feet

Recommended
at sea level

test voltage

Recommended test voltage

at 70,000 feet

current

MINIATURE
3700v rms
750v rms

SUBMINIATURE

MICRO

MINIATURE

rms

2400v rms

*700v rms

650v rms

1900v

2450v rms

I600v rms

rms

425v rms

500v

7.5 amps

7.5 amps

Minimum creepage
between contacts

0.125 in

0.078 in

0.063 in

Minimum air space

between contacts

0.070 in

0.047 in

0.040 in

Contacts center-to-center

0.150 in

0.125 in

0.094 in

Pin diameter

0.040 in

0.040 in

0.030 in

Solder cups

#20

Continuous

rating

AWG

wire

#20

AWG

amps

#22 AWG

wire

wire

*60,000 feet

These connectors are

available with 5 to 104 contacts .
Contacts are precision machined
spring temper phospher bronzes
with gold plate over silver plate
for low contact resistance.
Some manufacturers incorporate
a floating contact design to
insure positive alignment of
each contact. These connectors
can be obtained with eithe r
solder cup terminals or turret
and taper pin solderless
terminals .
Positive polarization is
assured with reverse male and

female guide pins and guide

sockets on the plug and receptacle.
Polarizing screwlock guide
pins and guide sockets provide
a positive means of locking the
plug and receptacle against
accidental disconnection due to
vibration. It is also a
mechanical method of separating
the plug and receptacle without
prying or forcing. This feature
eliminates the need to "rock"
the connector during the disconnect
procedure and avoids the

possibility of damage
and body molding

to contacts

WIRING AND CABLING

.miature Circular and
Hexagon Connectors - These
connectors are designed for
panel or chassis mounting and
are inserted in round holes in
the chassis or panel and
secured with nuts or rubber

grommets . They are available

with 4 to 10 contacts . Contact
material is brass for pin
contacts

and phosphor

for socket contacts

ftronze
Some

connectors in this category

have the same pin size and

spacing as standard seven and
nine pin miniature tubes.
These connectors have

locking rings which prohibit

rotation and also prevent
disconnection under severe

vibration.

Another type of miniature

round connector consists of
an insert enclosed in an
aluminum shell. A center
jackscrew is used for engage
ment and disengagement.

Contact material is brass for

pin contacts and phosphor bronze
for socket contacts. Polarization
is accomplished through contact
arrangement and by a key slot

in

the

shell.

Keystone Connectors - This

type of connector features a

stamped sheet metal shell in
the shape of an isoceles

trapezoid. This shell serves

as a substitute for the guide
pin as well as protection for
the contacts and dielectric.
Miniature connectors of this
type are used where environ
mental conditions are severe.
They are occasionally used
as external connectors on
miniaturized equipment,
but consideration must be
given to the possible entry
of moisture.

7.3.9.4 Coaxial-Cable Connectors.

A variety of coaxial cable

connectors, each characterized

by low-loss properties, is
available to meet the diverse
requirements for radiofrequency . Specific
instructions for assembling
each type of connector are
usually furnished by the
manufacturer. A few of these
connectors are shown on the
following pages .
7-77

OP 2230

Type

UG-23B/U

Remove 1/2 inch of vinyl jacket.

When using double- shielded cable,

remove 9/16 inch.

Comb out braid as shown. Cut

off dielectric 1/4 inch from end.
Tin center conductor.

Taper braid as shown. Slide

nut, washer and gasket over
vinyl jacket. Slide clamp over
braid with internal shoulder of
clamp flush against end of vinyl
jacket. When assembling
connectors with gland, be sure
knife-edge is toward end of cable
and groove in gasket is toward
the

gland.

Smooth braid back over clamp

and trim. Soft solder contact to
center conductor. Avoid use of
excessive heat and solder. See
that end of dielectric is clean.
Contact must be flush against
dielectric. Outside of contact
must be free of solder.

Slide body into place carefully so

that contact enters hole in
insulator. Face of dielectric
must be flush against insulator.
Slide completed assembly into
body by pushing nut. When nut is
in place, tighten with wrenches,
In connectors with gland, knife-edge
should cut gasket in half by
tightening sufficiently.
7-78

WIRING AND CABLING

Type UG-23D/U

Place nut and gasket over cable

off jacket 9/32 inch from

and cut

end.

Comb out braid and fold out. Cut

off cable dielectric flush 1/8 inch
from end of jacket.

Pull braid wires forward and

taper center conductor. Place
clamp over braid and push back
against cable jacket.

Fold back braid wires as shown, trim

to proper length and form over
clamp as shown.
center conductor

Solder contact to

-.045

Insert cable and parts into connector

body. Make sure sharp edge of
clamp seats properly in gasket.
Tighten nut.

7-79

OP

2230

"BNC" Types

Trim jacket 1/4 inch for RG-58/U,

for RG-59/U, or 7/16
inch for RG-71/U cable.
5/16 inch

Fray shield and strip inner

dielectric 1/8 inch. Tin center

conductor .

Taper braid. Slide nut, washer,

gasket, and clamp over braid.
Insert clamp so that its inner
shoulder fits squarely against
end of cable jacket.

With clamp in place, comb out

braid, fold back smoothly as
shown, and trim 3/32 inch from
end.

Slip contact in place flush against

dielectric and solder. Remove
any excess solder from outside
surface of contact. Do not
overheat

FEMALE

Push connector onto cable as far

as it will go . Slide nut into
connector and tighten in position
with wrench. During this
operation, hold cable and
shell rigid while turning nut.

MALE
Where a connector
7-80

dielectric.

is not required,

terminate cables as shown in 7.3.4.3,

Chapter

MATERIALS
8.0

GENERAL

In this chapter, the general

methods of selecting and
specifying materials are
discussed. For detailed infor
mation on particular materials
and processes, refer to the
discussions in previous chapters,
especially chapters 3 to 7 .
Federal and military specifica
tions cover practically all
available materials. They are
listed in the Index of Specifications
and Standards

used by the

Department of the Navy, Military

Index, Volume III. These
specifications supply sufficient
data on the properties of materials
for many design purposes .
Further information is available
in various handbooks, manuals,
engineering society publications,

journal articles, and from

individual manufacturers.

PROPERTIES AND USES

Materials can be divided into
two main types: metals and
nonmetals .
8.1

8.1.1 Metals
Metals are much better
conductors of electricity and

heat than nonmetals

Ferrous

metals are customarily used for

structural parts requiring high
strength, although aluminum
alloys are often used where
weight reduction is necessary.
Copper and its alloys are used
for good electrical conductivity
and resistance to corrosion.
Certain alloys containing both
iron and nonferrous metals are
used in magnetic materials.

