9

STEAM TURBINES
9.1 Introduction

From the early days of the reciprocating steam engines, many attempts were made
to develop power from steam without the necessity of the reciprocating mechanism. Modern
steam turbine is the result of these efforts. The steam turbine differs from the reciprocating
steam engine, both in mechanical construction and in the manner in which power is
generated from the steam.
In the reciprocating steam engine a to and fro motion is imparted to the engine piston
by the pressure of the steam acting upon It, and this reciprocating motion is converted
into rotary motionat the crankshaft through the medium of the crosshead, connecting rod
and crank. Theexpansive property of the steam is not utilized to the fullest, even in the
best types of multi-expansion steam engines.
In the steam turbine, rotary motion is imparted directly to the shaft by means of high
velocity steam jets striking the
blades fixed on the rim of a wheel
which is fastened to the shaft. The
turbine is much simpler in mechanical construction, and it utilizes the
r N on condtntinf tH ftm
kinetic or velocity energy of the
a re a / $ 4 - 5 't
steam instead of pressure only.
fCondtftr'iftj e n jix t

ja
area /M Y 7 7
The expansive property of the
8
A /o n -e n u fe ttfify JurSha
steam is almost utilized in the

are* i i-g-9-l
turbine (fig. 9-1) either in the adC b n d e n fin j

mission nozzles or in the turbine

m
turbine,
_
,
O ccr*a.j-2>*-Sl
Afn>.
blading.
9 -S c m
Steam turbines are capable of
tJj.oh
expanding the steam to the lowest
O
Vo/t/me. X*
exhaust pressure obtainable in the
condenser because they are
Fig. 9-1. Comparison of gain in work by fitting condenser to a
reciprocating steam engine and steam turbine.
steady flow machines and many
have large exhaust outlets (with no valves) through which the spent (used) steam must
be discharged. Steam engines, however, are intermittent (non-continuous) flow machines
and must force the expanded steam out through the relatively small exhaust valve. The
lowest practical exhaust pressure for most steam engines is therefore 15 to 20 cm of
mercury absolute (i.e. 0-2 to 0-3 bar). Steam turbines may expand steam to 2-5 cm of
mercury absolute pressure or less.
The main advantages of steam turbine over the reciprocating steam engine ace as
follows :
(i) With the turbine much higher speeds may be developed, and a far greater speed
range is possible than in the case of the reciprocating steam engine. Because of
this, turbine units are much smaller for same power than reciprocating steam

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Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

engine units and this in turn means, less floor space is required and may be
built to produce very large power.

(ii) Since the turbine is a rotary machine, perfect balancing is possible. This means
foundation of the turbine is lighter and smaller.
(iii) The ability of turbine to use high pressure and superheated steam and uniflow
direction of steam flow through the turbine, combined with its greater range of
expansion and ability to utilize a high vacuum to greater advantage, make the
steam turbine much more efficient and economical than the reciprocating steam
engine for power generation. The mechanical friction losses are very small in case
of turbine. The thermal efficiency of the steam turbine therefore is over 30%
compared with about 16% efficiency of the best steam engine.
(iv) The working of the turbine is much smoother than that of the steam engine. The
speed of rotation (r.p.m.) is uniform. The torque produced by the turbine is uniform
and there is practically no vibration.
(v) As no internal lubrication is heeded, highly superheated steam can be used and
exhaust steam contains no lubricating oil.
The steam turbine when properly designed and constructed, is the most durable
prime-mover.
The reciprocating steam engine still possesses certain advantages over the steam turbine
where frequent stopping, starting, reversing or change of speed may be necessary or where
engines are required to operate non-condensing. Mine hoists, locomotives, drilling engines for
wells and some types of mill and factory engines are preferably of the reciprocating type for the
above reasons. The turbine is a constant high speed machine and really must be operated
condensing in order to take full advantage of its greater range of steam expansion.
9.2 Types of Steam Turbines
Steam turbines may be classified into three main types according to the working
principles, namely, impulse turbines, reaction turbines and combined turbines (impulse-reaction turbines).

(a )

(b )
Fig. 9-2.

(a) Diagrammatic view of a simple impulse turbine.

(b) Arrangement of blades and nozzle for a simple impulse turbine.
(c) Simple reaction wheel.

C>

Steam Turbines

235

H ie turbines in which complete process of expansion of steam takes place in stationary

nozzle and the velocity energy is converted into mechanical work on the turbine blades,
are known as impulse turbines.
An impulse turbine depends almost wholly for its operation on the impulsive force of
high velocity steam jet or jets. The high velocity steam jets are obtained by expansion
of the steam in the stationary nozzles only, and the steam then passes at high velocity
through the moving blades with no drop in pressure but a gradual reduction in velocity.
In short, in purely impulse turbines the rotary motion of the shaft is obtained by having
high velocity jets of steam directed against the blades attached to the rim of the turbine
wheel or rotor. Fig. 9-2(a) illustrates diagrammatic view of a simple impulse turbine. Fig.
9 -2 (b) shows the arrangement of blades on the rotor and diaphragm carrying convergentdivergent nozzle. The nozzle axis is inclined at a fixed angle to the tangent of the rotor
wheel.
A pure reaction turbine [fig. 9-2(c)] is one in which the drop of pressure with expansion
and generation of kinetic energy takes place in the moving blades. The steam jets leave
the moving blades at greater velocities than those at which they enter these blades. The
jets of steam from the moving blades react on the blades and turn them round.
The passages through the moving blades are made convergent so that the steam
expands while passing through them, which causes the steam to leave the blades at
higher velocity than that at which it entered. The backward motion of the blades is similar
to the recoil of a gun when fired. A pure reaction turbine is of little practical importance.
In modem reaction turbines both the impulse and reaction principles work together.
The pressure drop is effected partly in the fixed guide blades which are designed to work
as nozzles and partly- in the moving blades which are also so designed that expansion
of the steam takes place in them. The high velocity issuing jet from the fixed guide
blades, produces an impulse on the moving blades and the jet coming out at still higher
velocity from the moving blades produces a reaction. Therefore, part of the work is due
to impulse and the remainder due to the reaction. However, these turbines work more
on reaction principle than on impulse. These turbines are generally called reaction turbines
but the more correct term should be impulse-reaction turbines. A very good example of
reaction turbine is a Parsons turbine. In a reaction turbine, the stationary blades and the
moving blades are virtually convergent nozzles so that the steam passing through them
suffers a fall in pressure.
The circumferential speed of the moving blades is kept the same as the velocity of
the steam that enters the blades. This ensures that the steam will flow into the blades
without striking them.
Steam turbines may further he classified according to their position of shaft, nature of steam
supply, direction of steam flow, construction and arrangement of blades and wheels, and number
of stages in expansion. Thus, steam turbines may be further classified (i) according to the
position of shaft axis, they are horizontal or vertical, (ii) according to their nature of steam supply
and use to which steam is put, they are high-pressure or low-pressure, and bleeder-or extraction,
(iii) according to the direction of steam flow, they are axial, radial, tangential, single-flow or
double-flow, (iv) according to their construction and arrangement of blades and wheels, they
are pressure compounded or velocity compounded, and (v) according to number of stages, they
are single-stage, two-stage, etc.
As an example of the use of these classifications, we might describe a particular
turbine as a horizontal, high-pressure, axial flow, reaction, two-stage, condensing turbine.

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Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

9.3 Impulse-Steam Turbine

It has been already pointed out that the essential parts of an impulse turbine are the
nozzles and blades. In nozzle the expansive property of the steam is utilized to produce
a jet of steam moving with very high velocity. The function of the blades is to change
the direction and hence momentum of the jet or jets of steam and so to produce a force
which will rotate the blades. It is a matter of prime importance that we should be able
to estimate th ^ propelling force that would be applied to a turbine rotor under any given
set of conditions. This will also help to estimate the work done and hence the power.
Since the force is due to a change of momentum caused mainly by the change in the
direction of flow, it becomes essential to draw velocity diagram showing how the velocity
of the steam varies during its passage through the blades.
9.3.1
V elocity diagram fo r m oving blades : Fig. 9-3(a) shows the nozzle and blades
either of single-stage impulse turbine or of one stage of a multi-stage turbine. Steam
enters the nozzle at pressure p0 and issues from nozzle at pressure p i. The velocity of
the steam at the nozzle exit is V i and it is at an angle a i to the tangent of the wheel
at the entrance to the moving blades. The tangential component of entering steam Vwi

o u t l et

TRtAMGLE

m
Fig. 9-3. Velocity diagram.

commonly known as velocity o f whirl, does work on the blades. The axial component
Vai of the entering steam jet does not work on the blades because it is perpendicular
to the direction of the motion of the blades. This component is also known as the velocity
of the flow or axial velocity, and it is responsible for the flow of steam through the
turbine. Change of velocity in this component causes an axial thrust on the rotor.
As the blade is moving with a tangential velocity u m/sec., the entering jet will have
relative velocity of the blades of \Zri which makes an angle of Pi to the wheel tangent.
This relative velocity may be obtained by subtracting the vector of blade velocity (Jj from
velocity of steam (Vi) i.e.
= V{ - u. This is shown in fig. 9-3 (b) for velocity triangle
at inlet. In order to avoid shock at entry, vector I'm must be tangential to the blade tip
at entry, i.e. Pi must be equal to the angle of blade at entrance.
A similar vector diagram is shown at the outlet tip of the moving blade. The steam
glides off the blade with a relative velocity of Vfe inclined at an angle p2 to the tangent;
by adding the vector of blade velocity (d) to W2, the absolute velocity of the leaving

Steam Turbines
steam (V2) is obtained. Its inclination is a2

237

to the tangent. Having obtained the vector

V2 its tangential component or velocity
of whirl V*2 and also its axial component
or velocity of flow Va2 can be drawn.
This completes velocity diagram at exit.

For convenience in solving problems

on turbine blades, it is usual to combine
the two velocity diagrams of fig. 9-3(b)
on a common base representing the
blade velocity u. This has been done
in fig. 9-4, which shows the complete
velocity diagram. This is obtained by
turning the inlet diagram through 180,
and by superimposing it on the outlet
diagram so that vector u coincides for
both diagrams.
Fig. 9-4. Combined velocity diagram.
In an impulse turbine the relative
velocity at inlet Vri has the same magnitude as the relative velocity at outlet Vfe if friction
is neglected. This is so as there is no fall in steam pressure as it flows over the blades
i.e. Vri = Vr2. The length of the vector Vfc may be obtained by drawing a circular arc
of radius Vri and centred at B.
It will be noticed that the horizontal distance between the apexes of the inlet and
outlet diagrams represented by the distance EF, is the vector difference of Vwi and Vw2 ,
Or change o f velocity of whirl
= Vwi Vw2 = EF
9.3.2
Forces on the blade and work done : Since Vi(AC) is the initial absolute
velocity and V2 (AD) is the final absolute velocity of the steam, the change of velocity
which the steam undergoes in passing through the blades is represented by the vector
CD (when the apexes of inlet and outlet triangles are joined) = vector (V2 - Vi) of fig.
9-4.
In general the vector ( V2 - Vi) will not be parallel to u, so that only the tangential
component Vw will do useful work; whilst the normal component (Vai - Va2) produces
an end thrust on the rotor.
Let m = steam flow through blades in kg per sec.
From Newtons second law of motion,
Tangential force on wheel = mass x acceleration in tangential direction
change of velocity
= mass x
a------------Jtime
= mass per sec x change of velocity
= m (V w1 - V*z) N
...(9 .1 )
It should be noticed from fig. 9-4 that VW2 is actually negative as the steam is
discharged in the opposite direction to the blade motion. This means that the values of
Vwi and VW2 are added together in eqn. (9.1). Thus writing eqn. (9.1) in a more general
way,
Tangential force on wheel m (V w1 Vwz) N

. . . (9.2)

+ ve sign is to be used when VW2 and u are in opposite direction as shown in fig.

