Chapter One

Introduction to computer networks

Defining a Computer network :

A computer network can be defined as "two or more computers connected by some means through
which they are capable of sharing information." which use a well-defined, mutally-agreed set of rules
and conventions known as Protocols, and Interact with one-another , if duly authenticated and
authorized, meaningfully; and allow resource-sharing preferably in a prdictable and controllable
manner.

History of computer networks:

Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications
system, communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by human
users by carrying instructions between them. Many of the social behaviors seen in today's Internet were
demonstrably present in the nineteenth century and arguably in even earlier networks using visual
signals.

In September 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from
his Model at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and
received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an
interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and
developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANet.

In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users
of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and
Bell Labs used a computer DEC's to route and manage telephone connections.

Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently conceptualized
and developed network systems which used datagrams or packets that could be used in a network
between computer systems.

1965 Thomas Merrill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network (WAN).

The first widely used PSTN switch that used true computer control was the Western Electric introduced
in 1965.
In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa
Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANET network using 50
kbit/s circuits. Commercial services using X.25 were deployed in 1972, and later used as an underlying
infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks.

Computer networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between
them, continue to drive computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is
mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home
user.

Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. All modern aspects of the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are computer-controlled, and telephony increasingly runs over the
Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the public Internet. The scope of communication has
increased significantly in the past decade, and this boom in communications would not have been
possible without the progressively advancing computer network.

Why do we need Computer Networks?:

Resource sharing and communication are two principal reasons of building and using computer
networks .

Some of the most popular applications include:

-Electronic Mail

- Web-browsing

-Digital libraries

- Video-on-Demand

- File Transfer

- Video/ Audio Conferencing

- E-commerce

Networking methods :
One way to categorize computer networks is by their geographic scope, although many real-world
networks interconnect Local Area Networks (LAN) via Wide Area Networks (WAN) and wireless networks
(WWAN). These three (broad) types are:

Local area network (LAN):

A local area network is a network that spans a relatively small space and provides services to a small
number of people.
A peer-to-peer or client-server method of networking may be used. A peer-to-peer network is where
each client shares their resources with other workstations in the network. Examples of peer-to-peer
networks are: Small office networks where resource use is minimal and a home network. A client-server
network is where every client is connected to the server and each other. Client-server networks use
servers in different capacities. These can be classified into two types:

1. Single-service servers

2. Print server

The server performs one task such as file server, while other servers can not only perform in the
capacity of file servers and print servers, but also can conduct calculations and use them to provide
information to clients (Web/Intranet Server). Computers may be connected in many different ways,
including Ethernet cables, Wireless networks, or other types of wires such as power lines or phone lines.

The ITU-T G.hn standard is an example of a technology that provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local
area networking over existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).

Wide area network (WAN):

A wide area network is a network where a wide variety of resources are deployed across a large
domestic area or internationally. An example of this is a multinational business that uses a WAN to
interconnect their offices in different countries. The largest and best example of a WAN is the Internet,
which is a network composed of many smaller networks. The Internet is considered the largest network
in the world.[6]. The PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) also is an extremely large network that
is converging to use Internet technologies, although not necessarily through the public Internet.

A Wide Area Network involves communication through the use of a wide range of different
technologies. These technologies include Point-to-Point WANs such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and Sonet
(Synchronous Optical Network). The difference between the WAN technologies is based on the
switching capabilities they perform and the speed at which sending and receiving bits of information
(data) occur.

Metropolitan area network (MAN):

A metropolitan network is a network that is too large for even the largest of LAN's but is not on the scale
of a WAN. It also integrates two or more LAN networks over a specific geographical area ( usually a city )
so as to increase the network and the flow of communications. The LAN's in question would usually be
connected via " backbone " lines.

For more information on WANs, see Frame Relay, ATM and Sonet.
Wireless networks (WLAN, WWAN):
A wireless network is basically the same as a LAN or a WAN but there are no wires between hosts and
servers. The data is transferred over sets of radio transceivers. These types of networks are beneficial
when it is too costly or inconvenient to run the necessary cables. For more information, see Wireless LAN
and Wireless wide area network. The media access protocols for LANs come from the IEEE.

The most common IEEE 802.11 WLANs cover, depending on antennas, ranges from hundreds of meters
to a few kilometers. For larger areas, either communications satellites of various types, cellular radio, or
wireless local loop (IEEE 802.16) all have advantages and disadvantages. Depending on the type of
mobility needed, the relevant standards may come from the IETF or the ITU.

Network Topologies:
Topology refers to the shape of a network or network’s layout. How different nodes in a network are
connected to each other and how they communicate is determined by the network’s topology. There are
four most common network topologies, namely,
i) Bus Topology
ii) Star Topology
iii) Ring Topology
iv) Mesh Topology
v) Bus Topology

Bus Topology:
All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone.

Star Topology:

All devices are connected to a central hub. Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub.