Cadmium, zinc, copper,

chromium, nickel, silver,
gold, and platinum are used
singly, or in various combina
tions , as protective platings
for ferrous metals; or to improve

electrical properties, corrosion

resistance, or appearance of
nonferrous metals. Specifications
for the various metals mentioned
are listed in Military Index,

Vol. Ill under the name of the

metal or alloy, e.g., aluminum,

brass, bronze, steel. Other

listings are given under such titles
as magnet materials, forgings,
castings, bars, pipe, solder,
tubing, and wire.
8.1.2 Nonmetals
Nonmetallic materials include
such materials as oils, mica,
rubber, plastics, ceramics,
resins, and various compounds
of metals, such as paint
pigments . Nonmetals in
electronic equipment serve as
insulators, shock- mounts ,
lubricants, and ingredients of
cleaning materials and protective
coatings. Specifications for the
various nonmetallic materials
are listed in Military Index,
Vol. Ill under titles such as
insulation, grease, lubricating
oil, molding plastic, plastic
material, rubber, gasket
material, packing, coating, paint,
lacquer, primers, and varnish.
Related processes are listed
under titles such as anodizing,
chemical films , cleaning, and
preservation.
8.2 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
8-1

OP

2230

8.2.1 General
In selecting materials for use
in electronic equipment, the
following recommendations should
be followed:
a. Critical and strategic
materials such as nickel,
tin, asbestos, and cobalt
b.

c.
d.

e.

f.

g.

should be used in the

smallest amounts possible.

The materials selected

should be of a kind and
quality widely available in
commercial supply
channels, and should not
be proprietary .
Material specifications
should permit the use of
suitable alternates.
Select materials which
give, or may be treated
for, maximum protection
against moisture, corro
sion, and fungus (see 8.2.2)
Do not use cast iron without
specific approval of the
procuring activity. Cast
iron may fail under shock
loading, endangering
personnel.
Magnesium and its alloys
should not be used unless
specifically approved by
the procuring activity.
Magnesium and magnesium
alloys , especially in thin
sections, are a fire hazard.
Materials should be
selected on the basis of
least cost, taking into con
sideration for inability,
machinability, weldability,
corrosion resistance, and
absence of toxic ingredients.

8.2.2 Moisture, Fungus,

Corrosion Resistance

and

The various methods used to

protect metals against corrosion
have been discussed in chapter 5.

8-2

Nonmetals should be selected

for maximum resistance to

deterioration by moisture and

fungus. Materials most
susceptible to such deteriora
tion are natural fats , proteins ,
cellulose, and carbohydrates .
Unless protected, these materi
als may absorb water, swell,
decay, mildew, or be nutrient
to fungi, with consequent
deterioration of electrical and
mechanical properties . Note
that materials of this type are
often used as fillers or plasticizers in plastics and rubber, or
as main constituents of insulation,
spacers, cushioning material,
packings and gaskets.
Examples of materials
containing substances described
above, which should not be used
unless protected by approved
methods are:
Animal and vegetable oils
and fats
Carbohydrates: starch, sugar
Cellulose products: cardboard,
cellophane, cork, "fiber",
paper, rayon, wood
Leather
Natural fibers: cotton, felt,
jute, hair, hemp, linen,
sisal, silk, wool
Natural rubber
Such materials which are not
protected against moisture or
deterioration by potting,
immersion in oil, hermetic
enclosure, heat, etc., should be
treated before assembly into
equipment by approved mildewproofing treatment, moistureand fungus -resistant varnish,
or preservative, such as those
covered by the following
specifications :
O-L-164, Leather Dressing,
Mildew Preventive

TT-W-571, Wood Preservative;

MATERIALS
Recommended Treating

Practice
MIL-V-173, Varnish, Moistureand

Fungus-Resistant

MIL-T-3530, Treatment,
Mildew-Resistant, for
Thread and Twine

MJL-T-20168, Treatment;
Fire-, Laundry-,
Dr y- Cleaning- , and
Mildew-Resistant (for
Cotton Fabrics)

8.3

SPECIFYING MATERIALS
Materials for electronic

equipment should be specified by

reference to documents in the
following order of preference:
a. Federal or military
specifications .

Description of mechanical
or chemical properties,
performance requirements,
or tests .
Commercial quality specifi
cations, or standards of
trade or technical organiza
tions . Include alternate
materials of equivalent
quality covered by Government.
Commercial designations .
Include an equivalent Govern
ment designation.

Proprietary material, if

suitable nonproprietary
material is not available.
Data on such material should
be obtained and a specifica
tion prepared.

3-3

INDEX

Paragraph

Page

7.3.3.2
2.2.4.1
6.3.4

7-23
2-39

-AAbrading

(Wire Cleaning)

Accessibility for Maintenance

Accessibility for Welding

Access Openings
Adhesive Joint Design
Adhesive Joints, Properties of
Adhesives ,
Advantages of
Bonding Details
Classification of
Data on
Disadvantages of

For Various Materials

For Various Service Conditions
Pressure-Sensitive
Properties of
Re action- Sensitive
Selection of
Solvents for
Temperature-Sensitive
Use of

Advanced- Design Items , Use of

Aluminum Alloys , Welding of
Aluminum, Anodic Treatments for
Aluminum, Chemical Conversion
Treatments for
Aluminum, Cleaning of (for Coating)
Aluminum, Spray or Dip Coatings of
Aluminum Rivets
American Standard Thread Series
Anchor Nuts
Anodic Treatments for Aluminum
Anodic Treatments for Magnesium
Anodizing
Arc Welding

4.4.1

4.3.8

4.4.7.10

4.4.7.3
4.4.7
4.4.7.1
4.4.7.9
4.4.7.5
4.4.7.8
4.4.7.2
4.4.7.7.1
4.4.7.7.3
4.4.7.5.2.1
4.4.7.6

6-15

4-63
4-53
4-136
4-112
4-111

4.4.7.7.2
4.4.7.5.2.2
4.4.7.4

4-112
4-131
4-113
4-131
4-112
4-115
4-131
4-113
4-114
4-114
4-114
4-115
4-114
4-113

4.4.1.4

4-71

4.4.7.5.2.3
4.4.7.7

6.2

5.2.2.1.1

5.2.2.2.5
5.1.1.6

5.2.1.7
4.4.3.7
4.4.4
4.4.4.1.1
4.4.4.2.1
4.4.6
5.2.2.1.1
5.2.2.1.2
5.2.2.1
4.4.1.2

6-4

5-11

5-17
5-3

5-9

4-85
4,91
4-91
4-92

4-97
5-11
5-12
5-11

4-68

I-

OP

2230

Assembly Design,
Bibliography
General
Assembly Slides,
Types
Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
Automatic Assembly
Automatic Processes
Axial- Lead Type (Mounting of Parts)

Paragraph

Page

3.9
3.0

3-88
3-1
2-38
2-38
4-70
3-48
3-44

2.2.2
2.2.2.1
4.4.1.2.4
3.7.2
3.7
6.4.1.1

6-17

-BBacklash (Gears)

Bails
Ball Bearings
Band Clamps

Barrel Finishing

Battle-Short Switch
Bearings
Bending of Part Leads
Bending (Sheet Metal)

Binding (Wire and Cable Ends)

Black Oxide Conversion Coatings
Blind Rivets
Board-Base Material for Printed Wiring
Boards, Part- Mounting
Body-Supported Parts (Mounting of)
Bolt Selection
Bolts, Nylon
Bosses (Casting)
Bosses for Plastic Molded Parts
Braces (Sheet Metal)
Bracing
Brackets (Sheet Metal)
Braided Shielding
Brass, Cleaning of (for Coating)
Brazed Joints
Brazing
Broaching
Butt Welds