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Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

9.4 and < ve sign is to be used when VW and u are in same direction as shown in
fig. 9-9.
Work done on blade = force x distance travelled.
- m (V wi Vw2) x u N.m/sec. or Joules/sec.
Power developed by the wheel - - * ^-77 ^7 : ^**2^
1 |U U U

kJ/sec. or kW

. . . (9.3)
'

This power is termed as the rim power to distinguish it from the actual power
transmitted to the shaft.
Blade efficiency : Since available energy of the steam entering the blade is,

Work done on the blades

Energy supplied to the blades

the efficiency of the blade alone, r\b

m x (VWi

V W )u

1 ,0 0 0

2 l #( VWi VW)

...(9 .5 )

(Vi ) 2
m (V i )2
2,000
The blade efficiency is also called diagram efficiency as this is obtained with the help
of velocity diagrams.
Stage efficiency : If H i and H2 be the enthalpies before and after expansion through
the nozzle, then (Hi - Hz) is the enthalpy drop (H) in kJ/kg through a stage of fixed
blade rings and moving blade rings.
.
Work done on blade per kg of steam
age
icie cy, rjs = jo ta i energy supplied per stage per kg of steam
u (Vyvl # VW)

1,000

(Hi - Hz)
.
_ .
Now, nozzle efficiency =

2,000
P I - H i)

u(Vw 1 + VW)
1,000 H
2,000
H

(9.6)

(Vi)
?
2,000 H

Blade efficiency x nozzle efficiency = 2 u (^ i + j j s x (W}

2,000 H
(( V
^ rr f
U ( VvA + VW)
- Stage efficiency
1,000 H
Axial thrust : The axial thrust on the wheel is due to the difference between the
velocities of flow at entrance and outlet.
Axial force on wheel = mass x acceleration in axial direction
= mass per sec. x change of axial velocity
...(9 .7 )
= m(Va 1 - Vaz) N
The axial force or axial thrust or end thrust on the wheel must be balanced or must
be taken by a thrust bearing. It may be noted from eqn. (9.7) that the axial thrust is
zero if Vai = Va2.
Energy converted to heat by blade friction :

239

Steam Turbines
Energy converted to
heat by blade friction

. Loss of knietic energy

during flow over blade

t o o o

^ 5 5 o

k J /s e c -

<a 8 >

where m is steam flow per second.

Problem-1 : Steam issues from the nozzle o f a simple impulse turbine with a velocity
o f 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20, the mean diameter o f the blades is %5 cm and
the speed o f rotation is 20,000 r.p.m. mThe mass flow through the turbine nozzles and
blading is 0.18 kg o f steam per sec. Draw the velocity diagram and derive or calculate
the following : (a) Tangential force on blades, (b) Axial force on blades, (c) Power
developed by the turbine wheel, (d) Efficiency o f the blading, and (e) Inlet angles of

Fig. 9-5. Velocity diagram.

blades for shockless inflow o f steam.

Assume that the outlet angle o f the blades is equal to the inlet angle and frictional
losses are negligible.

Blade speed, u= -?% *N = Jtx_ 2 5 x 20^ )Q = 262 m/sec.

100
60
^
60
The velocity inlet triangle ABC (fig.9-5) may now be constructed to some convenient
scale and the following results are obtained graphically (a graphical solution is to be
preferred, although calculation is equally possible) :
Relative velocity at entrance, Vr\ = 650 m/sec.,
Axial velocity at inlet, Vai = 307-8 m/sec.,
Tangential component at inlet, Vwi = 835-7 m/sec., and
Inlet blade angle, pi = 28-2.
Since friction losses are negligible, V& = Vri = 650 m/sec.
Also the outlet blade angle, 02 - Pi = 28-2.
The velocity exit triangle ABD may now be constructed. The additional results obtained

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Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

are :
Ve2 = Vai = 3 0 7 - 8 m/sec., and Vwz = 310*8 m/sec.
(a) Using eqn. (9.2)
Tangential force on blades - m x (Vwi + Vw2)
= 0-18 x (835-7+ 310-8)- 206 37 N
(b) As there is no change in axial component of velocity, i.e. Va\ = Vg2 , the axial
force on blades is zero.
(c) From eqn. (9.4),
Power developed by the wheel - - -

1,000

^-

, M L * (835-7 + 310-8)262 _
1,000
-

w
3*1 1 KW

(d) From eqn. (9.5),

Efficiency of the blading, r\b = ! ^ VvA + YzSH
(V i)2
2 x 262 (835-7 + 310-8)
____
____
=
1
z
L - 0-742 or 74-2%
(900)
(e)
Inlet angles of blades (for shockless inflow of steam), Pi = 28-2 (from velocity
diagram).
9.3.3 Effect o f blade fric tio n on velocity diagram : In an impulse turbine the relative

Fig. 9-6. Combined velocity diagram considering friction losses.

velocity will remain unaltered as it passes over the blades, if friction is neglected. In
practice the flow of steam over the blades is resisted by friction. The effect of this friction
is to reduce the relative velocity of steam as it passes over the blades. In general, there
is a loss of 10 to 15 per cent in the relative velocity. Owing to friction in the blades,
Vxz is less than Vri and we may write,

Steam Turbines

241

Vr2 = kVr-\ where, k represents the blade velocity coefficient or friction factor.
Thevelocitydiagram
of fig. 9-4can be modified to allow for this blade friction by
making Vrz= k Vri; this modification is shown in fig. 9-6. In this diagram the inlet diagram
is first drawn and the point C on the BC is
marked such that BC = kVr\. With compass
h c is u .
centred on B, and arc of radius BC is drawn to
cut line BD at D. Line BD is drawn at given
angle
and AD is joined. The line AD then
represents absolute velocity Vz.
It will be noticed that the effect of the blade
friction is to reduce V2, and consequently reduce
Vw2. This in turn will cause reduction in the work
done per kg of steam and blade efficiency.
9.3.4
turbine was the first impulse turbine successfully
built in 1889. This is the simplest turbine in form.
Fig. 9-7. De Laval turbine.
It has single impulse wheel on which steam jets
impinge from several nozzles arranged around the
circumference. A view of this turbine is illustrated in fig. 9-7. The steam is expanded in
nozzles which are inclined to the wheel tangent at an angle of about 20. The smallest
De Laval turbine constructed has a wheel
diameter of 12.5 cm and
a speed of 30,000 r.p.m.
It is most suitable for
low pressure steam
supply. The blades are
made symmetrical with
angles of about 30 at
inlet and outlet. The
power developed is
about 5 kW and the
blade speed is 200 m
per sec. It has spherical
bearings. Helical gearing is used to reduce
Fig. 9-8. Velocity diagram for De Laval turbine.
th e high ro ta tio n a l
speed of the wheel to a practical value, withoutundue noise or friction losses.
The velocity diagram for the De Laval blade is shown in fig. 9-8. Assuming no friction
losses for the flow over the blades,
Energy supplied per kg of steam =
Energy rejected per kg of steam =

2,000

kJ.

(Vzf kJ.

2,000

2 - (Vz)2

kJ.
2,000
It may be noted that the work done is maximum when V2 is maximum i.e. when
angle az is 90.
Hence, work done per kg of steam =

Sim ple

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Elements

of Heal Engines Vol. II

Considering A ABD and A ECB, Vri = Vfe (neglecting friction), also

L BAD = i. BEC = 90 (for maximum efficiency), and 61 - 62 (for the De Laval
blade).
Hence, A ABD = A ECB.
AB = BE or AB \ EA, i.e. u = 2
2
Also Vz = AD = EC = Vi sin a i
Now, blade efficiency,

m V' cos a1
2

(9<9)
. . . (9 .10)

Work done on the blade____

Kinetic energy supplied to the blade

(v n l
(^ 2) 2
m 2,OQp ~ 2000 _ ( V\ ) 2 - (Vz)2
( V i) 2
2,000

- 1 - sin2 a i - cos2 a i

W )2

_ (\ZQ2 - (\^ s in a i)2

(Vy)2
(9-11)

This is the maximum efficiency as o.z has been assumed to be 90. Putting a i equal
to 20, which is the value adopted in this turbine,
Maximum blade efficiency = cos2 20 = 0*883 or 88-3%.
This is the theoretical value of the blade efficiency, the actual efficiency is only about
55%.
Although the original machine was great success for mathematicians, it suffered from
many defects which made it compare unfavourably with reciprocating engines. The speed
o f this wheel is too high to be o f practical use. The chief development of modern turbines
has been to devise efficient methods to reduce this high speed; the methods used, such
as compounding for velocity and pressure, will be dealt with later in this chapter.
Problem -2 : The rotor o f an impulse turbine is 60 cm diameter and runs at 9,600
r.p.m. The nozzles are at 20 to the plane, o f the wheel, and the steam leaves them at
600 m/sec. The blades outlet angle are 30 and the friction factor is 0-8. Calculate the
power developed per kg o f steam per second and the diagram efficiency.

Fig. 9-9. Velocity diagram.

243

Steam Turbines
Blade velocity, u =

K^

= 301-5 m/sec.

The velocity diagram may now be constructed to some convenient scale as shown
in fig. 9-9. A graphical solution is to be preferred, although calculation is equally possible.
The inlet triangle ABC is readily constructed consisting of u = 301-5 m/sec,
a i - 20 and Vi = 600 rrVec.
Hence from velocity diagram, Vri = 332 m/sec.
Since friction factor is 0-8, Ife 0-8 l | | - 0-8 x 332 = 265-6 m/sec.
The exit triangle ABD can now be completed by drawing V& = 265-6 m/sec at 30
to u at B.
Hence from velocity diagram, Vwi - Vw2 = 497-32 m/sec.
From eqn. (9.4),
Power developed -

kW

. 1 49] * L * 3015 = 150 kW

1,000

From eqn. (9.5),

Diagram efficiency, r\b - 2u(VWi
S

Vwz)
f

. 2 s m m **s m . ^
or ^
(600)
Problem -3 ; An impulse turbine with a single row wheel is to develop 99-3 kW, the
blade speed being 150 m/sec.
A mass o f 2 kg o f steam per
second is to flow from the nozzles at a speed o f 350 m/sec.
The velocity coefficient o f the
blades may be assumed to be
0-8 while the steam is to flow
axially after passing through the
blades ring. Determine the nozzle angle, and the blade angles
at inlet and exit assuming no
shock. E stim a te a lso the
diagram efficiency o f the blading.
It is best to sketch the
complete velocity diagram,
using the available data, before
attempting solution. As the
Fig. 9*10. Velocity diagram.
steam flows axially at exit, i.e.,
at right angle to the plane of the wheel, then angle BAD is 90 (fig. 9-10). It may be
noted that the triangles cannot yet be constructed. The magnitude of Vwi Vwz can be
calculated from eqn. (9.4).
From eqn. (9.4), power developed =

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Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

i.e. 99-3 =

2 (Vw\ 1^)150
1,000

VvA VW = 331 m/sec.

VWi = 331 m/sec.
As the flow at exit is axial, Vw2 = 0
The inlet triangle ABC can be constructed to some convenient scale using
V] = 350 m/sec., u = 150 m/sec, and Vwi = 331 m/sec.
Hence from the inlet triangle ABC, Vri = 213 m/sec., required nozzle angle,
a i = 18-7, and required inlet blade angle, Pi = 31*75*.
V/2 = 0-8 Vn = 0-8 x 213 - 170-4 m/sec.
Now, exit triangle ABD can be completed.
Hence, from the diagram, required exit blade angle, 02 - 28-3*.
Using eqn. (9.5),
Diagram efficiency, r\b =

2 u ( VWi + Vv/z)
( Y if
2 x 150.x 331

- 0-81 or 81%
(350)2
Problem -4 : The steam leaves the nozzle o f a single-stage impulse wheel turbine
at 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20, the blade angles are 30 at inlet and outlet, and
friction factor is 0-8.
Calculate : (a) the blade velocjfy, and (b) the steam flow in kg per hour if the power
developed by the turbine is 257'kW.
(a) The velocity inlet triangle may be drawn as shown in fig. 9-11 by making u to
any suitable length, say 3
cm, and setting up the given
angles. The Jength of Vi can
then be measured and the
scale of the diagram found,
since Vi = 900 m/sec.
Hence, blade velocity, u =
312 m/sec.
(b)
From the inlet triangle
ABC, Vri = 625 m/sec.
.-. V& - 0-8 Vri
= 0-8 x 625
= 500 m/sec.
Now the exit triangle
ABD can be completed by
drawing V& = 500 m/sec. at
Fig. 9-11. Velocity diagram
30 to u at B.
%
Hence, VVi + Vw2 = 966-7 m/sec. (from velocity diagram).
m ( Vw] + l/wg) u
Using eqn. (9.4), power developed in kW =
1,000

Steam Turbines

245

m x 966-7 x 312
257 x 1,000
0-852 kg/sec.
m =
1,000
966-7 x 312
Steam flow per hour = 0-852 x 3,600 = 3,067-2 kg/hr.
Problem -5 : The outlet area o f the nozzles in a simple impulse turbine is 15-5 err?
and the steam leaves them 0-91 dry at 1-4 bar and at 920 m/sec. The blade angles are
30 at inlet and exit, and the blade velocity is 0-25 of the steam velocity at the exit from
the nozzle. The friction factor is 0-8. Find : (a) the nozzle angle, (b) the power developed,
(c) the diagram efficiency, and (d) the axial thrust on the blading.
i.e. 257

Fig. 9-12. Velocity diagram.

