Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Fluids at Rest:
Pressure and its Effect
1

Lectures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
D E PA RT M E N T O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R I N G
BITS PILANI, RAJASTHAN
BY
DR. SHIBANI KHANRA JHA
AUGUST 2013
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Topics to be covered
2

Pressure at a Point

Manometry

Basic Equation for Pressure

Piezometer Tube
U-Tube Manometer
Inclined Tube Manometer
Hydrostatic force on a Plane
Surface
Buoyancy, Floatation and
Stability
Archimedes Principle
Stability
Pressure Variation in a Fluid
with Rigid-Body Motion
Linear Motion
Rigid-Body Rotation

Field
Pressure Variation in a Fluid
at Rest
Incompressible fluid
Compressible fluid
Standard Atmosphere
Measurement of Pressure

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Fluids at Rest - Pressure and its Effects

3

The study of fluids that are at rest or moving in such a

manner that there is no relative motion between adjacent

particles is what we are going to discuss in these lectures.
There will be no shearing stress in the fluid and the only

forces that develop on the surfaces of the particles will be

due to pressure.
Our first concern is to investigate pressure and its

variation throughout a fluid and the effect of pressure on

submerged surfaces.
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Image of hot air balloon

An example1: use of fluid static
4

heated air, which is less

dense than the surrounding
air, is used in hot air balloon
to create an upward buoyant
force. According to
Archimedes Principle, the
buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the air displaced
by the balloon.
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Image of hurricane Allen

An example2: use of fluid static
5

Although there is
considerable motion and
structure to a hurricane, the
pressure variation along
vertical plane is
approximated by pressuredepth relationship for a
static fluid

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Fluid Pressure
6

A liquid or gas cannot sustain a

shearing stress - it is only restrained

by a boundary. Thus, it will exert a
force against and perpendicular to
that boundary.
The force F exerted by a fluid on the
walls of its container always acts
perpendicular to the walls.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Water flow
shows F

Fluid Pressure
7

Fluid exerts forces in many

directions. Try to submerge

a rubber ball in water to see
that an upward force acts on
the float.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Fluids exert pressure in all

directions.

Common units used for Pressure (ML-1T-2)

8

1 pascal 1 N / m

[SI]

1 atmosphere 1.01325 10 Pa
5

1 bar 10 Pa 1 atm
5

1 atm 760 mm of Hg 760 torr

1 atm 14.7 lb / in.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure at a Point
9

The term pressure is used to indicate the normal

force per unit area at a given point acting on a
given plane within the fluid mass of interest.
(P=F/A)
There are no shearing stresses present in a fluid at rest
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest or in motion is

independent of direction as long as there are no shearing

stresses present
This important result is known as Pascals law named in
honor of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), a French mathematician
who made important contributions in the field of hydrostatics
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure at a Point (Pressure is a scalar quantity)

10

How the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of the plane
passing through the point?
Forces on arbitrary wedge
shaped element of fluid

Force balance in the x-direction:

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Force balance in the z-direction:

Vertical force on DA

Vertical force on
lower boundary

Total weight of wedge element

= specific weight

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

11

From last slide:

Divide through by

to get the following

1
pn pz Dl sin 0
2
Now reduce the element size to a point such that:

which finally leads to

This can be done for any orientation , so that following mathematical statement can be given

This mathematical statement shows that the pressure is

independent of direction (or it is a scalar quantity)
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

12

Basic equation for pressure field

13

Consider a small rectangular element or differential fluid

element of size dxdydz

There are two types of forces acting on this element:
Surface forces due to the pressure
Body forces due to the weight of the element

Other possible body forces (like magnetic fields) are not

taken into consideration

Pressure may vary across a fluid particle
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Basic equation for pressure field

14

Body Force can be given as

Where
g=acceleration due to gravity
dm=differential mass
=density of fluid
d =differential volume of fluid element of size dx dy dz
Objective is.
How does the pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing
stresses vary from point to point?
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Basic equation for pressure field