I -

4.3.5
4.3.2
4.3.6.2
7.3.2.4
5.2.5.4
1.3.10

4.3.6

6.4.1
4.1.1.1
4.1.1.1.1
4.1.1.1.2
4.1.1.1.3
4.1.1.1.4

7.3.8.2
5.2.2.2.3
4.4.3.10
3.7.2.2.1
6.4.1.4
6.4.2
4.4.4.5
4.4.4.10

4.1.4.4
4.1.6.4
4.1.1.6

4.2.1

4.1.1.2

7.3.4.4

5.1.1.4

4.4.2.9
4.4.2
4.4.2.9
4.1.2.2
4.4.1
4.4.1.1

4-42
4-42
4-50
7-21

5-31
1-7
4-49
6-16

4-1

4-2

4-3
4-10
4-10
7-59
5-16

4-87
3-51
6-21
6-23

4-94

4-100

4-29
4-33

4-12
4-36
4-10
7-29
5-3
4-80

4-74

4-80
4-21
4-63

4-67

INDEX
Paragraph

Page

7.3.8.5
7.3.2.3
7.3.8.5

7-59
7-20
7-59

-CCable Clamps
Cable Clips
Cabling
Cadmium Electrodeposits

Capacitors, Mounting of

Cap Screws
Captive Fasteners,
Chained Type
Cowl Fasteners
One-Piece
Pawl Fasteners

Self-Ejecting Type

Captive Type Covers

Carbon Arc Welding
Cases, Cooling of
Casting
Casting Difficulties
Cast Iron, Cleaning of (for Coating)
Castor Oil Polyurethane (Potting and
Embedding)

Cathode-Ray Tube Displays

Cathode-Ray Tube Shields
Cellular Plastics (Potting and Embedding)
Cementing
(See also Adhesives)
Ceramic Building Block System

Checklists,
For Combining Single or Multiple
Instruments

For Console Design and Panel Layout

For Good Dial and Scale Design
For Good Indicators

Check-Reading Dials
Chemical Conversion Coatings
Chemically Expanded Rivets
Chemical Reduction (Metalizing)
Chemical Wire Cleaning
Chromate Conversion Coatings
Chromium Electrodeposits,

Crack-Free

Decorative
Engineering
Circuit Layout( Location of Parts)
Circuits, Prefabricated
Circuits, Stencil-Etched

7.0

7.3.2
5.2.1.2
6.4.1.1

4.4.4.5
4.4.6.6
4.4.6.6.1

4.4.6.6.3
4.4.6.6.4
4.4.6.6
4.4.6.6.1

4.4.6.6.2
4.3.8
4.4.1.2.2
3.1.2
4.1.4

7-1

7-8

5-6
6-17

4-94
4-110
4-110
4-111
4-111

4-110
4-110
4-111

4-53

4-68
3-17

4.1.4.5
5.1.1.3

4-27
4-29
5-2

5.3.3.3

5-35

3.6.3
5.3.3.4
4.4.7

3-42
4-111

3.7.2.1

3-48

2.1.1.5
2.1.3
2.1.1.2

2-21

2.1.1.5

2.1.1

2.1.3.1

5.2.2.2

2-10

5-35

2-14

2-7
2-2

2-28
5-12

4.4.3.10

4-87

5.2.1.1
5.2.1.1.3
5.2.1.1.1

5-5
5-6
5-5
5-6

5.2.4.1
7.3.3.2
5.2.2.2.1

5.2.1.1.2
6.3.2
3.7.1

3.7.1.2

5-28
7-23
5-12

6-14

3-44
3-45

1-3

OP

2230

Clamping and Supporting Subassemblies

Clamping Wires and Cables
Clamp Mounting (Body-Supported Parts)
Clamps, Band
Clamps, Cable
Cleaning Methods, (Preparation for Coating)
For Aluminum

For Brass
For Cast Iron

For Copper

For Magnesium

For Stainless Steel

For Steel

Paragraph

Page

3.3.3
7.3.8.5
6.4.2.2
7.3.2.4
7.3.8.5

3-34
7-59
6-24

5.1.1

5.1.1.6
5.1.1.4
5.1.1.3
5.1.1.4
5.1.1.7
5.1.1.2
5.1.1.1
5.1.1.5

For Zinc
Cleaning of Wire
Clearances (Location of Parts)
Clearances (Setting Rivets)

4.4.3.12.1

Clevis Pins
Climatic Protection of Equipment

3.5

Clinch Nuts
Cluster Dies (Sheet Metal)
Coatings,
Bibliography
Conversion
Metallic
Need for
On Nonmetallic Materials (Metalizing)
Other
Painted
Selection of
Use of
Coding of Noninsulated Leads

Coils for Induction Soldering

Color Codes (Wire and Cable)
Combined Indicators

Component Mounting (Shock)

Conducted Noise
Conducted RF Interference, Reduction of

Conduction Losses
Conductive Paints
Conductors, Adjacent, Shielding of
(Printed Harnesses)
Conductors, Coding of
Conductors, Selection of
Conductors, Size of
Conductors, Types and Uses

I -

7.3.3.2
6.3.3

4.4.3.12.2
4.4.3.12.3
4.4.3.12.4
4.4.6.2
4.4.4.6
4.1.1.10

5.2
5.7

5.2.2

5.2.1
5.0

5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.3
5.5
5.0

7.2.3
7.3.6.3
7.2.1
2.1.1.6

7-21

7-59
5-1

5-3
5-3
5-2
5-3
5-3
5-2
5-2
5-3
7-23
6-15

4-90
4-90
4-90
4-90
4-108
3-36

4-97
4-15
5-4
5-40
5-11

5-4
5-1

5-28
5-29
5-17

5-37
5-1

7-5
7-44
7-3
2-13

3.2.8
3.6.2
3.6.3.3

3-27
3-40
3-43

5.2.4.4

5-29

3.6.3.4
7.2

3-43
7-3

7.1.2

7-2

3.1

7.1

7.1.1

3-1

7-1
7-1

INDEX

Connections , Mechanical
Connections, Preparation of
Connectors, Coaxial Cable
Connectors, External
Connectors, Internal
Connectors, Miniature
Connectors, Separable
Connectors, (Subassembly)
Console Design
Contact Springs, Electrical
Controls,
Coding of
Compatibility of
Force Limitations

Paragraph

Page

7.3.4
7.3.3
7.3.9.4
7.3.9.1
7.3.9.2
7.3.9.3
7.3.9
3.3.2

7-25
7-23
7-77
7-69
7-71
7-73
7-64
3-32
2-21

2.1.3
4.3.12
2.1.2
2.1.3.1

2.1.2.5

of

Physiological Efficiency of

Selection of
Size of
Use of

Convection Losses
Cooling, Cross-Flow
Cooling Electron Tubes
Cooling, Forced-Air
Cooling, Internal Convection
Cooling, Internal-External Forced
Convection
Cooling, Natural Air
Cooling, Natural Convection
Cooling of Parts

2.1.2.1

2.1.2.4
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.6
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.6