The velocity triangles may be constructed as shown in fig. 9-12 to some convenient
scale.
(a)
In the velocity diagram (fig. 9-12), u = 0-25 x 920 = 230 m/sec. may be drawn.
At B, the inlet blade angle of 30 is drawn. With A as centre and radius equal to 920
rrVsec., an arc is drawn to cut the line (drawn at 30) at C. The inlet triangle ABC can
now be completed. Hence, from the velocity inlet triangle ABC, the required nozzle angle,
a i = 23 and Vri = 7 1 5 m/sec.
.-. V/2 = 0-8 Va = 0-8 x 715 = 572 m/sec.
The exit triangle ABD can be
at B.
Hence, from velocity diagram,
Va2 = 286 m/sec.
At 1-4 bar, from steam tables,
^

..
. . . .
Steam flow through blades, m

completed by drawing Ife = 572 m/sec. at 30 to u

Vwi + VW = 1,113 m./sec., Vai = 359 m/sec., and

vs = 1-2366 m /kg.
AV
15-5 x 920
= = A
- ------------------------- = 1-267 kg/sec.
W*
104 x 0-91 x 1-2366
(b) From eqn. (9.4), Power developed
m(Vw\ + Vw2)jj kW ^ 1-267 x 1/113 x 230 = 324 kW
1,000
1,000
(c) From eqn. (9.5),
Diagram efficiency, r\b =

2 u(Vw\ + Vwz)
(V/1)2

246

Elements of Heat Engines Vol.

Vb

2 x 230 x 1,113
- 0-605 or 60-5%
x2
(920)'

(d) From eqn. (9.7),

Axial thrust on the blading = m (V a1 - Va2) - 1-267(359 - 286) = 925 N
Problem -6 : -A single stage impulse rotor has a blade ring diameter o f 57-5 cm and
rotates at a speed o f 10,000 r.p.m. The nozzles are inclined at 20* to the direction of
motion o f the blades and the velocity o f the issuing steam is 1,050 m/sec. Determine
the inlet blade angle in order that the steam shall enter the blades passage without
shdck. Assume a friction coefficient o f the blading equal to 0-85 and that the inlet and
outlet angles are equal. Find also : (a) the power developed at the blades for a steam
supply o f 1,350 kg per hour, (b) the diagram efficiency, and (c) the loss o f kinetic energy
due to blade friction.

Fig. 9*13. Velocity diagram.

*D N
n . S7-5 x W O .
nVSec_
60
100
"
60
The inlet triangle ABC (fig. 9-13), may now be constructed to some convenient scale
and the following results are obtained :
Blade speed, u =

Relative velocity at entrance, Vri = 775 m/sec.

Tangential component at inlet, Vwi = 986 m/sec. and inlet blade angle Pi - 27-6
Also the blade outlet angle, 02 - Pi = 27-6
Since Vr2 = 0-85 Vr1

V/2 = 0-85 x 775 = 658 m/sec.

The exit triangle ABD can now be completed by drawing Ife = 658 m/sec. at 27-6
to u at B.
Hence, from velocity diagram, Vw2 = 284 m/sec. and \ZW1 + Vw2 = 1,270 m/sec.
(a) From eqn. (9.4),
Power developed =

m (Vwi + Vwz)u
1,000
kw
1,350 x 1,270 x 300
= 142 8 kW
3,600 x 1,000

247

Steam Turbines
(b) From eqn. (9.5),
rv
w
Diagram efficiency,

2 l/ ( W l + Vvi/2:)

r\b =

2 x 300 x 1,270
= ---------------- r-5----(1,050)

M
0-692 or 69*2%

(c) From eqn. (9.8),

Loss of K.E due to blade friction - &
( Vn) 2 - (Vr2)2 kJ/sec.
2 x 1 ,0 0 0
- 3 ,6 0 0 ^ 1 ,0 0 0 1(775)2 - 658>a> =31'4 * >
9.3.5 Methods of reducing rotor speed or compounding of stages : The simple
impulse turbine is shown diagrammatically in fig. 9-14. The lower part of the figure shows
a longitudinal section through the upper half of the turbine, the middle portion shows a
development of the nozzle and blading, while the top portion of the diagram shows
approximately how the absolute pressure and absolute velocity of steam vary from point
to point during the passage of the steam through the turbine.
If the steam is expanded from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure, its
velocity is extremely high, i.e. about 1,050 m per second. As shown earlier, the velocity
of blade for maximum blade efficiency should be about one half of the steam velocity,
i.e. about 525 mper second. In practice, the maximum blade velocity reached in this
type of simple single-stage turbine is about 450 m per sec. As this type of turbine is
only employed for relatively small powers, the diameter of rotor is kept fairly small and
as a result the rotational speed is very high, reaching 30,000 r.p.m. In practice very few
machines are required to be driven at such a high speed, and it is usually necessary
to reduce the speed by gearing. Such gearing will be of undue proportions.
One of the chief objects in the development of the steam turbine is to reduce the
high speed of the rotor to practical limits. Several methods are used to reduce this high
rotor speed. All of these methods consist of a multiple system of rotors in series, keyed
on a common shaft and the steam pressure or the steam velocity is absorbed in stages
as it flows over the rotor blades. This is known as compounding. The following are chief
methods for reducing the rotor speed :
9.3.6 Velocity-Compounded impulse turbines : This type of turbine consists of a
nozzle or sets of nozzles and a wheel fitted with two or more rows of moving blades.
The illustration shown in fig. 9-15 has two-rings of moving blades on the rotor and such
a wheel is sometimes referred to as a two-row wheel. There are also a number of
guide or stationary blades' arranged between the moving blades and set in the reverse
manner as shown in fig. 9-15.
Steam entering the nozzle expands from the initial pressure down to the exhaust
pressure, and resulting steam velocity is then utilized by as many sets of rotor blade
rings as are necessary. On passing through the first ring of moving blades, the steam
gives up only a part of its kinetic energy and issues from this ring of blades with a fairly
high velocity. It then enters the guide blades (stationary blades) and is redirected by them
into the second ring of moving blades. There is a slight drop in velocity in the fixed
guide blades due to friction. In passing through the second ring of moving blades the
steam suffers a change of momentum and gives up another portion of its kinetic energy
to the rotor. In case of three-row rotor, steam further passes through the next ring of
stationary blades and then through the third ring of moving blades and subsequently

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

248
in

**
Jnmovinq blades

vicity
0f 5 t l

Prjjur*

Icavlny

o f steam

C nttrinj

Pressure
o f steam,

enterifljj

Veiot
o f steam
entering

Vl oi ty*-*J| ^' Condenser

o r^ e ^ fg j^ lS f^ L S l pressure

Moving
bltdrj
Exhaust
4 team

Livesteom
entering

Live stea m
cnteritg

(caWns
Stationary
blade

Shaft

Fig. 9-14. Diagrammatic arrangement of simple impulse

turbine showing variation of velocity and pressure of
steam as it flows over the blades.

Fig. 9-15. Two stage velocity-com pounded

impulse turbine.

leaves the wheel and enters the condenser. It may be noted that a two-row wheel is
more efficient than the three-row wheel.
In fig. 9-15 (top portion), the curves of velocity and pressure are shown plotted on
a base representing the axis of
the turbine. It will be noticed
from the pressure curve that all
the pressure drop takes place
in the nozzle ring, and the pressure remains constant as the
steam flows over the blades.
This method of velocity staging is known as Curtis principle.
9.3.7
Ef ficiency of
velocity-compounded stage :
The complete velocity diagram
(fig. 9-16) for a stage consisting
of a two moving blades and one
fixed blade ring will consists of
two diagrams, one for each set
Fig. 9-16. Velocity diagram.

Steam Turbines

249

of moving blades. Let us assume that the blading is symmetrical (01 = p2) and steam
loses 10% of its velocity when passing over a blade and also blade velocity (u), nozzle
angle* (a i), velocity of steam discharged from nozzle (Vi) are known.
Let AC represent Vi, the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzles and entering the
first row of moving blades. The inlet diagram is first drawn and then line BD of an
unknown length is drawn at the correct angle 02- Mark off on line BC a friction loss of
relative velocity CC\ Then BC equals 0-9 BC = 0-9 tfeu With compass centred on B,
draw an arc of radius BC to cut BD at D. Then BD = Ife = 0-9 BC. By joining A and
D the line AD representing Vz is obtained.
The steam now flows over the fixed blade ring and will lose 10% of its velocity during
the passage. Hence mark off DD to be 0-1 of the absolute velocity V*.* Thus steam
enters the second set of moving blades with absolute velocity AE (shown dotted) at an
angle a i T h e steam now flows over the second moving blades and loses 10% of its
relative velocity. Hence, the relative velocity of steam at entry to second set of moving
blades is BE' = 0-9 BE at an inlet angle p i, i.e. same angle as that for the first set of
moving blades. The relative velocity of steam at exit from second set of moving blades
is BF m 0*9 BE = BE' at blade exit angle 02- The absolute velocity of steam at exit
from the second gioving blades is AF (shown dotted) at an angle a 2
It should be noted that
02 = angle of discharge from first moving blade
= inlet angle of fixed blade,
a i = outlet angle of fixed blade, and
02 ' = angle of discharge from second moving blade.

Work done on first set of moving blades per kg of steam

= u (GH) = u(Vw\ Vw2) N.m or Joules
Work done on second set of moving blades per kg of steam
- u ( G ' H ') u(V wi ' VvJZ) N.m or Joules
Total work done per stage per kg of steam = u(GH + G ' H ' ) N.m or Joules.
_
...___ ,
.
m x (GH + G ' H') u ....
Power developed per stage
N . rvv.
* kW
I |UUU
where, m = steam flow through blade in kg per sec.
...
.
u(GH + G ' H')
2u ( G H + G ' H ' )
Diagram or blade efficiency *
= -

Stage efficiency =
where, H = enthalpy drop in nozzles in kJ/kg
Total axial thrust = m[(Va1 - Va2) + (Vg \' - Va2 ') ] N
Same method may be repeated for velocity diagram, if the stage consists of more
than two turbine pairs.
Problem -7 : In a two-stage velocity-compounded impulse turbine, the steam issues
from the nozzles at a speed o f 800 m/sec. The moving blade angles at entrance and
exit are 30 and the blade speed is 180 m/sec. Assuming that the steam enters the
blades without loss or shock and the coefficient of friction for the moving and fixed blades
is 0-88, find :

250

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

(i) the angle o f the nozzle,
(ii) the angle o f the fixed blades discharging tip,
(iii) the total work done on the blades per kg o f steam', and
(iv) the blade or diagram efficiency for the stage.

Fig. 9-17. Velocity diagram.