15

Surface Force can be given as

Force balance along y-direction

Force balance along y-direction

dFy pL dAL pR dAR

With dAL dxdz dAR

Substituting the above relations, we get the following
expression for force balance along y-direction

dFy j dxdydz
y
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Basic equation for pressure field

16

Surface Force can be given as

Similarly for x and z directions

p
dFx i dxdydz
x

p
dFz k dxdydz
z

dFS dFx dFy dFz

Total surface force=

Or finally we can write the following
Total force=body force +surface force
OR
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Basic equation for pressure field

17

Now applying Newtons Second Law

(for a fluid at rest a=0)
(equation of motion for fluid at rest)

For fluid in motion with acceleration a, general equation of

motion can be written as below

p k a

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

18

We begin with general equation of motion

p k a
Or in component form we can write
p
p
p
0,
0,
,
x
y
z

Independent of x-y plane; so pressure in x-y plane remains same; it

only depends on z;
Thus the general motion of fluid now can be written as ordinary differential equation
as:

The above equation give the Pressure height relation

Pressure only depends on z and decreases as we move upward in a fluid at rest
For liquids or gases at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical direction at any

point in a fluid depends only on the specific weight of the fluid at that point

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid- CONSTANT DENSITY FLUID
19

Integration the above equation between

two points 1 and 2
p1 p2 h
h= pressure head
Such distribution of pressure in space
is called hydrostatic distribution
If reference pressure is pressure at free
surface (atmospheric pressure p0)
Incompressible Fluid Manometers
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid- CONSTANT DENSITY FLUID
20

The following figure helps us to understand how the pressure is

same at all points along the line AB even though the container may
have a very irregular shape.

Thus, pressure only depends on depth h, surface pressure p0,

specific weight of the liquid in the container,
independent of size or shape of the container
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Transmission of Fluid Pressure: Pascals Law

21

Pascals Law: An external

pressure applied to an enclosed
fluid is transmitted uniformly
throughout the volume of the
liquid.
Pressure in = Pressure out
Fin Fout

Ain Aout

Aout
Ideal mechanical advantage=
Ain
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Fin Ain Fout Aout

Transmission of Fluid Pressure: Pascals Law

22

The transmission of pressure throughout a stationary fluid

is the principle upon which many hydraulic devices are
based
Operation of hydraulic jacks
Lifts and presses
Hydraulic controls on aircraft
Other types of heavy machinery
HYDRAULIC JACKS OR COMPRESSED AIR IS USED ON THE LIQUID
SURFACE DIRECTLY AS IS DONE IN HYDRAULIC LIFTS COMMONLY
FOUND IN SERVICE STATIONS
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Compressible Fluid-VARYING DENSITY FLUID
23

A compressible fluid is one in which the fluid density changes

accompanied by changes in pressure and temperature.

We mostly think of gases as being compressible; the specific
weights of gases are small so the pressure gradient in the vertical
direction is small and even over greater distances the pressure
remains constant.
This way, attention must be given to the variation in specific
weight.
In order to analyze compressible fluids we use the equation of
state for an ideal gas and combine it with the equation for
pressure variation in fluids at rest:
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Compressible Fluid-VARYING DENSITY FLUID
24

We begin with equation of motion

Since, density is varying; we use ideal gas law

Using ideal gas law in equation of motion

p2

z2

dp
p2
g dz

ln

p p

p
R
T
1
z1
1

Need additional information, e.g., T(z) for atmosphere

For isothermal condition (T constant over z1 to z2)

g z2 z1
p2 p1 exp

RT
0

This equation provides the desired pressure elevation relationship for an

isothermal layer
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Standard Atmosphere
25

Standard

atmosphere is an idealized representation of

mean conditions in the earths atmosphere
For measurement of pressure we need pressure versus
altitude over the specific range for the specific conditions
(temperature, reference pressure). However, this type of
information is not available
Thus, a standard atmosphere has been determined that can
be used in the design of aircraft, missiles and spacecraft
and in comparing their performance under standard
conditions
Currently accepted U.S Standard atmosphere is: Idealized
representation of middle-latitude, year round mean
conditions of the earths atmosphere
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Standard Atmosphere
26