2-15

2-29
2-18
2-15
2-18
2-15
2-19
2-16
2-19

3.1

3-1

3.1.2.1

6-12
6-11
6-11
3-17

3.1.2.1

3-17

6.3.1.3.2
6.3.1.3
6.3.1.3.2

6.3.1.3.1
3.1.2.1

3.1.1

6.3.1

Cooling, Parallel-Flow
6.3.1.3.2
Cooling Resistors
6.3.1.1
Cooling Transistors
6.3.1.2
Copper-Clad Laminates
3.7.2.2
Copper, Cleaning of (for Coating)
5.1.1.4
5.2.1.3
Copper Electrodeposits
COPU (Potting and Embedding)
5.3.3.3
Corners, Rounded (Sheet Metal)
4.1.1.3
Corner Treatments (Sheet Metal)
4.1.1.5
Corner Welds
4.4.1
Corrosion, Electrolytic or Galvanic
5.6.1
Corrosion Protection, Need For
5.0
Corrosion Resistance
8.2.2
Corrosion Resistance Treatment (See Coatings)
Cotter Pins
4.4.4.6
Counterbore Clearance (Setting Rivets)
Counterbor ing
Counters, Design of

4-57

4.4.6.3
4.4.3.12.4
4.1.2.6
2.1.1.3

6-11

3-17
3-12

6-4

6-12

6-4
6-5

3-49
5-3

5-7

5-35
4-10
4-11

4-63
5-38
5-1

8-2

4-98

4-109

4-90
4-25

2-8

I -

OP

2230

Countersunk Tooth Type Lockwashers

Cowl Fasteners
Cross Braces (Sheet Metal)
Cross-Flow Cooling
Cross-Recessed-Head Screws

Paragraph

Page

4.4.4.9

4-99

4.1.1.6

4-12
6-12

4.4.6.6.4
6.3.1.3.2
4.4.4.5

4-111

4-94

-DDecalcomanias
Degree of Enclosure
Dense Packaging
Dies, Cluster (Sheet Metal)
Diodes, Mounting of
Discharging Devices
Dissimilar Metals

Dissipators, Heat
Tube Shields)

Doors

Double

(See Heat

6.5.3.7

6-34
3-34
3-82

4.1.1.10

4-15

1.3.9
5.6

1-6

4.3.8
4.3.5

4.3.5.2

4-53
4-44
4-47

4.1.6.1
3.3.1

4-32
3-29

3.4
3.8.1

6.4.1.3

Sinks or

Helical (Herringbone) Gears

Dowel Pins

Drafts for Molds (Plastics)

Drawer-Type Construction
Drawing (Sheet Metal)
Dressing (See Routing and Dressing)

Drilling

Drive Shafts
Dust

5.6.2

4.4.6.2
4.1.1.13

6-20
5-38
5-38

4-108

4-17

4.1.2.4
4.3.7
3.5.3

4-23
4-53
3-39

4.1.1.1.4

4-10

-EEars (Sheet Metal)

Eccentricity (Gears)
Economic Life (Parts)

Edge Clearance (Setting Rivets)

Edge Distance (Rivets)
Edges, Sharp (Sheet Metal)

Electrical

and

Electronic Parts,

Bibliography
General
Selection Criteria

Electric Shock
Electric Shock, Prevention of

I -

4.3.5

6.1.3
4.4.3.12.1

4.4.3.5

4.1.1.3
6.6
6.0

6.1
1.2
1.3

4-44
6-1

4-90
4-84
4-10

6-34
6-1
6-1
1-1

1-2

INDEX

Electrode Materials for Spot Welding

Electrodeposited Coatings
Electroforming (Electrofabrication)

Electrolytic Corrosion

Paragraph

Page

4.4.1.1.1
5.2.1

4-68
5-4

5.2.5.2

5.6.1

5.2.5.1

Electrophoretic Coatings
Electroplating
Electropolishing
Embedding

5.2.1

5.2.5.3

5.3

5.3.3
5.3.3.5

Embedding, Problems in
Embrittlement, Hydrogen
Enamels
Encapsulation

5.1.2

5.2.3.3

5.3

5.3.2

Enclosures,
Types
Engraving
Environmental Protection
Epoxy Resins (Potting and Embedding)
External-Internal Tooth Type Lockwashers
External Tooth Type Lockwashers
Extruded Rivet Process
Extruding

3.4
3.4.1

6.5.3.4

3.5

5.3.3.1
4.4.4.9
4.4.4.9

4.4.3.11
4.1.5

5-30
5-38
5-29

5-4

5-30
5-32

5-34

5-36
5-3
5-26
5-32
5-33

3-34

3-35

6-34

3-36
5-34

4-99
4-99
4-89
4-31

-FFabricating Processes
Failure Indicators
Fastener Performance (Threaded)
Fasteners, Captive
Fasteners, Miscellaneous
Fasteners, Protection of Faying Surfaces
Fasteners, Threaded
Fastening Techniques
Faying Surfaces, Protection of (Dissimilar
Metals)
With Insulation
With Paint
Fillets (Casting)

Fillet Welds
Filling, Liquid
Fillister Head Screws

Finishes (See Coatings)

Finishing (See Machining)
Fire-Retardant Paints

Flange Clearance (Setting Rivets)

4.1

2.2.1.2
4.4.4.4
4.4.6.6
4.4.6
5.6.3.2
4.4.4
4.4
5.6.3
5.6.3.4
5.6.3.3
4.1.4.3

4.4.1
3.1.3

4-1
2-37
4-93
4-110

4-105
5-39
4-91
4-63
5-38
5-40
5-40

4-28

4-63
3-19

4.4.4.5.3

4-97
4-97

5.2.3.7
4.4.3.12.3

5-28

4.4.4.5.4

4-90

1-7

OP

2230

Flat Blanks, Contours of (Sheet Metal)

Flat-Head Screws
Flat Springs
Flat Washers
Floodlighting

Fluidized Bed Coatings

Fluxes for Soldering (Structural)

Paragraph

Page

4.1.1.1.3

4-10
4-96

4.4.4.5.1

4.3.12

4.4.4.7
2.1.4.1

5.3.2.1
4.4.2.4
7.3.5
7.3.5.1
5.3.3.4

Fluxes (Soldering)

Foams (Potting and Embedding)

Forging
Fountain Method (Dip Soldering)
Functional Blocks
Fungus Resistance
Fungus Resistant Treatments

4.1.3

Fuse-Type Clips (Mounting of Parts)

Fusing

7.3.6.2
3.8.3.2
8.2.2
5.2.3.8

6.4.1.1
1.3.2

4-57
4-99
2-32
5-33

4-76
7-33
7-33
5-35
4-27
7-41

3-84

8-2

5-28
6-17

1-2

-GGalvanic Corrosion
Galvanizing
Gaskets
Gasket Selection
Gaskets, Metal (RF Shielding)
Gas Plating (Metalizing)

5.6.1

5-38

4.3.11
4.3.11.1

4-55

5.2.1.5

3.6.3.2
5.2.4.5
4.4.1.3
4.3.5
4.3.5.5

Gas Welding

Gears,

Attaching to Shafts
Gold Electrodeposits
Graduations, Design of
Grinding
Grommets, Use of
Groove Pins
Grounding
Grounding Shielded Conductors
Guards
Gusseting

5.2.1.10
2.1.1.2

4.1.2.8
7.3.1

4.4.6.2
1.3.3

7.3.4.4.1

1.3.8

5-8

4-57
3-42
5-29
4-70

4-44
4-47
5-10

2-3
4-26
7-5
4-108
1-3
7-31
1-5

4.2.2

4-38

4.1.1.11

4-16
4-41
7-50

-HHand Holes (Sheet Metal)