Refer fig. 9-17 for velocity diagram. This can be drawn to some convenient scale
from the following data :
= 180 m/sec., AC(Vi) = 800 m/sec., pi = 30, = p2 = 30, and
BD(Vt2) = 0-88 8C(Vm) for the first set of moving blades.
AE for second moving blade ring = 0-88 AD of first moving blade ring.
B E = 0-88 BE for the second moving blade ring.
The velocity diagram can now be drawn from these values, and the following values
can be scaled off the diagram :
(i) a i = 225 (nozzle angle).
(ii) a i' - 16 (angle of the fixed blade discharging tip).
(iii) For first moving blade, GH - Vw\ + VW - 1,032 m/sec.
For second moving blade, G H ' - Vw\' - V w i' - 330 m/sec.
Total work done per stage per kg of steam - u(GH + G ' H ' )
m 180 x (1,032 + 330) = 2,45,160 N.m or Joules per kg o f steam

252

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

Tangential thrust on the rotor = m (0 + 53)

- w
* 53 - 66 25 N
Velocity diagram for axial discharge : The efficiency of a stage of an impulse turbine
is a maximum when the final discharge of the steam is axial, i.e. when the angle of
discharge for the second moving blade, 0 2 ' - 90.
In such a case the velocity diagram should be solved in the reverse direction to
obtain the blade angles.
Referring to fig. 9-19, draw the blade velocity AB(u) to any convenient length. This
gives the blade velocity to an unknown scale. Then triangle ABF is drawn with angle
B A F = 90 (axial discharge) and angle A B F = p2. This gives outlet diagram A B F for
the second row of moving blades to an unknown scale. Then working in reverse direction
we get the inlet diagram ABE for the second row of moving blades. Then outlet diagram
ABD for the first row o f moving blades is completed, and again working in the reverse
direction, the inlet velocity diagram ABC, for the first row of moving blades is obtained.
Then velocity of steam (Vi) discharged from the nozzle is measured. The construction
of velocity diagram is explained in the illustrative problem no.9.
As this velocity of the steam, Vi is known, the scale of the whole diagram can be
obtained. The blade velocity can be obtained by measuring the length AB. Also the blade
angles a i ' and 012 and the nozzle angle a i can be obtained from the velocity diagram.
Problem-9 : Steam is supplied to an impulse turbine at a pressure o f 12 bar and
superheated to 250C. The pressure in the wheel chamber is 5 5 bar, and in the chamber
there are two rings o f moving blades separated by fixed blades. The tip o f the moving
blades are inclined 30 to the plane o f the motion. Assuming a 10 per cent friction loss
in the nozzle and also reduction o f 8 per cent in the velocity o f the steam relative to
the blade due to frictional resistance in passing through a blade ring, determine the speed
o f the blade, so that the final velocity o f discharge shall be axial. State what should be
the inclination o f the nozzle to the plane of motion o f the blades. Also find out the steam
consumption in kg per kW-hour, the diagram efficiency, and the stage efficiency.
Since the pressure drop in the nozzle is from 12 bar and 250C to 5*5 bar, the total
enthalpy drop is 163-5 kJ/kg from H - O chart or Mollier diagram.
The velocity of steam leaving the nozzle,
Vi - 44-72 Vactual enthalpy drop
44-72 VO-9 x total enthalpy drop = 44-72 VO-9 x 163-5 - 542-5 m/sec.
The velocity diagram (fig. 9-19 on the next page) can now be drawn starting from
the final velocity of the steam on leaving the second ring of moving blades.
Referring to fig. 9-19, draw blade velocity u(AB) to any convenient length. Then draw
triangle ABF with angle BAF = 90 (axial discharge) and angle ABF = 0 2 * 30. This
gives triangle ABF to an unknown scale.
.

Make B E ' -

B E ' being drawn at 30 to AB, and join AE . Then, as F B is

8 per cent less than BE , the figure ABE F is the velocity diagram for the second ring
o f the moving blades drawn to an unknown scale yet to be determined.
Produce B E ' and make AD

With centre A

and radius AD , cut BF

253

Steam Turbines
716 9 W ***
2 6 0 .5 in /se * -

b la d e

f * t km
Fig. 9-19. Velocity diagram.

produced at D

and join AD . Produce BE

D B
to make BC = Q^j/>- W/Y/j centre B and

radius BC, cut B E ' produced at C. Join AC. Then the figure ABCD will be the velocity
diagram for the first ring of moving blades, and AC represents the velocity of steam
discharged from the nozzle. As the value of velocity of steam, Vi is calculated at the
beginning of the problem, the scale of the whole diagram can now be obtained by
measuring length AC which is found to be 17-7 cm.
Vi
542-5
.-. Scale of the velocity diagram, 1 cm * ~yp? 3'65 m/sec.
v
Hence, blade velocity, u = AB x velocity diagram scale = 4 x 30-65 = 122-6 m/sec.
From velocity diagram,
fixed blade angles are : a i ' = 16-^ , 02 = 42,
1
Nozzle angle, a i = 231,
Vwi + Vw2 = 716-9 m/sec., and Vwi + V'wc
= 260-5 m/sec.
m x u x \[Vw 1 + VV2) + (Vivi ' + Viv2 *)]
Now, power in kW =
1,000
M x 122-6 x (716-9 + 260-5)
i.e. 1 =
1,000 x 3,600

254

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

( where M is steam consumption in kg per kW-hour)
1,000 x 3,600
M =
30 04kg/kW-hr.
122-6(716-9 + 260-5)
2 x u - [(VWi + Vwz) + (VWi
Diagram efficiency =
w r
_ 2 x 122-6 x (7 1 6 -9 + 260-5)
0-8143 or 81-43%
(542 -5)2
Stage efficiency -

u[(Vrt + V2 ) + (VWl ' * Vwz')]

1 ,0 0 0 x H
(where, H is enthalpy drop in the nozzle in kJ/kg)
122-6(716-9 + 260-5)
- 0-733 or 73-3%
1,000 x 163-5
9.3.8 Pressure-com pounded im pulse turbine : It is obvious that by arranging the
expansion ofthe steam in a number of steps, we could arrange a number of simple
impulse turbines inseries on the same shaft, allowing the exhaust steam from one turbine
to enter the nozzles of the succeeding (next) turbine. Each of the simple impulse turbine
would then be termed astage of the turbine, each stage containing a set of nozzles
and blades.This isequivalent
to splitting up the whole pressure drop into a series of
smallerpressure drops; hence the term Pressure compounding.
The nozzles are usually fitted into partitions, termed
as diaphragms, which separate one wheel chamber
"7 l"\ {' '
wwA
from the next. Expansion of steam takes place wholly
i\ aj m
in the nozzles, the space between any two diaphragms
Aretxyr,
being filled with steam at constant pressure. The
OfftMHc
pressures
on either side of any diaphragm are therefore
mmiertof
different. Hence, steam will tend to leak through the
space between the bore of the diaphragmand the
surface of the shaft. Special devices are fitted to
minimise these leakages.
The pressure compounding causes a smaller transformation of heat energy into kinetic energy to take
place in each stage as compared to the simple impulse
turbine. Hence, steam velocities with pressure compounding are much lower, with the result that blade
velocities and rotational speed may be lowered. It is
fairly clear that the speed may be reduced at will,
simply by increasing the number of stages, but for
very low speed the number of stages may become
excessive.
In the fig. 9-20, curves of velocity and pressure
are plotted on a base representing the axis of the
turbine. It will be noticed that the total pressure drop
Fig. 9-20 Pressure-compounded impulse
of the steam does not take place in the first nozzle
ring, but is divided equally between the two nozzle
rings, and the pressure remains constant during the flow over the moving blades; hence
the turbine is an impulse turbine.
Pressure compounding produces the most efficient, although the most expensive

Steam Turbines

255

turbine; so in order to make a compromise between efficiency and first cost, it is customary
to combine velocity compounding and pressure compounding.
This type of turbine was developed by the late Professor A. Rateau of Paris and Dr.
Zoelly of Zurich.
Pressure - velocity compounded impulse turbine : Another type of impulse turbine is
the pressure - velocity compounded turbine. In this turbine both previous two methods
are utilized. Total pressure drop of the steam is divided into stages and the velocity in
each stage is also compounded.
In this turbine each stage has two or more rows of moving blades and one or more
rows of stationary blades, the moving and stationary blades being placed alternately. Each
stage is separated from the adjacent stage by a diaphragm containing nozzles. A ring
of nozzles is fitted at the commencement of each stage. It is thus compounded both for
pressure and velocity.
This method has the advantage of allowing a bigger pressure drop in each stage
and consequently less stages are necessary. Hence, a shorter or more compact turbine
will be obtained for a given pressure drop.
The pressure-velocity compounded turbine is comparatively simple in construction and
is more compact than the multi-stage pressure compounded impulse turbine. Unfortunately
its efficiency is not so high.
This method of pressure-velocity compounding is used in the Curtis turbine.
9.4. Reaction Steam Turbine
Though all turbines employ both the impulse and reaction principles to some extent,

L
O
A
DM
fe
V
f

M
O
TM
C
T
O
N
t

Fig. 9-21. Parson's type reaction turbine.

256

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

there is one turbine in which the reaction principle predominates sufficiently to have it
commonly described as reaction turbine. The turbine bears the name of its inventor, the
late Sir Charles A. Parson. This type, the Parsons reaction turbine, is shown in section
in fig. 9-21.
In operation, steam enters the turbine through a double seated throttle valve, which
is controlled by a governor driven from a worm gear on the main shaft, and passes in
succession through the rings of fixed and moving blades until it reaches the end of the
turbine cylinder and passes to the exhaust.
In passing through each ring of blades, the steam drops in pressure and increases in
volume. To allow for this increased volume and keep the velocity of steam uniform, the blade
ring areas are increased in steps. The blade rings between one step and next form an expansion
group, and all the blade rings of particular group have the same external and internal radius.
In the turbine shown in fig. 9-21, there are 12 expansion groups.
In impulse turbines, the steam
is *
2nd
3 rd
3*STATI0MiMty
pressure on the back and front
STAGE
STAGE STAGE
NM0VIN6
of a set of moving blades is the
S
M S M S M
same and any thrust exerted by
the steam in the direction of the
rotor axis is negligible. In the
reaction turbine, this thrust is considerable owing to the fall of pressure w ith in the blades and
difference between the blade
sizes in the various steps. Dummy
pistons and thrust bearings are
used to balance this axial thrust.
T i
The face of dummy piston D on
l
1

VELOCITY
the right is exposed to entering
w
OF JTEAM
high pressure steam, while the
Wr
*
I hV*
e n t e r ing
face of dummy piston D on the
left is under steam pressure conveyed by pipe (not shown) from
t..
between the third and fourth ex*L"i *C1
pansions. The back of the dummy
piston on the left is under pressure
M O V IN G 6 L A D E S
conveyed by pipe (not shown)
from between sixth and seventh
EXMAUST
expansions. The rotor is a steel
TfAK
forging,
and the dummy pistons
fcAVIKG
are solid with it.
Fig. 9-22 shows diagrammatic
arrangement of three-stage, axialflow, impulse - reaction turbine.
It also indicates roughly how the
blade height increases as the
specific volume of the steam increases with reduction in pressure; also how the pressure falls
gradually as the steam passes
. , . .
.. . .,
through the groups of blades. It

W\

Am
'm
Si

s
'm iSB!
$& SB

Fig. 9-22. Three-stage axial-flow impulse-reaction turbine.

**

Steam Turbines

257

will be observed from the diagram that there is a pressure drop across each row of
blades, fixed and moving. This is of considerable practical importance, specially at the
high pressure end of the turbine where the pressure drop is greatest, because this
difference of pressure tends to force some steam through the clearance space between
the moving blades and casing, and between the fixed blades and the rotor. The available
energy possessed by this leaking steam is partly lost.
The steam velocities in this type of turbine are comparatively moderate, the maximum
being according to. the theory, about equal to the blade velocity. In practice, the steam
velocity is commonly arranged to be greater than the blade velocity in order to reduce
somewhat the total number of blades rows. The leaving loss for this type of turbine is
normally about the same as for the multi-stage impulse turbine having single row wheels.
This type of turbine has been, and continues to be, very successful in practice.
9.4.1
V elocity diagram fo r Parsons reaction turbine : In the reaction turbine, steam
expands continuously in the fixed guide blades and moving- blades. As its velocity and
volume increase, increased area between the blades is required. This is obtained by

Fig. 9-23. Velocity diagram.

using a tapered rotor with progressively increasing blade heights.