Several important properties of standard atmospheric

conditions at sea level are listed

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Standard Atmosphere
27

Temperature decreases with altitude in the region nearest the

earths surface (troposphere), then becomes essentially

constant in the next layer (stratosphere) and subsequently
starts to increase in the next layer

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Measurement of Pressure
28

Pressure at a point in the fluid mass is designated as either

absolute pressure or gage pressure

Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum
(absolute zero pressure)
Gage pressure is measured relative to the local atmospheric
pressure
Zero gage pressure corresponds to local atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressures are always positive
Gage pressure can be either positive or negative depending on
whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure (a positive
value) or below atmospheric pressure (a negative value)
A negative gage pressure is also referred to as a suction or
vacuum pressure

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Measurement of Pressure:
gage pressure and absolute pressure
29

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Measurement of Pressure:
how to measure pressure - mercury barometer
30

A mercury barometer is used to measure atmospheric

pressure
The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position
where its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure
(which develops in the space above the column) balances the
force due to the atmospheric pressure.
For most practical purposes the contribution of the vapor

pressure (0.000023 lb/in2)can be neglected since it is very

small
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Mercury Barometer
E. Torricelli (1608-47)

PC gh Patm
Patm gh

For mercury, h = 760 mm.

If water was used in place of mercury, the
height of column would have to be
approximately 34 ft rather than 29.9 in
(760 mm Hg or 1 atm) mercury for an
atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi

Patm gh h

How high will water rise?

No more than h = patm/g = 10.3 m
2014/8/25

http://zimp.zju.edu.cn/~xinwan/

31

Patm
g

Manometry
32

The standard techniques are to use Manometers which are

vertical or inclined liquid columns to measure pressure

The mercury barometer is an example of one type of
manometer, but there are many other possible
configurations
Three common types of manometers include:
The Piezometer tube
The U-tube manometer
The inclined-tube manometer

The Mercury Barometric is mostly used to measure

atmospheric pressure
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
Piezometer or Simple Manometer
33

Piezometer Tube
To determine pressure from a manometer, simply
use the fact that the pressure in the liquid columns
will vary hydrostatically
The simplest manometer consists of a vertical tube,
open at the top and attached to the container in
which the pressure is desired
Since manometers involve columns of fluids at rest,
the fundamental equation describing their use is as
follows

p h p0

This gives the pressure at any elevation within a

homogeneous fluid in terms of a reference pressure p0

and the vertical distance h between p and p0.
In a fluid at rest, pressure will increase as we move
downward and will decrease as we move upward.
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
Piezometer or Simple Manometer
34

Piezometer Tube - Limitations

It is only suitable, if the pressure in the container is greater
than atmospheric pressure, otherwise air would be sucked
into the system
The pressure to be measured must be relatively small so the
required height of the column is reasonable
Also, the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be
measured must be a liquid rather than a gas

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
U-Tube Manometer
35

U-Tube Manometer
To overcome the difficulties
aroused in the Piezometer,
another type of manometer
consisting of U shaped tube is
widely used
The fluid in the manometer is
called the gage fluid
Better for higher pressures.
Possible to measure pressure in
gases.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
U-Tube Manometer
36

Find pressure at center of pipe:

Can start either at open end or inside
pipe.
Here we start at open end:
p at open
end

Change in p
from 1 to 2

Change in p
from 3 to 4

p in pipe

If the fluid in the pipe is gas, the

contribution due to the gas column is

almost negligible and we get the
pressure at 4 as

p p m Dh

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
U-Tube Manometer
The U-tube manometer is also

37

widely used to measure the

difference
in
pressure
between two containers or
two points in a given system.
Consider

a
manometer
connected between containers
A and B as is shown in Fig.

The

difference in pressure
between A and B can be found
by again starting at one end of
the system and working around
to the other end.