Ring Topology:
All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is connected
directly to two other devices, one on either side of it.
Mesh Topology or Point to Point Network:
Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh
topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network.

Network Components:
The following are essential components for computer networking.
a) Network hardware
b) Transmission media
c) Network software
In Some details we will discuss components of the networks:
a) Network Hardware
The basic component of computer network hardware is a computer.
Computers on a network can be divided into two categories
i) server and
ii) clients or nodes.
Server is the computer of higher power, and speed. It costs more. To this computer resources are attached.
And the clients, also known as nodes access, are the resources which are attached to server. In peer to
peer computer networks there are no servers.

b) Transmission Media:

Communication of data propagation and processing of signals is called transmission. Signals travel from
transmitter to receiver via a path. This path is called medium. Medium can be guided or unguided.

Guided Media:

In guided media, data is sent along a physical path i.e. cables. There are several types of cables used in
network.
The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network’s topology, protocol and size. Different
types of cables are:
a) Coaxial cable looks like cable that brings the cable TV signal to television.
b) Twisted pair copper wire cable looks like phone cable. Twisted pair cables come in two varieties, a.
shielded and b. unshielded.
c) Optical fibre cable

Unguided Media:
Here no wire is installed. The data communication is predominantly sent by radio waves and microwaves.

Network Card:
We will discuss about networking software. But hardware has also to be connected. Most important part
of connection is the network card. This is the middle part of connection. These
cards are 8 bit cards, 16 bit cards and 32 bit cards. Each card has its own method of sending information
(network protocol) through the cable.
The most commonly used is Ethernet Protocol. A network card is called
Interface card, network adapter, a NIC etc. It is a circuit board or chip which allows the computer to
communicate to other computers on a network.

Modem (MODulator / DEModulator):

A modem converts digital signals (computer signals) from the computer into analogue signals for
transmission and vice versa for reception over a telephone line. There are four basic types of modems for
a PC:
i) External,
ii) USB,
iii) Internal and
iv) Built-in.

External and USB are set on your desk outside the PC, while as Internal and
Built-in are inside the PC. Present day modems have 56 kilobites per second speed. ISDN (Integrated
Services Digital Network) circuits are digital. In this conversion from digital to analogue is not required.
Switch:
Switches are basically bridges, but usually have multiple ports. Switches connect network segments,
using a table of addresses to determine the segment on which a packet needs to be transmitted.

Hubs:

A hub is used to connect multiple computers and devices via a dedicated cable. It is cheap and
connections are easy. It generally has 4, 8, 12, 24 ports.
Router:

These are used to connect networks and to determine the optimal path along which the network traffic
should be forwarded.
They are occasionally called gateways. There are other network devices like repeaters, bridges, ports, etc.

c) Network Operating Software:

Network operating software (NOS) is a collection of software and associated protocols that allow a set of
autonomous computers, which are interconnected by a computer network, to be used together in a
convenient and costeffective manner. It is similar to any other operating system like windows, DOS, etc.
except it operates over more than one computer. It controls operation of the network system, including
who uses it, when they can use it, what they have access to, and which network resources are available.
At a basic level, the NOS allows network users to share files and peripherals such as disks and printers.
They provide data integrity and security. The examples can be categories of NOS: The NetWare, LAN
Manager, Solaris and Windows 2000 etc.
The main categories of network software are
i) Peer to peer software
ii) Client / Server-based

Peer to Peer Software:

In peer to peer networking operating software users can share resources and files located on their
computers and can access shared resources on other computers. There is no central server.
All computers in the network are equal.
They have similar capabilities and resources. Examples of Peer to peer network software are Windows
XP, Windows 98. When you are working in Microsoft Office Word under Windows environment, you
can share the shared documents. It is possible because
Windows XP is peer to peer networking software.

Client Server Based (Two Tier):

This software is in two parts. One part which includes functions and services resides in one or more
exclusive (dedicated) computers. This part is called server. It provides security and access to resources.
Another part called ‘client’ resides on other computers (nodes / client). They access resources on the
server. The network operating system allows multiple users to
simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location. Examples of Server based
networking software are: Novel Netware, Windows NT, UNIX, Window 2000 etc.
Client Server Based (Three Tier):

Here a client-software is split into two parts.

i) Browser (user-interface) (thin client)
ii) Logic.
Thus two tier client-server becomes three tier architecture. The logic which describes how to access and
process data is moved to a new server. This new server is server for thin client. Nothing changes in the
server side.

The Networking Problem:

Networking is about transmitting messages from senders to receivers (over a “communication channel”).
Key issues we encounter include:
• “Noise” damages (corrupts) the messages; we would like
to be able to communicate reliably in the presence of
noise
• Establishing and maintaining physical communication
lines is costly; we would like to be able to connect
arbitrary senders and receivers while keeping the
economic cost of network resources to a minimum
• Time is always an issue in information systems as is generally in life; we would like to be
able to provide expedited delivery particularly for messages that have short deadlines