Steam is directed against the moving blades by fixed guide blades, with velocity Vi,
at an angle a t. If the blade velocity is u m/sec, the relative velocity is Vri. The steam
expands between the moving blades, increasing its velocity and leaving with relative V&,
and exit blade angle 02. approximately equal to its entrance velocity V\ and entrance
angle a i respectively. Compounding the relative velocity Vr2 with the blade velocity u,
which it has while on the blades, the absolute exit velocity V2 is obtained.
In a Parsons reaction turbine the fixed and moving blades are made indentical, i.e.
a i and 02 are equal, also 01 and 02 are equal. The velocity diagram from these blades
will therefore, be symmetrical about a vertical central line.
In order to draw the velocity diagram (fig. 9-23), AB is drawn to represent the blade
speed to a suitable scale. AC and BD are drawn at 20 to AB; andBC and AD at 35
to AB; the points C and D are at the intersection of these lines.
Referring to the fig. 9-23, the heat supplied to the turbine pair is the enthalpy drop
of the steam during its passage over the pair; this is obtained from the Mollier diagram
(H - <J> chart), the expansion being assumed isentropic. Then,
Work done per pair per kg of steam = (V ^ + Vv^)u = EF
x AB N.m or Joules
Work done per sec. per pair = m (EF x AB) N.m per sec.or Joules per sec.
where, m = mass of steam flowing over blades in kg per sec.
Power developed per pair = 171

kW

258

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

Work done per pair per kg of steam

EF x AB
Enthalpy drop per pair
1,000 H
where, H is the enthalpy drop per turbine pair in kJ/kg.
Problem -10 : In reaction turbine the fixed and moving blades are o f the same shape
but are reversed in direction. The angles o f the receiving tips are 35* and o f the discharging
tips 20. Find the power developed per pair o f blades for a steam consumption o f 1-1
kg per sec. when the blade speed is 50 m/sec. If the enthalpy drop in the pair is 9 5
kJ per kg, find efficiency o f the pair.
Efficiency

The velocity diagram may be

constructed to some convenient
scale as shown in fig. 9-24.
From the diagram,
{Vw\ + Vwz) - EF - 155
m/sec.
Work done per pair per kg
of steam = u {V wi + Vwz)
= 50 x 155
= 7,750 N.m or Joules
Power developed per pair =

m x u(Vw 1 + Vwz)
[From eqn. (9.4)]
1,000
1-1 x 7,750
= 8525 kW
1,000

From eqn. (9.6),

F ff ic ie n c v
Work done per pair per kg of steam
"
1,000 H
7

x y*5 = 0816 or 81-6% (efficiency of the pair)

9.4.2 Height of blades fo r reaction turbine : In a reaction turbine the area through which
steam flows will always be full of steam. Fig. 9*25 shows the end view of one.set of blades.
Let d = rotor drum diameter in metres,
1 ,uvju

h = height of blades in metres = kd

(where, k = design constant)
= 0 08 to 0-1 (usually 0*083)
then, A - area of flow
= n x mean diameter at the mean
circumference of blades x height
ji (d + h) h
m ji (d + kd) k d
= ji(1 + k )k (d )
Now, m = mass in kg/sec. =

Vf
XVS

where, Vf = velocity of flow in m/sec. and

vs = specific volume of steam entering the stage in m /kg.

0)

Steam Turbines

259

_
ji(1 + A) k ( d ) 2
..
m "
xvh
* f

- (9-12)

Let n be the speed of wheel in revolutions/minute, then,

Blade speed, u

m/sec.
oO
But, the velocity diagram shown in fig. 9-23 is similar for all blade rings of this turbine,
as the blades are similar throughout. Therefore, Vt is proportiohal to u. Hence,
(Vw\ * Vw2) is proportional to u.
Let Vf = k i u

. . . (ii)

and (W i + Vwz) - *2 u

. . . . (iii)

where, k i and kz are constants that can be obtained from velocity diagram.
Then, substituting these values in eqn. (9.12),
m -

n(1 + k ) k ( d ) 2 ,
----- x *

T
...(9 .1 3 )

Work done per pair - m (V w1 + Vwz) u - m k z i? Joules/sec.

.*. Power developed per pair -

1 |UUU

. . . (9 .14)

kW

Problem-11 : A low pressure reaction turbine running at 600 r.p.m. is supplied with
14 kg of steam/sec. Find the drum diameter and the height o f the blades at the section
o f the turbine where pressure is 1-o bar and dryness is 09, if the discharge angle o f
the blade is 20* and the bladevelocity is 0 7 o f the relative velocity o f the
steam at
outlet of the blade. Assume that theblade

height is to be-j^th

o fdrum diameter.

From steam tables, at 1 bar, vs = 1-694 m3/kg.

,
re (d + h )h Vf
()
Now, m - -------- xvs
The velocity diagram will be geometrically similar to fig. 9-23, but the scale is not
known. Measuring from the velocity diagram, W - 0-5 u,
600
also u, 1* + M mJ d+ A) |
X
60
[
12]
60
Substituting the values of m, Vf and u in (i), we have

14 *

0-9 x 1-694
3-17

d
/. h m *

1 *6 4

- 3 1 7 (d )3

= 1-64 m i.e. 164 cm (drum diameter)

. 0-137 m i.e. 13-7 cm (blade height)

Prcblem -12 : A group o f reaction blading consists o f three fixed and three moving
jje g s all o f the same height, and the mean blade speed o f the moving rings is 65 m/sec.
For the mean moving ring the inlet absolute and relative velocities are 80 and 30 m/sec.
respectively and the specific volume is 0156 rrP/kg. Determine for a flow o f 2 2 5 kg/sec.:
(a) the required area o f blade annulus, (b) the power developed by the group, (c) the
required enthalpy drop for the group if the steam expands with an efficiency ratio o f 08.
18

260

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

Assume that both fixed and moving blades are o f the same section.
(a) If both fixed and moving blades are of the same section, then the moving blades
exit angle p2 will be equal to a i; also Vz must be so inclined as to enter the
fixed blades without shock, i.e. aa - p i. Thus, this is a Parsons turbine.
The inlet triangle ABC is easily drawn, as the length of the three sides is known

Fig. 9-26. Velocity diagram.

(scale <1 cm = 10 m/sec.), as shown in fig. 9-26.

AB = u
=' 65 m/sec. = 6-5 cm
AC = Vi = 8 0 m/sec. = 8 0 cm.
BC = Vri = 30 m/sec. = 3 0 cm.
Mass of steam flowing over blades, m = 2-25 kg/sec. (given).
Specific volume of steam, v = 0-156 m2/kg (given).
The construction results in constant velocity of flow,
Vai = Va2 = 28-3 m/sec.
AV
For continuity of flow, m = kg/sec.
(where A is area of blade annulus in m2)

A .

- 2 '2 5 2; ' 1 5 6 . 0 - 0 1 2 4 m 2

(b) From velocity diagram, VW1 + Vw2 = 84-5 m/sec.

Since there are three pairs in the group or expansion and the diagram is that for
the mean pair,
_
m x (VWi Vz) u
Power developed by the group = 3 x ----------- Tooo--= 3 x 2-25 x 84-5 x 65 = 371 RW
1,000
(C)The enthalpy change

S t
- andenthalpychange

in the fixed blades will

inthe moving blades

Vi 2 - Vz 2
be 2 ~ 1 q q q "kJ/k9

( Vr2) 2 - (V r,)2 , I/t

willbe 2 1q q o
KJ/ 9-

261

Steam Turbines

It is clear from the construction of the diagram that these enthalpy changes will be
equal.
Useful enthalpy change per pair - 2 x

(Va) 2 - (Vo)2
~2 ~ ) qqq

an2 _ 30 ?
* 2 x 2 x 1 CXX3kJ/k9'

802 _ 30?
Actual enthalpy change per pair - 2 x - r and
^ X I |UUU X U o

802 - 302
2 x 1 ,0 0 0 x 0-8
- 20625 kJ/kg

Actual enthalpy change for the group - 3 x 2 x

9.5 Re-heat Factor

In pressure compounding, the pressure of the steam is made to fall progressively
(step by step) in number of stages of the turbine from initial pressure pr to exhaust
pressure pb. If the friction in the blading is neglected, the expansion of steam can be
considered insentropic; however there is always considerable friction resisting the flow of
steam and hence the isentropic enthalpy drop in any stage is not fully utilized in raising
the kinetic energy, i.e. owing to friction there is a loss of kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy thus lost is converted into heat with the result that steam becomes dry or
superheated. This process of friction heating always causes an increase in entropy and,
consequently, slight increase in final enthalpy drop.
The behaviour of the steam as it passes through the successive stages is best studied

Fig. 9-27. The condition curve on H -

diagram.

by reference to the Mollier diagram (H - O diagram). A portion of diagram is shown in

fig. 9-27.
Let us consider a steam turbine with five stages between pressure range of p i and
pb (fig. 9-27). The initial condition of the steam as it enters the turbine is represented

262

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

by the pojnt A. In the first stage the steam expands isentropically from pressure p i to
P 2. The expansion is represented by the vertical line AB, a line of constant entropy. Mark
off 681 on vertical line AB to represent friction loss of energy in the first stage due to
blade friction. From point By draw a horizontal line to meet the first stage back pressure
line pz at Bz. Then the point Bz represents the final condition of the steam when
discharged from the first stage. In the first stage, AB is the isentropic enthalpy drop
neglecting friction and AB1 is the actual or adiabatic enthalpy drop for that stage. The
friction loss in the first stage, measured in heat units, is represented by BBy and the
total enthalpy of steam as it enters the second stage is shown by level of point By.
The same process is repeated fo r'th e remaining stages, that is, second, third, fourth
and fifth stage, and condition of the steam at the end of each stage is obtained. The
final condition of the steam at the end of each stage is represented by points Cz, Dz,
Ez and Fz. The isentropic enthalpy drop in the second, third, fourth and fifth stage is
represented by the lines BzC, CzD, DzE and E2F and actual or adiabatic enthalpy drop
is represented by the lines BzCi, CzDy, DzEy and EzFy.
If the friction be neglected, the isentropic expansion of the steam through all stages
is represented by the vertical line AG. It will be seen from the Mollier diagram (fig. 9-27)
that the constant pressure line diverges from left to right and the effect of the friction is
to move isentropic expansion line for each stage towards the right of the diagram. This
means that the isentropic enthalpy drop, as represented* by the lines AB, BzC, CzD, DzE,
and EzF, has slightly increased. The ratio of the sum of the isentropic enthalpy drops in
all stages to the isentropic enthalpy drop when expansion is carried out in a single stage,
is known as re-heat factor for the turbine. The re-heat factor will be denoted by R.F.,
_

. ,

A B + BzC + CzD + D zE + E zF

i.e. Re-heat factor, R.F.

----------------------^ -------------------AG

The value of the re-heat factor varies with the type and efficiency of the turbine; an
average value is 1.05.
The effect of the re-heat factor is to increase the final enthalpy drop; so the efficiency
of the turbine is increased by the same ratio. This increase in efficiency due to friction
is very small compared with net loss in friction.
/. Turbine efficiency, yj = Stage efficiency x Re-heat factor
-

Tistage x R.F.

The isentropic efficiency of the turbine or efficiency of all the stages combined is the
ratio of actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop of the steam. Actual or adiabatic
enthalpy drop is represented by the vertical line AH and isentropic enthalpy drop ( without
friction ) is represented by the line AG ( fig. 9.27 ).
_ .
Isentropic efficiency *

Vertical projection of AF2 i.e., AH

------ i
-------------------------------

The curve joining the points A, B2 , C2 , D2 , E2 , and F2 will represent the condition
of the steam at any instant. This curve is shown dotted and is called the condition curve
or line o f condition for the turbine.
Problem - 13 : Steam at 13 bar and 200C is expanded in a turbinethrough six
stages o f equal isentropic enthalpy drop to a pressure o f 0.1bar. There is a 20%loss
of enthalpy drop due to friction throughout the expansion. Calculate the re-heat factor.