Differential U-tube manometer

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
Differential U-Tube Manometer
38

Differential Manometer is
Used for measuring pressure differences between desired
points along a pipe

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometry:
Inclined-Tube Manometer
39

Inclined-Tube Manometer
Inclined-Tube manometers can
be used to measure small
pressure variation accurately

If the container A and B

contains the gas, then

p A 1h1 2l2 sin 3h3 pB

or

p A pB 2l2 sin 3h3 1h1 or

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

p A pB 2l2 sin

p A pB
l2
2 sin

Fluid statics: Hydrostatic Force

40

The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress

Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is only due to the weight of the fluid fluid
statics is only relevant in presence of gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water dams

and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.

Example of elevation
head z converted to
velocity head V2/2g.
We'll discuss this in
more detail in coming
lectures (22-25)
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Significance of Hydrostatic Pressure in

Scuba Diving
41

Pressure on diver at 100 ft?

1m
kg
m

Pgage ,2 gz 998 3 9.81 2 100 ft

m
s

3.28 ft

Pabs ,2

1atm

298.5kPa
2.95atm
101.325kPa
Pgage ,2 Patm 2.95atm 1atm 3.95atm

Danger of emergency ascent?

PV
1 1 PV
2 2

V1 P2 3.95atm

4
V2 P1
1atm

100 ft

Boyles law

If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung

volume would increase by a factor of 4, which
would result in embolism and/or death.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

42

In the determination of the resultant force on an area, the effect

of atmospheric pressure often cancels

For a submerged surface in a fluid, forces develop on the
surface due to the fluid

Pressure and resultant hydrostatic force developed on the bottom

of an open tank
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

43

Determination of these forces is important in the design of

storage tanks, ships, dams and other hydraulic structures

For fluids at rest, the force must be perpendicular to the
surface since there are no shearing stresses present
Also pressure vary linearly with depth, if the fluid is
incompressible

Pressure and resultant hydrostatic force

developed on the bottom of an open tank
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane SurfaceAnalysing forces on different surfaces

44

For a horizontal surface

such as the bottom of a liquid filled tank, the
magnitude of the resultant force is simply

FR pA
Where p is the uniform pressure on the bottom and
A is the area of the bottom
For the open tank ,

p h

If atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the

Pressure and resultant

bottom, the resultant force on the bottom is simply hydrostatic force developed
due to the liquid in the tank
on the bottom of an open
Since the pressure is constant and uniformly
tank

distributed over the bottom, the resultant force acts

through the centroid of the area
Pressure on the sides of the tank is not uniformly
distributed
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane SurfaceAnalyzing forces on different surfaces

45

Pressure distribution on the sides

of an open tank

C
CP

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure on the sides of the

tank is not uniformly
distributed

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

46

For inclined submerged plane surface:

We assume that the fluid surface is open to the atmosphere

Let the plane in which the surface lies intersect the free surface at 0
and make an angle with this surface
The x-y coordinate is defined so that 0 is the origin and y is directed
along the surface

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

47

For inclined submerged plane surface:

The area can have an arbitrary shape

We need to determine the direction, location and magnitude of the
resultant force acting on one side of this area due to the liquid in
contact with the area

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

At any depth, h, the

48

force acting on dA (the differential area) is

dF hdA

Thus, the magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing

these differential forces over the entire surface as given below

FR dF hdA y sin dA

h y sin
For constant and

Where

FR sin ydA
A

The integral appearing in above equation, is the first moment of the

area with respect to the x-axis, so we can write
ydA yc A
A

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

49

Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A measured from the

x-axis which passes through 0. Thus the resultant force can be written
as

FR Ayc sin

or more simply as

FR hc A

Where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of
the area
Note:
The magnitude of the force is independent of angle of inclination and
depends only on the specific weight of the fluid, the total area, and the
depth of the centroid of the area below the surface
The magnitude of the resultant force is the pressure at the centroid
multiplied by the total area
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

50

The y coordinate, y R , of the resultant force can be determined by

summation of moments around the x-axis. That is the moment of the
resultant force must equal the moment of the distributed pressure
force, or
FR yR ydF sin y 2 dA