Handles
Hand Soldering,

Procedure

I -

4.3.1

7.3.7
7.3.7.1

7-51

INDEX
Paragraph

Page

7.3.6.1
7.3.2
4.4.2.6
7.3.3.2
5.2.3.6

7-37
7-8

4-78

For Transistors

6.3.1.2

6-5

For Tubes

6.3.1.3

Hand Soldering Irons

Harnessing and Cabling
Heating Methods (Structural Soldering)
Heating (Wire Cleaning)
Heat Resistant Painted Coatings
Heat Sinks or Dissipators,

Heat

6.4.1.3

Transfer

3.1

6.3.1

Helical Gears

4.3.5
4.3.5.2

Heli-Coil Inserts
Herringbone Gears

4.4.4.11

4.3.5

Hole Clearance (Setting Rivets)

Hole Punching (Sheet Metal)
Holes, Clearances for (Sheet Metal)
Holes, Distortion of (Sheet Metal)
Holes for Tapping, Extruded (Sheet Metal)
Holes, Hand (Sheet Metal)
Holes in Plastic Molded Parts
Holes, Lightening (Sheet Metal)
Holes, Location of (Sheet Metal)
Holes, Spacing of (Sheet Metal)
Hollow Rivets
Humidity
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hypoid Gears

4.3.5.2

4.4.3.12.2

4.1.1.7
4.1.1.7.3

4.1.1.7.2
4.1.1.9

4.1.1.11

4.1.6.5

4.1.1.11

4.1.1.7.1
4.1.1.7.3

7-23
5-28
6-20
6-11

3-1

6-4
4-44
4-47
4-101

4-44
4-47
4-90
4-12
4-15

4-14
4-15
4-16
4-33
4-16
4-14
4-15

4.4.3.12

4-89

4.3.5

4-44

3.5.3
7.2.2

3-39
7-5

3.2.3

2-31
5-32
5-33
3-21

3.5.1
5.1.2

3-36
5-3

-IIce
Identification Tags
Illumination
Impregnation
Inclination
Indicator Lights
Indicators, Failure
Indicators, Scalar
Indicators, Visual
Indium Electrodeposits
Induction Soldering
Injection Molding (Plastics)

2.1.1.5
2.1.4
5.3
5.3.1
2.1.1.4
2.2.1.2

2.1.1.1
2.1.1

5.2.1.14

7.3.6.3

4.1.6

2-10

2-9

2-37
2-3
2-1
5-11

7-44
4-31

I -

OP

2230

Inserts in Plastic Molded Parts

Inserts, Threaded
Insulation
Insulation for Protection of Faying Surfaces
Insulation, Stripping of
Integrated Circuitry
Inter changeability
Interference, Radio Frequency
Interlocks
Internal Convection Cooling
Internal-External Forced Convection Cooling
Internal Tooth Type Lockwashers
Iridium Electrodeposits

Paragraph

Page

4.1.6.6
4.4.4.11

4-34

7.1. .3

5.6, .3.4

7.3.3.1
3.8.3.1
6.1.2
3.6
1

.3.10

3.1.2.1
3.1.2.1

4-101

7-3
5-40
7-23
3-84
6-1

3-39
1-7
3-17
3-17

4.4.4.9

4-99

4.4.6.4
4.4.6.4.1

4-109
4-109

7.3.2
7.3.8.3
5.2.3.5
4.1.2.4
4.2.4

7-8
7-59
5-27
4-23
4-39

5.2.1.12

5-10

-J-KKeys
Knurling (See Machining)

-LLacing of Cables
Lacing of Wires
Lacquers
Laminated Materials, Drilling of
Laminates
Lancing (Sheet Metal)
Lap Welds
Latches
Lathe Turning
Lead Electrodeposits
Lead-Supported Parts (Mounting of)
Letters, Design of
Lifting Devices
Lightening Holes (Sheet Metal)
Lighting Applications
Lights, Indicator and Warning
Links , Auxiliary
Links, Permanent
Loc ation of Controls

I -

10

4.1.1.8
4.4.1

4, ,3.10
4..1.2.3

5.2.1.8
6.4.1
2.1.1.2

4.3.3

4.1.1.11

2.1.4
2.1.1.4

2.2.2.3
2.2.2.2
2.1.2.2

4-15

4-63
4-55
4-21

5-9
6-15

2-3
4-42
4-16
2-31

2-9
2-39

2-39
2-15

INDEX

Location of Holes (Sheet Metal)

Location of Markings
Location of Parts

Paragraph

Page

4.1.1.7.1

4-14
6-30

6.5.2
6.3

4.4.4.6
4.4.4.8
4.4.4.9
4.3.6.1

Locknuts

Lockwashers, Spring Type

Lockwashers, Tooth Type
Lubrication, Bearing

4.1.1.1.4

Lugs (in Sheet Metal)

Lugs, Soldering

7.3.4.2

6-4
4-97
4-99
4-99
4-49
4-10
7-25

-MMachining
Magnesium Alloys, Electrolytic Corrosion of
Magnesium, Anodic Treatments for
Magnesium, Chemical Conversion Treat

4.1.2

Magnesium, Cleaning of (for Coating)

Main Power Switch
Maintenance Features
Marking of Parts
Marking Processes
Markings, Location of

5.1.1.7
1.3.5
2.2
6.5

ments

Materials

for

5.6.3.1
5.2.2.1.2
5.2.2.2.6

6.5.3
6.5.2

5-12

5-17
5-3
1-4
2-37
6-29
6-33
6-30

General

8.0

Selection of
Specifying

8.2
8.3

Properties and Uses

Materials

4-19
5-39

Plating (Threaded Fasteners)

Mechanical Connections
Mechanical Parts
Mechanical Safety Devices
Mechanical Scraping (Wire Cleaning)
Metal Evaporation (Metalizing)
Metalizing Nonmetallic Materials
and

Metallic Arc Welding

Metallic Coatings

Metals
Metal Stretching (Sheet Metal)

Microelectronics

Micromodules

Milling
Miniaturization
Miniaturization, Related Devices
Miniaturization, Utilization

Modular Construction
Moisture Resistance
Moisture Resistant Treatments

8.1

4.4.4.3
7.3.4

4.3

4.3.4
7.3.3.2
5.2.4.3
5.2.4
4.4.1.2.1
5.2.1

8.1.1
4.1.1.16

3 .8.3
3, ,8, .2

4.1.2.1
3.8

3.8.4
3.8.5
3.7.2.1
8.2.2
5.2.3.8

8-1
8-1
8-1

8-3
4-93
7-25
4-41
4-43
7-23
5-29
5-28

4-68
5-4
8-1
4-18

3-84

3-83
4-19
3-82
3-85
3-85
3-48

8-2

5-28

I -

11

OP

2230

Molding (Marking Processes)

Molding, Plastic
Molds, Drafts for (Plastics)
Mounting Boards and Terminals
Mounting, Clamp (Body-Supported Parts)
Mounting, Component (Shock)
Mounting, Machine-Screw (Body-Supported

Parts)

Mounting of Ball Bearings

Mounting of Parts
Mounting of Parts on Printed Wiring Boards
Mounting of Printed Wiring Boards
Mounting of Resistors and Tubular