2Q3

Steam Turbines

Fig. 9*28. H - diagram.

Overall isentropic enthalpy drop, AH = 737 kJ/kg (obtained from H chart).

737
Isentropic enthalpy drop during each stage = 122.83 kJ/kg
Dividing AH eqtiaily jnto six equal parts, the pressure lines for each stage were found
to be 7, 3.5, 1.$ d& saigd 0.27 bar.
Isentropfc ;e#tiatpy drop for the remaining five stages is then found out from
H c h ^ 'j^ q ^ s ^ w n in the table below *
Turbine?
stage'
!

* Isentropic enthalpy drop::

( without friction ) in each 1L
stage in kJ/kg
.

loss 20%
W kJ/kg

Adiabatic enthalpy drop

in each stage in kJ/kg
AB1 = 98.24

AB = 122.8

BgC - 125.6

CCt = 25.1

B2C1 m 100.50

CgD = 129.8

DD1 = 26.0

C2D1 = 103.80

D2F = 131.9

EEi = 26.4

D2E 1 = 105.50

E2F = 131.9

FFi = 26.4

E2F1 = 105.50

FpG = 134.0

GGi = 26.8

F2G 1 = 107.20

BBt = 24.56

Re-heat facto., R.F. - ^'sentropicenlhalpydrop

122-8 + 125-6 + 129-8 + 131-9 + 131-9 + 134-0
- -------------------------------- 737---------------------

_____
776
737 - 10529

9.6 Re-heating of Steam

The steam becomes wet as it expands. The wet steam has in it suspended water
particles. The water particles which are heavier than steam particles, cause erosion on
the turbine blades. In order to increase the life of the turbine blades, it is necessary to

264

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

keep steam dry during expansion. This is done by taking out steam from the turbine at
the section where it becomes just dry saturated and is re-heated at constant pressure
by the flue gases until it is again superheated to the same temperature as on entry to
the turbine. It is then taken back
into the next stage of the turbine
where further expansion takes place.
Thjs process is known as "re-heating. Within certain limits this process
will cause increase in work done. It
may be noted that increase in work
done is at the cost of additional heat
supplied in re-heating the steam and
therefore there will be no appreciable
change in the efficiency.
This process is indicated on the
Mollier diagram ( fig. 9-29 ). The
initial condition of the steam entering
the turbine is represented by the
point 1. The steam then expands
insentropically through the turbine
along the line 1-2. At a certain point
2 , at which the steam has become
rig. 9-29. Re-heating of steam.
just dry saturated, it is re-heated
back to its initial temperature at constant pressure to point 3; at this point the steam is
again in a superheated state and is at pressure #?. It then continues its isentropic
expansion through next stage of the turbine until the condenser pressure p3 is reached
at point 4. Neglecting the friction, the
total enthalpydropis [ ( Hr H2
) + (H3
) ] and the total heat supplied is the enthalpy at point 1 , i.e., Hr, plus the heat supplied
during the re-heating process between points 2 and 3, i.e., H3 - H2.
Work done per kg of steam = total enthalpy drop = [ { H i - H2 ) + ( H3 - H4 ) ]
kJ/kg.
' Total heat (net) supplied per kg of steam = [ Hr + ( H3 - H2 ) - h4 ] kJ/kg
where, I14 is the enthalpy of water at point 4.
Efficiency with re-heating
Work done
_ [ (Hi - Hz) + (H3 - Ha) ]
Heat supplied *
[ Hi + (H 3 - Hz) - h4 ]
(0
If steam had not been re-heated, then the expansion through the turbine would be
represented by the vertical line 1 - 4'.
Then, work done per kg of steam = total enthalpy drop - Hi - H4'kJ/kg
Heat supplied per kg of steam Hi * h \ kJ/kg
Hi ~ H i'
Efficiency without re-heating ----- 7

... (ii)

where H4' and h4' are the enthalpies of steam and water respectively at point 4',
Actual working of a specific problem with the help of eqn. (i) and (ii), it will be found
that the effect of re-heating may not cause appreciable change in efficiency, but will
cause increase in the work done per kilogram of steam used. Refer illustrative problem
No. 14.

265

Steam Turbines

This process of re-heating may be repeated if required during the expansion of the
steam through the turbine in more than two stages.
The following advantages may be claimed by re-heating of steam :
(i) The quality of steam at exit from the turbine is improved; this reduces the erosion
(wearing out) trouble on the turbine blades.
(ii) Work per kilogram of steam increases and hence specifie steam consumption of
steam turbine decreases. This reduces the amount of water required in condenser of the
turbine.
Problem - 14 : Steam at a pressure o f 28 bar and 50C superheat, is expanded
through a turbine to a pressure, where the steam is ju st dry saturated. It is then re-heated
at constant pressure to its original temperature, after which it completes its expansion
through the turbine to an exhaust pressure o f 0.2 bar. Calculate the ideal efficiency o f
the plant and the work done, (a) taking the re-heating into account, and (b) if the steam
was expanded direct to exhaust pressure without any re-heating.
(a) With re-heating :
From H - 0 chart ( fig. 9-30 ),
enthalpies, H i = 2,920 kJ/kg, Afe =
2,793 kJ/kg (corresponding to dry
saturated steam at pressure of 15.5
bar), H3 = 2,960 kJ/kg (corresponding
to pressure of 15.5 bar and temperature of 280.1C), H4 = 2,230 kJ/kg
(corresponding to exhaust pressure of
0.2 bar); and h4 = 251.4 kJ/kg (enthalpy of water at 0-2 bar obtained
from steam tables).
Ideal efficiency with re-heating
Work done
Heat supplied

Entropy

(Hi - Hz) + (Hs - H4)

Hy + (Hs - Hz) /14

Fig. 9-30. H - 4> diagram.

, (2 ,920 - 2 ,793) + (2 ,960 - 2 ,230) .

857
0-3022 or 30.22%
2 ,920 + (2 ,960 - 2 ,793) - 251-4 " 2 ,835-6
Work done - (Hi
Hz) + (H3 - H4) = (2,920 - 2,793) + (2,960 - 2,230) = 857 kJ/kg
(b) Without re-heating ;
From H - $ chart, H i = 2,920 kJ/kg, H4' = 2,120 kJ/kg ( at0.2 bar

),and

tW = 251.4 kJ/kg ( at 0.2 bar ) from steam tables.

Ideal efficiency without re-heating.
Work done
heat supplied

Hi - W
2,920 - 2,120 _
Hi - / 14' 2,920 - 251 -4 "

__
'

Work done * Hi - W - 2,920 - 2,120 = 800 kJ/kg.

It can be seen that by re-heating there is no appreciable change in the efficiency,
but it has increased the work done; thus an increase in the power is obtained from a

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

266
given size of turbine.

9.7 Regenerative Feed Heating or Bleeding

The process of draining steam from the turbine, at certain points during its expansion,
and using this steam for heating the feed water supplied to the boiler, is known as
bleeding and this process of feed heating1is known as regenerative feed heating.
At. certain sections of the turbine, a small quantity of wet steam is drained out from
the turbine, as shown in fig. 9-31. This bled steam is then circulated around the feed
water pipe leading from the hot-well to the boiler. The relative cold feed water causes
this bled steam to condense, the heat thus lost by steam being transferred to the feed
water. The condensed steam then drains into the hot-well. The result of this process is
to supply the boiler with hotter feed water whilst a small amount of work is lost by the
turbine. This definitely increases efficiency of plant, but there is also a decrease in the
work done per kilogram of steam; this process is shown in illustrative problem No. 15.
In the absence of precise information as to the actual temperature of the feed water
entering and leaving the heaters and the condensate temperature, the following assumptions
are made :
(i) The bled steam just condenses, i.e., gives up its superheat (if any) and all its
enthalpy of evaporation only. The condensed steam therefore leaves the heater at the
saturation temperature corresponding to the bleeding pressure.
(ii) The feed water is heated to the saturation temperature at the pressure of the
bled steam.
Feed heating systems : Different systems of feed water heating are shown in fig.
9-31 and fig. 9-32. In each case 2 heaters are used. In actual practice, heaters may
vary from 2 to 6.
(i) When the bled steam does not mix with feed water or Cascade, system :
Fig. 9-31 shows two surface heaters in which the feed water condenses the bled
steam, i.e., the bled steam does not mix with the feed water. This system is also known
as Cascade system.
Consider bleeding at point 1 ( fig. 9-31 ). Let *wi be the mass of bled steam per

Fig. 9-31 Cascade system.

Steam Turbines

267

kilogram of feed water heated. Then,

Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by feed watery
i.e., w i ( H i - h2 ) - ( h r - h2 )
where, h2 is enthalpy of the feed water coming from heater No.2 and entering heater
No.1.
(hy - fig)
"i '

(H, - h j)

Now consider bleeding at point 2. Let w2 be the mass of bled steam at point 2 per
kilogram of feed water heated. 'Then,
Wg ( Hg h ) + Wj ( hg h3 )

- h2 h3

(1 - w j i h g + /jg) ;
"4

where, fo is the enthalpy of feed water entering heater No.2,

Mass of steam in turbine per kilogram of
feed water between points 1 and 2 } = 1 - w1
Mass of steam between point 2 and exhaust'= 1 - w1 - w2
Work done in turbine per kilogram of feed
water between entrance and point 1 } = ( H - H1 )
Work done betweenpoint 1 and point 2 = ( 1 - w1 ) ( H1 - H2 )
Work done betweenpoint 2 and exhaust = ( 1 - w1 - w2 ) ( H2 - H3 )
Total heat supplied per kilogram of feed water = ( / - / - / ? , )
Work done
.-. Efficiency of the plant (including the effect of bleeding ) - Heat supplied
(H -

H ,) + (1- * ,)( , -

H J + (1 - ik, - w2) ( ^

- H j)

H - hA
(ii) When bled steam is mixed with feed water or Drain pump system :
It is a common practice in bleeding installation to mix the bled steam with the feed
water. The mixture of bled steam and feed water is then supplied direct to the boiler.
This system is also known as drain pump system. A diagrammatic arrangement of such
an installation with two feed water heaters is shown in fig. 9-32.
At a point in the turbine installation at which the steam pressure is pr, Wi kilogram
of steam is abstracted (removed) and mixed with the feed water, which has been raised
to a temperature of fc, by the previous bled steam. Then, on the basis of one kilogram
of feed water, heat lost bybled steam = heat gained
by feed water,
i.e., fKg s(
/?| ) = ( 1 W] J (ftj h2 )
h\ -

hg

Similarly, for the bled steam at pressure p2, w2 ( H2 - h2 ) = (1 - wi - w2 ) (h2 - h3)

(1 - V K ,)(/ fe - /I3)

268

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. H

TURBINE

COOUttt
W A TC H

0 8 TU I

6OOUM0
4.W1II
HUT

h,

\
COMKMSATt
(t-Wi-ia)h|

fh ^ y x
eUO STUM COMDMSATC

: wru

Fig. 9*32. Drain pump system.

Problem - 15 : Two stages o f feed heating are employed in a steam turbine

installation, steam being bled for these at pressures o f 3.4 bar and 0.6 bar respectively.
The temperature o f the feed water is raised to that o f the bled steam, and the condensate
from each heater may be taken as being at the same temperature as the feed water
entering the heater.
The steam is supplied to the turbine at 17 bar with 4.5C superheat, and condenser
pressure is 0.06 bar. The stage efficiency between pressures 17 bar and 3.4 bar is 0.7,
and in the other two stages is 0.65. Estimate :
(i) the mass o f steam bled to each heater,

cn2,810

Entropy
H4>diagram.

Fig. 9-33.