FR Ayc sin

And ,therefore

yR

2
y
dA
A

yc A

The integral in the numerator is the second moment of the area

(moment of inertia), Ix, with respect to an axis formed by the
intersection of the plane containing the surface and the free surface (xaxis). Thus, we can write
Ix
yR
yc A

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

51

Use can now use the parallel axis theorem to express Ix as

I x I xc Ayc2
Where I xc , is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis
passing through its centroid (C) and parallel to the x-axis. Thus,
I
y R xc yc
yc A
The above relation shows that the resultant force does not pass
through the centroid but is always below it, since I xc / yc A 0 .
The x coordinate, x R , for the resultant force can be determined in a
similar manner by summing moments about the y-axis. Thus,
xR

xydA
A

I xy

yc A
yc A
and, therefore,
respect to the x and y axes
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

FR xR sin xydA
A

where I xy is the product of inertia with

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

52

Using the parallel axis theorem, we can write

xR

I xyc
yc A

xc

where I xyc
is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and formed
by a translation of the x-y coordinate system
The point through which the resultant force acts is called the center of
pressure (CP) (xR, yR)

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

53

The following diagram shows

the geometric properties of

some common shapes:

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

54

Archimedes Principle
In the figure, we see that the
difference between the weight in AIR
and the weight in WATER is 3 lbs.
This is the buoyant force that acts
upward to cancel out part of the
force. If you were to weigh the water
displaced; it also would weigh 3 lbs.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

FB fluidVg m fluid g
mg objectVg

Archimedes Principle
Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability
Buoyant

force: A
body force that is
when a stationary
completely
or
submerged in a fluid.

resultant
generated
body is
partially

Archimedes

principle: A
body
wholly
or
partly
immersed in a fluid is buoyed
up by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.
The buoyant force can be
considered to act vertically
upward through the center of
gravity of the displaced fluid.
FB = buoyant force = weight of
displaced fluid
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

55

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

56

Archimedes Principle
A net upward vertical force results because pressure
increases with depth and the pressure forces acting from
below are larger than the pressure forces acting from
above
Consider the forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 are simply the forces
exerted on the plane surfaces of the parallelepiped, W is
the weight of the shaded fluid volume, and FB is the force
the body is exerting on the fluid.
The forces on the vertical surfaces, such as F3 and F4 are
all equal and cancel, so the equilibrium equation of
interest is in the z direction and can be expressed as
FB F2 F1 W

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

Archimedes Principle

57

If the specific weight of the fluid is constant, then

F2 F1 h2 h1 A

Where A is the horizontal area of the upper (or lower) surface of the parallelepiped, can be
written as

FB h2 h1 A h2 h1 A

Simplifying, we arrive at the desired expression for the buoyant force

Where

FB

is the specific weight of the fluid and is the volume of the body.

The direction of the buoyant force is directed vertically upward

and the

magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body

This result is commonly referred as Archimedes principle in honour of

Archimedes (287-212 B.C.), a Greek mechanician and mathematician who first

enunciated the basic ideas associated with hydrostatics
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

58

Archimedes Principle
The location of the line of action of the buoyant force can be
determined by summing moments of the forces shown on the free
body diagram wrt some convenient axis
FB yc F2 y1 F1 y1 Wy2

And on substitution for the various forces

yc T y1 T y2

Where T is the total volume h2 h1 A

The right hand side of above equation, is the first moment of the
displaced volume w r t x-z plane so that yc is equal to the y
coordinate of the centroid of the volume
Buoyant force passes through the centroid of the displaced
volume. The point through which the buoyant force acts is called
the center of buoyancy
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

59

Stability
The stability of a body can be determined by considering
what happens when it is displaced from its equilibrium
position
A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if when
displaced it returns to its equilibrium position
It is said to be in unstable equilibrium position if when
displaced, even slightly, it moves to a new equilibrium
position
Stability considerations are particularly important for
submerged or floating bodies since the centers of buoyancy
and gravity do not necessarily coincide.
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

60

Stability
A small rotation can result in either a restoring or
overturning couple
For the completely submerged body, which has a center of
gravity below the center of buoyancy, a rotation from its
equilibrium position will create a restoring couple formed
by the weight W and the buoyant force FB, which causes
the body to rotate back to its original position
If center of gravity falls below the center of buoyancy, the
body is in stable equilibrium position
If center of gravity falls above the center of buoyancy, the
body is in unstable equilibrium position
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

61

Stability
For floating bodies the stability problem is more
complicated, since as the body rotates the location of the
center of buoyancy (which passes through the centroid of the
displaced volume) may change.