Capacitors
Mounting, Plug-In
Mountings, Resilient (Shock)
Mountings, Single-Hole (Body-Supported

Parts)

Mountings, Special (Body-Supported Parts)

Mountings, Standoff
Mounting Straps
Mounting Subassemblies
Multiple-Wire Connectors

Paragraph

Page

6.5.3.6

6-34
4-31

4.1.6
4.1.6.1

6.4.1.4
6.4.2.2
3.2.8

4-32
6-21

6-24
3-27

6.4.2.3
4.3.6.2.1

4-50

3.7.2.2

3-49

6.4

6.4.1

3.7.2.2.3

6-25
6-15
6-15

3-65

6.4.1.1

6-17

6.4.2.1
6.4.2.4
6.4.4
7.3.8.5
3.3.3
7.3.9

6-23
6-25
6-27
7-59
3-34
7-64

4.4.4
4.4.4.1.2

4-92

6.4.3
3.2.6

6-26
3-23

-NNational Miniature Screw Thread Series

Natural-Air Cooling (Electron Tubes)

Natural Convection Cooling

Nickel Electrodeposits,
Black
Metallic

Noise, Conducted
Noise, Radiated
Nonmetallic Materials, Metalizing of
Nonmetallic Materials, Riveting of
Nonmetals
Notching (Sheet Metal)
Nuclear Radiation Effects
Numerals, Design of
Nuts,
Selection of
Nylock Inserts
Nylon Nuts

I -

12

4.4.4.2.2
6.3.1.3.1
3.1.2.1

5.2.1.4
5.2.1.4.2
5.2.1.4.1
3.6.2
3.6.1

5.2.4
4.4.3.12.7
8.1.2
4.1.1.4
6.1.5
2.1.1.2

4.4.4.6
4.4.4.6

4.4.4.11
4.4.4.10

4-91

4-93
6-11
3-17

5-8
5-8
5-8

3-40
3-40
5-28
4-91
8-1
4-11

6-3
2-3

4-97
4-97
4-101

4-100

INDEX
Paragraph

Page

4.3.8

4-53

-OOpenings, Access
Operational Features
Operation and Maintenance,
General
Osmium Electrodeposits
Oxide Conversion Coatings

2.1

2-1

2.0
5.2.1.12

2-1

Painted Coatings
Paint, for Protection of Faying Surfaces
Paints
Palladium Electrodeposits
Panel Layout,
Grouping Procedures for

5.2.3
5.6.3.3
5.2.3.2

5-17

Pan Head Screws

Parallel-Flow Cooling
Part Identification

4.4.4.5.3

4-97

6.5.1

6-29

5.2.2.2.3

5-10
5-16

-P-

Panel- Mounted Parts

Parts, Electrical

and

Electronic

5-10
2-21

2-28
1-5
6-12

Location of
Marking of
Mechanical

Mounting of

Panel- Mounted
Replacing
Safety
Standard

2.1.3
2.1.3.1
1.3.6

6.3.1.3.2

Bibliography
General
Selection Criteria
Parts, Cooling of (Heat Transfer)

Parts,
Parts,
Parts,
Parts ,
Parts,
Parts,
Parts,
Parts,

5.2.1.11

5-40
5-25

Passivation
Pawl Fasteners
Personnel Protection,
Design Objectives
General
Maintenance Personnel
Mechanical and Other Hazards
Operating Personnel
Phillips Head Screws
Phosphate Conversion Coatings
Photo-Etched Conductors
Photoetching (Marking Processes)

6.6
6.0

6.1
3.1.1

6.3.1
6.3
6.5
4.3
6.4
1.3.6

6-34

6-1
6-1

3-12

6-4
6-4

6-29
4-41
6-15

2.2.4

1-5
2-39

6.1.1

6-1

4.4.6.6.1

5-16
4-110

1.1

1-1

1.0
1.1.2
1.4
1.1.1

1-1
1-1

1.3.7

4.4.4.5
5.2.2.2.2
3.7.1.7
6.5.3.1

1-5

1-8
1-1

4-94
5-16

3-47
6-33

I-

13

OP

2230

Paragraph

Pins, Clevis
Pins, Cotter
Pins

Dowel

Pins, Groove
Pins, Tubular
Plasma- Arc Torch Coatings
Plastic Molded Parts, Bosses for
Plastic Molded Parts, Holes in
Plastic Molded Parts, Inserts in
Plastic Molded Parts, Ribs for
Plastic Molded Parts, Wall Thickness for
Plastic Molding

Plating
Plating, Gas (Metalizing)
Plating of Threaded Fasteners
Platinum Electrodeposits

4.4.6.2
4.4.4.6
4.4.6.3
4.4.6.2
4.4.6.2
4.4.6.1
5.2.5.5
4.1.6.4
4.1.6.5

Potting

Printed Wiring Boards, Soldering of

5.2.4.5
4.4.4.3

5-29
4-93

6.4.3

6-26

4.1.6
5.2.1

5.3.3

1.3.4
3.7.1
5.1

7.3.3

5.4

3.7.1.3
5.2.3.1
3.6.3.4
3.7.2.2.2
3.7.2.2.3
3.7.2.2
6.4.1

7.3.6.2
7.3.6.6

3.7.2.2.4

Printed Wiring, Flexible

Printed Wiring System
Projection Welds

3.7.2.2

Protection, Personnel (See Personnel

Protection)
Protective Coatings (See Coatings)
Pull-Stem Rivets
Punching, Hole (Sheet Metal)
Push Buttons

4-109
4-109
4-108
4-105
5-32
4-33
4-33

4-34

3.1.3
5.3

Power Lines
Prefabricated Circuits
Preparation of Surfaces for Coatings
Preparing Connections
Preservatives
Pressed Silver Powder
Primers (Painted Coatings)
Printed Harnesses , Shielding of
Printed Wiring Boards, Attaching Leads to
Printed Wiring Boards, Mounting of
Printed Wiring Boards, Mounting of Parts on

4-108

4-98

4..1.6.6
4,.1.6.3
4,.1.6.2

5.2.1.12

Plug-In Mounting

Page

4-33
4-32
4-31

5-4

5-10
3-19

5-32
5-34
1-4

3-44
5-1
7-23
5-37
3-46
5-25
3-43
3-54
3-65
3-49
6-15
7-41

7-50
3-78
3-49

4.4.1.1

4-67

4.4.3.10
4.1.1.7

4-87

4.4.6.6.5
4.4.6.6.1

4-111

4.1.2.6

4-12

2-20

-QQuarter-Turn Fasteners
Quick Release Pins

I -

14

4-108

INDEX
Paragraph

Page

6.4.1.2

6-19

-RRadial-Lead Type (Mounting of Parts)

Radiated Noise
Radiation Losses
Radio Frequency Interference
Reaming
Reduction of Conducted RF Interference
Reference Designations (Marking of Parts)

Reliability

Removal of Ball Bearings

Removal of Parts
Repairability of Components,
Fully Repairable
Nonrepair able
Partially Repairable
Replacing Parts
Replacing Subassemblies

Resilient Mountings (Shock)

Resilient Structures (Shock)

Resistance, Moisture,
Resistance Soldering
Resistance Welding
Resistors, Cooling of