(ii) the total work done per

kilogram o f steam supplied to
the turbine, and
(iii) the overall thermal efficiency o f the cycle.
Refer to fig. 9-31 and fig.
9-33.
For stage 1, stage efficiency =
0.7, and for stages 2 and 3, stage
efficiency = 0.65. The required
enthalpy values for different
stages may be read from the
H - 4> chart after considering
stage efficiency as shown in fig.
9-33. From H - 4> chart, H =
2,810 kJ/kg, H i = 2,596 kJ/kg, H2
= 2,418 kJ/kg, H3 = 2,223 kJ/kg.
^o m steam tables, at 3-4
bar, h i = 579.97 kJ/kg,

Steam Turbines

269

at 0.6 bar, h2 = 359.86 kJ/kg and

at 0.06 bar, to = 151.53 kJ/kg.
(i) For heater No. 1
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained byfeed water, i.e., w i (H i - h2) = h i - h2
W] -

th - h2 579-97 - 359-86
.
------ = - - -
= 0.0984 kg
bh - hz
2 ,596 - 359-86

For heater no.2

W2 ( H2 h3 ) + W1 (h2 h3 ) = h2 h3 *
. ^
(hz - h3)( 1 - w^)
(359-86 - 151-53) (1 - 0-0984)

"
Hz - ha

2 ,4 1 8 - 151-53
-

.
9

(ii) Total work done per kg of steam supplied to turbine

= ( H - H i ) + ( 1 - w i ) ( H i - H2 ) + ( 1 - w i- w2 ) ( H2 - Hs )
= (2,810 - 2,596) + ( 1 - 0.0984 ) ( 2,596 - 2,418 ) + ( 1 - 0.0984 - 0.0829 )
x ( 2,418 - 2,223 )
= 214 + ( 0.9016 x 178 ) + ( 0.8187 x 195 )
= 214 + 160.45 + 159.55 = 534.0 kJ/kg
(iii) Total heat supplied per kg of steam = H - hi = 2,810 - 579.97 = 2,230.03 kJ/kg
Overall thermal efficiency - Work done _
* 0.2394 or 23.94%
1
Heat supplied
2,230.03
Problem - 16 : The steam supply to a turbine is at 40 bar with 38C superheat.
Steam is bled for feed heating at 13 bar and at 3.6 bar. The condenser pressure is 0.1
bar.
Calculate the optimum mass o f bled steam at each stage and the cycle efficiency.
Assume an efficiency ratio o f 0.8 for each portion o f the expansion and that the feed
water leaving each heater is raised to the temperature o f the steam entering the heater,
the bled steam being pumped into the feed line after each heater.
Refer to figs. 9-32 and 9-34.
For each stage, efficiency ratio of
0.3 is assumed.

Entropy
Fig. 9-34. H - <t>diagram.

From steam tables, at 13 bar

h i = 814.93 kJ/kg, at 3.6 bar,
h2 = 588.59 kJ/kg, at 0.1 bar,
h3 = 191.83 kJ/kg.
The required enthalpy values
may be read from the H - <I> chart
as shown in fig. 9-34. From
H - 4> chart, H = 2,931 kJ/kg,
Hi = 2,747 kJ/kg,
H2 = 2,558 kJ/kg,
H3 = 2,169 kJ/kg.

270

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

For heater No.1
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water
i.eM w i ( H i - h2 ) = ( 1 - w i ) ( h i - h2 )
_
"

- fc
814-93 - 588-59
226-35
hh - h2 ~ 2,747 - 588-59 " 2,158-41 *

-
?

For heat No. 2

- h a ) - (1 -

W2

w\

(1 - w\)(hz - h3)
(Hz - ha)

w s)(/te

/&)

(1 - 0-1049) (588-59 - 191.83)

2,558 - 191-83

0-8951 x 396-76
a 0.15 kg
2,366-17
Work done per kg of steam supplied to turbine
* ( H - H i ) + ( Hi - H2 ) ( 1 - wi ) + ( H2 - H a ) ( 1 - wi - w2 )
= ( 2,931 - 2,747 ) + ( 2,747 - 2,558 ) ( 1 - 0.1049 ) + ( 2,558 - 2,169 )
x | f - 0.1049 - 0.15)
= 184 + 169.16 -i- 289.84 = 643 kJ/kg
Heat supplied per kg of steam = H - h i = 2,931 814.93=
2,116.07 kJ/kg
Cyde efficiency

= ^ s ^ T e d

~ 2 ^ 0 7 - -304 c 30.4%

9.8 Steam Turbine Governing

In a normal condensing steam turbine driving an alternator or a D.C. generator, the
energy output will vary in accordance with the load on the alternator, and the function
of the governor is to regulate the supply of steam to the turbine so that the speed of
rotation shall remain almost constant at all loads. The principal methods of governing
steam turbines are :
(i) Throttle governing,
(ii) Nozzle controf governing,
(iii) By-pass governing,
(iv) Combined throttle and nozzle control governing, and
(v) Combined' throttle end by-pass governing.
9.8.1
T hrottle governing : In throttle governing, the pressure of steam is reduced
before reaching the turbine at part loads. Throttle governing is most widely used, particularly
on small turbines, because its initial cost is less and mechanism is simple. The flow of
steam entering the turbine is restricted by a balanced throttle valve which is controlled
by the. centrifugal governor. In turbines of small power in which the valves are Tight and
the forces on them due to steam flow are negligible, the governor may be arranged to
actuate (move) the throttle valve directly. For large machines, the frictional forces would
require a large and powerful governor to actuate directly on the valve. The difficulty is
easily overcome by the use of a relay, a device in which the relatively small force
produced by the governor for a small change of speed is caused to produce a large
force ( if such is necessary ) to actuate (move) the throttle valve.
A simple differential relay is shown diagrammatically in fig. 9-35. This throttle vafve
is actuated by the relay piston sliding in the cylinder. A. floating or differential lever is
attached at one end to the governor sleeve and the other end to throttle valve spindle,
and at some intermediate point to a pilot or piston valve which consists of two small

Steam Turbines

271

piston valves covering ports without any lap, i.e., the length of the valve is just equal to
the length of the ports. The
operating medium is usually
lubricating oil supplied by a
pump at a pressure of 3 to 4
bar. The pipes Q are open to
UXinUH IEEEP
the oil .drain tank.
The operation of the relay
KWSMVM JEtD
may be described as follows:
Let us assume first that the
turbine is running at a load
less than full load. The throttle
valve will be opened to such
an extent that the steam flow
is just sufficient to maintain
constant speed under the
given load conditions. Suppose
now that the load on this turbine is reduced rather quickly.
n i C O T T l C VAIVE.
There is now an excess of
energy being supplied to the
Fig. 9-35. Diagrammatic arrangement of throttle governing with oil relay,
turbine and the surplus will
accelerate the rotor. The turbine and governor speed will now rise and thus cause a lift
of the governor sleeve. For the time being, the throttled valve spindle is stationary and
the pilot (piston) valve is, therefore, raised. The upper port is opened to the oil pressure
and lower port to drain. The relay piston is thus forced downwards and throttled valve
partially closed. The downward, movement of the throttle valve lowers the piston valve
and so closes the port. As soon as the oil ports are covered, the relay piston is locked
in position. This will occur only when the opening of the throttled valve is correct for the
load on the turbine.
Since, for equilibrium o t the governor mechanism, the piston valve must always be
in its central position and covering both oil ports, the position of the governor sleeve will
vary according to the position of the throttle valve. The position of the floating lever is
indicated by chain dotted lines in fig. 9-35 for no-load and full load.
Although in throttling no energy is lost, the
available energy (enthalpy drop) is decreased
as illustrated in fig. 9-36. This figure shows dry
saturated steam which may .be expanded
isentropically from point 1 (pressure p,) to point
2 (pressure p2) with isentropic total enthalpy
drop (H1 - H2). If the governor first decreases
pressure from p 1 to p3 by throttling (point 1 to
point 3 ), the isentropic total enthalpy drop is
Hg - H2'. This is far less than available
R g .9-36. llluetretioriofdecrMS<Hnavailable energy isentropiC enthalpy drop (H , - H .) Without throttling. This reduces the efficiency of the turbine at part load. This relationship between
load and steam consumption for a turbine governed by throttling, is given by the well
known Willains straight line.

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9.8.2
Nozzle control governing : Nozzle control is accomplished as shown in fig.
9-37. Poppet-type valves uncover as many steam passages as necessary to meet the
load, each passage serving a group of nozzles. The control governor has the advantage
of using steam at full boiler pressure.
In automatic governed land turbines, various arrangements of valves and groups of
nozzle are employed. The arrangements are shown diagrammatically in fig. 9-37. An
arrangement, often adopted with large steam turbines and with turbines using high-pressure
steam, is shown in fig. 9-37 (A). The nozzle are divided into group Np N2 and N3 and
the control valves Vv V2 and V3 respectively. The number of nozzle groups may vary
from three to five or more.
In fig. 9-37(A), three sets of nozzle N i, Afe and N3 having 10, 4 and 3 nozzles
respectively, are shown. Thus, there are 17 nozzles in all and for the sake of illustration
we shall assume that total power of the turbine in 340 kw. In order to simplify the
explanation, let it be assumed that the steam delivered by each nozzle under the full
pressure drop is sufficient to develop 20 kw. Actually this assumption is not justified.
Then, at full load all the 17 nozzles will be delivering steam at full pressure and the
turbine will operate at maximum efficiency. Similarly at 200 kw only the valve Vi controlling
the set of 10 nozzles would be open and at 280 kw valves Vi and V2 controlling the
set of 14 nozzles would be open.

Fig. 9-37. Diagrammatic arrangement of nozzle control governing.

In fig. 9.37(B) arrangement is similar to fig. 9-37(A) except that all the nozzle control
valves are arranged in a casting forming part of the cylinder or bolted thereto and
containing passages leading to the individual nozzle groups. Although this arrangement
is compact, the nozzles are contained in the upper half of the cylinder and the arc of
admission is usually limited to 180 or less. The number of nozzle groups varies from
four to twelve.

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273

Fig. 9-37(C) shows an arrangement sometimes employed. The group of nozzle N i is

under the control of the valve V i, through which all the steam entering the turbine passes.
Further admission of steam is through the valves V2, V3 in turn. In some instances, the
nozzle group N1 has been arranged in the lower half of the turbine and supplied with
steam through a throttle valve Vi up to, say, half load. For loads greater than half load,
a further supply of steam is admitted through the valves V2, V3, etc..
Whatever method of construction is adopted, the nozzle control is necessarily restricted
to the first stage of the turbine, the nozzie areas in the other stages remaining constant.
It follows that, provided the condition of the steam at inlet to the second stage is not
materially affected by the changed condition in the first stage, the absolute pressure of
the steam in front of the second stage nozzles will be directly proportional to the rate
of steam flow through the turbine.
It is observed that there is a greater enthalpy drop available when nozzle control is
employed but this greater enthalpy drop is not efficiently utilised at part load. Comparative
tests shows that when there is a fairly large enthalpy drop in the first stage, nozzle
control reduces the stream consumption.
9.8.3. By-pass governing : In modern impulse turbines, and specially those operating
at very high pressure, the H.P. turbine comprises a number of stages of comparatively
small mean diameter. All such turbines are usually designed for a definite load termed
economical load, at which efficiency is the maximum. The economical load is made about
80% of the maximum continuous load.

IN L E T VALVE N O ZZLE

BOX

STEAM BELT

Fig. 9-38. Diagrammatic arrangement of by-pass governing.