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

62

Even though a fluid may be in motion,

if it moves as a rigid body there will be

no shearing stresses present
The general equation of motion
(discussed earlier)

p k a
A general class of problems involving

fluid motion in which there are no

shearing stresses occurs when a mass
of fluid undergoes rigid body motion
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

p
a x
x
p

a y
y
p

a z
z

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

63

Linear Motion
We first consider an open
container of a liquid that is
translating along a straight path
with a constant acceleration a
Since ax 0 , it follows that the
pressure gradient in the xdirection is zero p / x 0 .

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

p
a y
y
p
g az
z

Linear acceleration
of a liquid
With free surface

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

64

Linear Motion: In the y and z directions

The change in pressure between two closely spaced points
located at y, z and y+dy, z+dz can be expressed as
dp

or in terms of acceleration

p
p
dy dz
y
z

dp a y dy g az dz

Along a line of constant pressure,

dp 0 , and therefore

from the above equation it follows that the slope of this line
is given by the relationship
ay
dz

dy
g az
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

65

Linear Motion
Along a free surface the pressure is constant, so that for the
accelerating mass, the free surface will be inclined if a y 0
Additionally, all lines of constant pressure will be parallel to
the free surface
For the special circumstances in which a y 0, az 0 , which
corresponds to the mass of fluid accelerating in the vertical
direction
ay
dz
indicates that the fluid surface will be

dy
g az
horizontal
The pressure distribution is not hydrostatic, but is given by
the equation
dp
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

dz

g az

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

66

dp
g az
dz

Linear Motion
For fluids of constant density this equation shows that the
pressure will vary linearly with depth, but the variation is
due to the combined effects of gravity and the externally
induced acceleration
What is the pressure gradient for a freely falling fluid
mass???
Example: the pressure throughout a blob of a juice
floating in an orbiting space shuttle (a free fall) is ???
The only force holding the liquid together is ???
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

67

Rigid-Body Rotation of a
liquid in a tank
A fluid contained in a tank that is

rotating with a constant angular

velocity about an axis will rotate
as a rigid body
In terms of cylindrical coordinates
the pressure gradient p can be
expressed as
p 1 p
p
p e r
e e z
r
r
z
Thus, in terms of this coordinate system
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

a r r 2 e r
a 0
az 0

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

Rigid-Body Rotation
Thus,

68

p
r 2
r
p
0

p

z

It is greater than ZERO.

Thus, the pressure increases in
the radial direction because of
centrifugal acceleration.

This type of rigid body rotation shows that the pressure is a

function of two variables r and z and therefore differential

pressure is
dp

or

p
p
dr dz
r
z

dp r 2 dr dz
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion

69

Rigid-Body Rotation
Along a surface of constant pressure, such as the free surface,
dp 0, so that we can write dz 2 r
dr

The equation for surface of constant pressure is z

Integrating the pressure equation, we get

or
p

2
dp

rdr dz

2 r 2
2

z cons tan t

2r 2
2g

cons tan t

Surfaces of constant pressure

are parabolic.
They are curved rather than flat.

This result shows that the pressure varies with the distance from
the axis of rotation, but at a fixed radius, the pressure varies
hydrostatically in the vertical direction
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Examples of Rigid Body Motion

70

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Summary of the lectures 3-7

71

Pascals law

Vacuum pressure

Surface force

Barometer

Body force
Incompressible fluid
Hydrostatic

pressure

distribution
Pressure head
Compressible fluid
U.S standard atmosphere
Absolute pressure
Gage pressure

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

Manometer
Centre of pressure
Buoyant force
Archimedes principle
Centre of buoyancy
Rigid body motion