Fungus, and Corrosion

Resistors, Mounting of

Retaining Rings
RF Shielding
Rhodium Electrodeposits
Ribbing (Sheet Metal)
Ribbing (Structural)
Ribs (Casting)
Ribs for Plastic Molded Parts
Rigidity (Structural)
Rigidizing and Rigidized Metal

Rings, Retaining
Riveted Joints
Riveted Joints , Sealing of

Rivet Holes
Riveting,
Angular Pieces to Flat Pieces

Characteristics

Design
Limitations of
Nonmetallic Materials
Unequal Thicknesses of Metal
Rivets , Aluminum
Rivets, Blind
Rivets, Chemically Expanded

3.6.1

3.1

3.6

3-40
3-1
3-39

4.1.2.5
3.6.3.3

4-24

4.3.6.2.2

4-50

6.1.4
6.1.4.1
6.1.4.3

6-2
6-2

6.5.1
6.1.3

2.2.4.2

6.1.4.2
2.2.4
2.2.3

3.2.6
3.2.7
8.2.2
7.3.6.4

4.4.1.1
6.3.1.1
6.4.1.1

3-43
6-29
6-1
2-40

6-3
6-3
2-39

2-39

3-23
3-26

8-2

7-48

4-67
6-4
6-17

4.4.6.5

4-109
3-39

4.1.1.14

4-17

3.6
5.2.1.13

4.2.3
4.1.4.2
4.1.6.3

4.2

4.2.5
4.2.5.1
4.2.5.2
4.4.6.5
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.3
4.4.3.6
4.4.3
4.4.3.12.5
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.5
4.4.3.3
4.4.3.12.7
4.4.3.12.6
4.4.3.7

4.4.3.10
4.4.3.10

5-11

4-39
4-28
4-33

4-36
4-40
4-41
4-41
4-109

4-82
4-83

4-85
4-82
4-90
4-82
4-84
4-83
4-91
4-91

4-85
4-87
4-88

I -

15

OP

2230

Rivets, Drive-Pin
Rivets, Extruded
Rivets, Hollow

Rivets, Pull-Stem
Rivets, Setting
Rivets, Spacing of

Rivets, Special
Rivets, Split
Rivets, Stresses in and Loads on
Rivets, Tubular
Rivets Versus Spot Welds
Roller Bearings
Roller-Coat Soldering
Rosan Inserts
Routing and Dressing, (Wires and Cables)
Inspection of
Rubber Stamping

Paragraph

Page

4.4.3.10
4.4.3.11
4.4.3.12
4.4.3.10
4.4.3.12

4-87

4.4.3.5
4.4.3.9
4.4.3.8
4.4.3.4
4.4.3.8
4.4.3.2
4.3.6.2
7.3.6.6

4.4.4.11
7.3.1
7.3.1.1

4-89
4-89
4-87
4-89
4-84
4-87
4-85
4-83
4-85
4-83
4-50
7-50
4-101

6.5.3.3

7-5
7-7
6-33

4.3.4

4-43

5.3.3.1

5-34
2-3
4-94
4-94
4-96

-SSafety Devices,

Mechanical
Safety, Parts
Safety Precautions in Handling Epoxy Resins
Scalar Indicators
Screws, Cap
Screw Selection
Screws, Flat-Head
Screws, Nylon
Screws, Self-Tapping
Screws, Set
Screws, Socket-Head
Seam Welds

Self-Tapping Screws
Semiconductor Type (Mounting of Parts)
Serving (Wire and Cable Ends)
Set Screws
Setting Rivets
Shafts

Shafts, Attaching Gears to

Sharp Edges (Sheet Metal)
Shearing (Sheet Metal)
Shear Pins (Safety Devices)
Sheet Metal Working
Shielded Arc Welding
Shielded Conductors, Grounding of
Shielding Adjacent Conductors (Printed
Harnesses)

16

1.3.7

2.1.1.1

4.4.4.5
4.4.4.5
4.4.4.5.1
4.4.4.10

4.4.4.5

4.4.4.5.2
4.4.4.5
4.4.1.1

4.4.1.3
4.4.4.5
6.4.1.3

7.3.8.2

4.4.4.5.2

4.4.3.12

4.3.7
4.3.5.5

4.1.1.3

4.1.1.12

4.3.4
4.1.1

4.4.1.2.3
7.3.4.4.1
3.6.3.4

1-5

4-100

4-94
4-97
4-94
4-67
4-70
4-94
6-20
7-59

4-97
4-89
4-53

4-47
4-10
4-16
4-43
4-1

4-70
7-31
3-43

INDEX

Shielding, Braided
Shielding of Printed Harnesses
Shielding, RF
Shields and Guards
Shields, Electron Tube
Shields, RF (Types of)
Shields, Solid (Printed Harnesses)
Shields, Striated (Printed Harnesses)
Shock, Electric
Shock, Electric, Prevention of
Shock Loads
Shock, Vibration, and Inclination,
General Design
General Practice
Workmanship
Silicones (Potting and Embedding)
Silk Screening (Marking Processes)
Silk Screen Process (Prefabricated Circuits)
Silver Electrodeposits
Silver Fired Conductors
Silver Ink Printing
Similar Metals
Single-Hole Mountings
Skew Bevel Gears
Sleeve Bearings
Sleeving
Slides
Slides, Assembly
Slip Clutch (Safety Devices)
Slitting (Sheet Metal)
Slotted-Head Screws
Slotting (Sheet Metal)
Socket-Head Screws
Soft Soldering Alloys (Structural)
Soft Soldering (Structural)
Soft Solders, Forms of (Structural)
Solderability of Metals
Soldered Joints, Strength of
Soldered Joints, Types of
Soldering and Brazing (Structural)
Soldering, Dip
Soldering Fluxes
Soldering Fluxes (Structural)
Soldering, Hand
Soldering, Induction
Soldering Irons , Hand
Soldering Lugs
Soldering Methods

Paragraph

Page

7.3.4.4
3.6.3.4

7-29
3-43
3-39
4-41

3.6

4.2.5.2
1.3.8

6.3.1.3
3.6.3
3.6.3.4
3.6.3.4
1.2
1.3

3.2.1
3.2

3.2.5
3.2.4
3.2..10
5, ,3.3.2
6, ,5.3.2
3.7.1.8
5.2.1.9
3.7.1.1

3.7.1.6
5.6.2
6.4.2.1
4.3.5
4.3.6
7.3.8.1
4.3.9
2.2.2
4.3.4
4.1.1.12

4.4.4.5
4.1.1.4

4.4.4.5
4.4.2.2
4.4.2.1
4.4.2.3
4.4.2.8

4.4.2.7
4.4.2.7
4.4.2
7.3.6.2
7.3.5.1
4.4.2.4
7.3.7
7.3.6.3
7.3.6.1
7.3.4.3
7.3.6

1-5
6-11

3-42
3-43
3-43
1-1

1-2
3-20
3-20
3-22
3-21
3-28
5-34
6-33

3-47

5-10
3-44
3-47
5-38
6-23

4-44
4-49
7-58

4-54
2-38
4-43
4-16

4-94
4-11

4-94
4-75
4-75
4-76
4-80
4-78
4-78
4-74
7-41

7-33

4-76
7-50
7-44
7-37
7-28
7-37

1-17

OP

2230

Soldering of Printed Wiring Boards

Soldering of Transistors
Soldering Process (Structural)
Soldering, Resistance
Soldering, Roller-Coat
Soldering, Ultrasonic
Soldering Wires to Connectors
Solderless Connections
Solders
Solders and Fluxes
Solders (Structural
Spinning (Sheet Metal)
Spiral Bevel Gears
Splines
Split Rivets
Spot-Facing
Spot Welding, Electrode Materials for
Spot Welds
Spot Welds Versus Rivets
Sprayed Copper Conductors
Spraying (Metalizing)
Spring Material, Selection of
Springs
Spring Type Lockwashers
Spring-Type Tubular Pins
Spur Gears
Stainless Steel, Cleaning of (for Coating)
Stamped Conductors
Stamping, Rubber
Stamping, Steel
Standard Parts
Standoff Mountings

Stapling,
Application
Clinch Forms
Shear Strength
Stitching Wire
Thickness of Materials
Typical Stitched Sections
Steel, Cleaning of (for Coating)
Steel Stamping

Stencil-Etched Circuits and Conductors

Stiffening (Sheet Metal)
Stitching (See Stapling)
Straight Bevel Gears
Strain Relief (Wires and Cables)

I -

18

Paragraph

Page

7.3.6.2
7.3.6.6
6.4.1.3
4.4.2.5
7.3.6.4
7.3.6.6
7.3.6.5
7.3.9
7.3.4.5
7.3.5.2
7.3.5
4.4.2

7-41

4.1.1.15

4.3.5
4.3.5.4
4.4.6.4

4.4.6.4.2
4.4.3.8
4.1.2.6

4.4.1.1.1
4.4.1.1

4.4.3.2
3.7.1.5
5.2.4.2

4.3.12.1
4.3.12

4.4.4.8
4.4.6.1
4.3.5
4.3.5.1
5.1.1.2

3.7.1.4
6.5.3.3
6.5.3.5
6.1.1

6.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.5.1
4.4.5.2
4.4.5.3

4.4.5.4
4.4.5.5
4.4.5.6
5.1.1.1

6.5.3.5
3.7.1.2

4.1.1.14

4.3.5
7.3.8.6

7-50
6-20

4-77
7-48
7-50
7-48
7-68
7-32
7-34
7-33

4-74
4-18

4-44
4-47

4-109
4-109
4-85
4-25
4-68
4-67
4-83
3-47
5-29
4-63

4-57
4-99

4-105

4-44
4-46
5-2
3-46
6-33
6-34
6-1
6-27

4-101

4-102
4-102
4-103
4-103
4-105
4-105

5-2
6-34

3-45
4-17

4-44
7-63

INDEX

Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Stress Distribution (Structural)
Stretching (Sheet Metal)
Stripping of Insulation
Structural Design,
Bibliography
General
Structural Techniques
Studs

Subassemblies ,
Types
Subassemblies, Replacing
Subassemblies, Supporting
Surface Preparation (for Coating)
Switches (See specific types of Switches)

Paragraph

Page

4.2
4.2

4-36
4-36

4.1.1.16

7.3.3.1

4-18
7-23

4.5
4.0

4-138
4-1

3.3
3.3.1
2.2.3

3-28
3-29
2-39

4.2
4.4.4.5

3.3.3
5.1

4-36
4-94

3-34
5-1

-TTags, Identification
Taping
Tapping

Temperature
Tension Springs
Terminal Boards

Terminals

Test Equipment

Testers, Built-in

Testing
Test Points
Thread Classes
Thread Fasteners
Threaded Inserts
Threading
Thread Series
Tie Straps

Tin Electrodeposits

Tinning

Titanium, Milling of
Titanium, Welding of
Toggle Switches
Tools
(See also specific applications of Tools)
Tooth Type Lockwashers
Torsional Springs
Transfer Molding (Plastics)

7.2.2
7.3.8.4
4.1.2.7
3.5.2

7-5
7-59

4.3.12

4-25
3-38
4-57

2.2.1.3
2.2.1
2.2.1.1

2-37
2-37
2-37

6.4.1.4
6.4.1.4
7.3.4.2
2.2.1.4

4.4.4.1
4.4.4

4.4.4.11

4.1.2.7
4.4.4.2
7.3.2.2
7.3.8.5
5.2.1.6
5.2.1.6
7.3.3.3

4.1.2.1.1

4.4.1.5
2.1.2.6
2.2.4.3
4.4.4.9

4.3.12
4.1.6

6-21
6-21
7-25
2-38

4-91
4-91
4-101

4-25
4-92
7-17

7-59

5-9
5-9

7-24

4-20
4-72
2-19

2-41

4-99
4-57

4-31

I -

19

OP

2230

Trans illumination

Transistors, Cooling of
Transistors, Mounting of
Transistors, Soldering of

Tubes, Cooling of
Tube Shields
Tubular Pins
Tubular Rivets

Preparation

Page

2.1.4.2
6.3.1.2
6.4.1.3
6.4.1.3
6.3.1.3

2-33
6-5
6-20
6-20

6.3.1.3

4.4.6.1
4.4.3.8

6-11
6-11

4-105
4-85

-UUltrasonic Cleaning
Ultrasonic Machining
Ultrasonic Soldering
Ultrasonic Welding
Unified Thread Standard Series

5.1.1

4.1.2.9
7.3.6.5
4.4.1.6
4.4.4
4.4.4.1.1
4.4.4.2.1

5-1

4-27

7-48
4-73
4-91
4-91
4-92

-VVaporization Cooling
Varnishes
Varnish, Impregnating

3.1.1

5.2.3.4

5.3.1

Vibration,

Modes of

Visual Indicators

3-15

5-27

3.2.2
3.2.9

5-31
3-20
3-28

2.1.1

2-1

4.1.4.1

4-27

-WWall Thickness (Casting)

Wall Thickness for Plastic Molded Parts
Warning Lights
Warnings
Washers (See also Lockwashers)
Washers, Flat
Washers, Nylon
Wave Method (Dip Soldering)
Web Thickness (Casting)
Welding
Weld Nuts

Wind

Wire, Cleaning of

1-20

4.1.6.2
2.1.1.4
1.3.1

4-32
2-9
1-2

4.4.4.7

4-99

4.4.4.10

7.3.6.2

4.1.4.1
4.4.1

4.4.4.6
3.5.3
7.3.3.2

4-100
7-41

4-27
4-63

4-97
3-39
7-23

INDEX

Wire, High- Temperature

Wire Meshes (RF Shielding)

Wire Mesh Gaskets (RF Shielding)

Wiring and Cabling,
General

Wiring and Slack (Replacemenl)

Wiring, Printed
Wiring Procedure
Wiring Protection
Worm and Worm Wheel Gears

Paragraph

Page

7.3.9
3.6.3.1
3.6.3.2

7-62
3-42
3-42

7.0

7-1

7.3

3-49
7-5
7-58

2.2.4.4
3.7.2.2

2-41

7.3.8
4.3.5
4.3.5.3

4-44
4-47

-X-

-Y-ZZincating
Zinc, Cleaning of (for Coating)
Zinc, Coatings, Hot Dip
Zinc Electrodeposits
Zippered Tubing

5.2.2.3

5-17

5.1.1.5

5-3

5.2.1.5
5.2.1.5
7.3.2.1

5-8
5-8
7-15

I -

21