Owing to the very small enthalpy drop in the first stage, it is not possible to employ
nozzle control governing efficiently. Further-more, it is desirable to have full admission in
the H.P. stage at the economic load so as to reduce losses.
These difficulties of regulation are overcome by the employment of by-pass governing
as shown in fig. 9-38. All the steam entering the turbine passes through the inlet valve
(which is under the control of the speed governor) and enters the nozzle box or steam
chest. In certain cases, for example, this would suffice for all loads upto the economical

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load, the governing being, effected by throttling. For loads greater than the economical
loads, a by-pass valve is opened allowing steam to pass from the first stage nozzle box
into the steam belt and so into the nozzle of the fourth stage. The by-pass valve is not
opened until the lift of the valve exceeds a certain amount; also as the load is diminishing
the by-pass valve closes first. The by-pass valve is under the
control of the speed
governor for all loads within its range.
9.9. Special Forms of Steam Turbines
There are several industries such as paper making, textile, chemical, dyeing, sugar
refining, carpet making, etc., where combined use of power and heating for process work
is required. It is wasteful to generated steam for power and process purposes separately,
because about 70 per cent of the heat supplied for power purposes will normally be
carried away by the cooling water. But if the engine or turbine is operated with a normal
exhaust pressure, then the temperature of the exhaust steam is too low to be of any
use for heating purposes. By suitable modification of the initial steam pressure and of
the exhaust pressure, it would be possible to generate the required power and still have
available for process work a large quantity of heat in the exhaust steam. It follows,
therefore, that from the practical stand-poirrt, the thermal efficiency of a combined power
and heating plant may approach unity.
There are two types of turbines employed in combined power and process plants,
namely, the back-pressure turbines and the steam extraction or pass-out turbines.
9.9.1 Back-pressure turbine : The back-pressure turbine takes steam at boiler pressure
and exhausts into a pipe which leads neither to a condenser nor to atmosphere, but to
a process plant or other turbine. This may be employed in cases Where the power
generated by expanding steam from an economical initial pressure down to the heating
pressure is equal to or greater than, the power requirements. Usually the exhaust steam
from the turbine is superheated and in most cases it is not suitable for process work,
partly because it is impossible to control its temperature and partly because of the fact
that rate of the heat transfer from superheated steam to the heating surface is lower
than that of saturated steam. For fhese reasons, a de-superheater is often used.
It is unlikely that the steam required for power generation will always be equal to
that required for process work, and some means of controlling the exhaust steam pressure,
must be employed if variations in the pressure and therefore of the steam saturation
temperature are to be avoided.
In order to increase the power capacity of a existing installation, a high pressure
boiler and a back-pressure turbine are added to it. This added high pressure boiler
supplies steam to back-pressure turbine which exhausts into the old low pressure turbine.
9.9.2 Pass-out or extraction turbine : In many cases the power available from a
back-pressure turbine through which the whole of the heating steam flows, is appreciably
less than that required in the factory. This may be due to the small heating or process
requirements, to a relatively high exhaust pressure, or a combination of both. In such a
case it would be possible to install a back-pressure turbine to provide the heating steam
and a condensing turbine to generate the extra power; but it is possible and usual, to
combine functions of both machines in a single turbine. Such a machine is called passout or extraction turbine. In this, at some point intermediate between inlet and exhaust,
some steam is extracted or passed out for process or heating purposes.
Since the power and speed of the turbine, as well as the quantity of process steam,
are controlled by external conditions, while in the turbine the two are more or less related,
it is obvious that some special form of governing is required. This usually takes the form
of a sensitive governor which controls admission of steam to the high-pressure section,

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275

so as to maintain constant speed - regardless of the power or process requirements.

9.9.3
Exhaust or low-pressure turbine : If a continuous supply of low pressure
steam is available - for example from reciprocating steam engines exhaust - the efficiency
of the whole plant may be improved by fitting an exhaust or low-pressure turbine. The
exhaust turbine is chiefly used where there are number of reciprocating steam engines
which work intermittently (not continuously); and, of necessity, are non-condensing, such
as rolling mills and colliery engines. The exhaust steam from these engines, which would
otherwise pass into the atmosphere and be wasted, is expanded in an exhaust turbine
and then condensed.
In such a turbine some form of heat accumulator is required to collect the more or
less irregular supply of low pressure steam from the non-condensing steam engines and
deliver it to the turbine at the rate required. In some cases when the supply of low
pressure steam falls below the demand, live steam from the boiler, with its pressure and
temperature reduced, is used to make up the deficiency.
The pressure drop may be obtained by means of a reducing valve, or for large flows,
more economically by expansion through another turbine. Sometimes the high-pressure
and low-pressure turbines are combined on a common spindle. This combined unit is
known as a mixed pressure turbine because of two supply pressures.
9.10 Material of C onstruction iii Steam turbines
The different parts of steam turbine work under varying service conditions. For long
operating life and low cost, appropriate material selection for each part is the essential
requirement for an economic design. The most important part is that which meets with
the entering steam having high temperature and pressure. The most commonly used
materials for different components are as under :
Casing and steam and nozzle chests are usually prepared from steel castings. For
steam temperature upto 450C, steel with 0.3% C, 1.0% Mn, 0.6% Si, 0.06% S, 0.05%
P, is used. Further for operating steam temperatures between 565 and 600C, austenite
steel is used. Its composition is 0.08 C, 16.0% Cr, 13.0% Ni, 2.0% Mo, and 0.8% Cb.
a
Rotors are assemblies of shafts, discs or drums and blades or buckets. Each of these
have a wide choice of materials. Shaft material for low temperature may be hot rolled
heat treated carbon steel bar stock or alloy steel forgings. For temperature upto 570C,
shaft is made from forging with composition 0.37%C, 1.0% Mn, 0.35%Si, 0.035% S,
0.035%P, 1,25% Cr, 1.5% Mo, 0.5% Ni, and 0.3% V. Above 570C temperature, the
shaft is of ferritic alloy forging with composition 0.3% C, 0.5% Ni, 1.0% Cr, and 1.25%
Mo. For wheels for 345C temperature, composition is 0.45% C, 0.9% Mn, 0.15% Si,
0.035% S, and 0.035% P.
Blades are made of cold rolled drawn steel. Usually stainless steel having 0.06% C,
0.,25% Mn,. 0.5 Si, 0.03% S, 0.03% P, 11.5% Cr, 0.4% Mo, 0.5% Ni is used.
For low temperature service, nozzles, rings and diaphragms are often of cast iron on
mechanite. As temperature goes higher, materials range through steel plate, cast steel,
steel and stainless steel forging. Some diaphragms are rolled, some are cast from aluminum
chromium steel.
Seals and gland packings are made from carbon to stainless steel, leaded bronze,
leaded nickel brass, non-hardened stainless iron and corrosion resistant chrome-molybderium
materials, as per the requirements. Springs for holding packing are of inconel, monel or
stainless steel.
Bearings are usually cast on bronze, steel or cast iron backs with inner lining of high
tin-babbit. Journals and collars are usually integral part of the shaft and are of the same
19

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material as the shaft. Some times they are built up of sprayed metal to make a hard
surface.
The bolts of high pressure casing raises special problems due to high pressures
because of creep. Gradual elongation under stress relaxes bolts hold on the casing joint.
They are usually of 13-chrome-tungsten-molybdenum-vanadium alloy steel for higher
temperature ( above 450C ). This material resists temper embrittlement and oxidation
and has higher notch-bar rupture strength.
Piping range from carbon steel for temperature below 450C and medium pressures,
to stainless steel of temperature upto 600C with heavy thick walls.
Inlet pipe seals for turbine in 540C - 565C range are of stellite which is an alloy
of chromium, cobalt, molybdenum and tungsten. These sealing rings allow pipe connections
between separated steam chest and nozzle chests to move axially and transversely during
start ups and shut downs. Piping oxidation at joints must be prevented. It freezes the
sealing rings, resulting rigid connection, transmits piping expansion and contraction forces
to the turbine casing, causing serious misalignment.
Governing valves are usually provided at the front end of the turbine and are made
of carbon-chrome alloy steel. Steam must resist oxidation to prevent freezing in packings.
9.11 Steam Turbines fo r Power Generation
The continuous increase in the use of electrical energy has made necessary the
construction of several additional generating stations at various parts of the country.
Reliability, economy in first cost, and operating costs are achieved by installing the largest
units practicable. Brief particulars of the turbines used for power generation are as under:
Power in
MW

Steam pressure
bar

Steam temperature
*C

Reheat temperature
*C

Approx. final feed

temp. C

30

40

455

171

60

60

482

196

100

100

566

204

120

100

538

538

224

200

160

566

538

236

Most of the turbines for power generation operate at 3,000 r.p.m. The final feed temperature
lies between 0.7 and 0.73 times the initial steam saturation temperature and it has proved to
be economical. The fairly general features of power generation turbines are as under:
(i) Steam chests are usually placed alongside the high pressure turbine.
(ii) Velocity compounding is done in first stage of H.P. turbine in order to reduce the
pressure and temperature of steam to which H.P. turbine cylinder is exposed.
(iii) Some form of turning gear at the coupling between L.P. turbine and generator,
is provided for slow turning of turbine during warming up process and in cooling down
process before coming to rest. This is required to prevent bending of rotor shaft.
(iv) In last two or three stages of L.P. turbine, draining arrangement of water flung
off the blades by centrifugal action, is made.
(v) Cylinders are supplied in such a way that freedom of expansion and contraction
due to temperature changes is adequate and simultaneously it does not disturb the vertical

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Fig. 9-39

alignment, i.e., cylinder and rotor remain concentric. In double shell construction, the innershell is so supported that they remain co-axial and hence concentric with the rotor.

Fig. 9-40.

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(vi)
When wheels are shrunk on the rotor-spindle, the running speed of the rotor may
be above the first transverse critical speed.
Typical construction of 200 MW steam turbine is shown in figs. 9-39, 9-40 and 9.41.
Some of the details of three cylinders tandem turbine operating at 3000 r.p.m. are :
Inlet steam pressure
... 160 bar
Inlet steam temperature
565C
Reheat temperature
538C
No. of stages of reheating
6
Final temperature of feed heating
Vacuum

238C
724 mm of Hg.
Fig. 9-40 shows H.P. turbine, part of which is of double-shell construction. Steam enters the
nozzle box through four radial pipes B. After partial expansion in eight stages of impulse blading,
the steam flows in reverse direction in the space between inner and outer space to enter the
last four impulse stages for further expansion. Then it goes for reheating. Steam from reheater
enters l.P. turbine nozzle box C of a short inner cylinder B (fig. 9-40) by way of four radial steam
pipes. This cylinder B contains three impulse stages and is located by pads and keys so that
while being free to expand and contract due to temperature changes, it remains concentric with
the outer cylinder and with rotor. They are followed by five more impulse stages in which steam
further expands. At this point steam flow divides. About one-third steam passes through single
flow L.P. turbine arranged in the same casing as the l.P. stages, while about two-third of the
steam passes through two connecting pipes A in to the centre of the double flow L.P. turbine
as shown in fig. 9-41. All three l.P. expansions exhaust into common exhaust chamber and
single shell condenser. Steam is bled from double flow L.P. cylinder for feed heating but not
from the corresponding stages in l.P. turbine casing.
The H.P. and l.P. rotors are solid forging. The L.P. turbine have disc shrunk on and
keyed to the shaft. The first stage of each L.P. turbine is impulse and the remaining
stages have reaction blading. The active length of the blades in last stage is about 70
cm.
The three rotors
are coupled together
by solid coupling E
as shown. One thrust
block Fis also provided
between H.P. and l.P.
cylinders to minimize
the differential expansion between rotating
and stationary parts.
The overall length of
the turbine is about 17
metres.

Fig.

9-41.

Full admission is
done to all stages of
H.P. turbine at all
times. This is done because vibrations may
occur due to partial ad-

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279

mission. The outer casing of the double flow L.P. turbine is fabricated, due to their large
size and difficulty in transportation. The inner casing carrying
diaphragms and fixed blades is
of steel castings. The main oil
pump is double inlet C.F. pump
G driven directly by turbine.
9.12 Other General Purpose
Steam Turbines
9.12.1
densing type : Fig. 9-42 show
this type of turbine. First stage
consists of velocity compounding
and im pulse blading, w hile
remaining are reaction stages.
Dummy piston at the end of the
first stage helps the thrust bearFig 9-42
ing counter balance the unbalanced force of reaction stage. Cylinder is made up of forged sections welded together.
After heat treatment, cylinder is slotted to receive reaction bladings. Steam is removed
for feed heating at four points. This type is used for power reaction generation.

Fig. 9-43

9.12.2
Single stage multi-stage condensing type : Fig. 9-43 shows this type of
turbine. First stage is velocity compounded and is followed by ten impulse stages. Ball
thrust bearing keeps shaft aligned axially. On left, a centrifugal governor is provided to
control steam flow. This unit is fitted with non-automatic extraction openings to bleed
steam for feed water heating. Carbon ring seals are used at diaphragm and casing glands.
9.12.3
Radial flow double rotation turbine : Fig. 9-44 shows this type of turbine.
This unit drives two A.C. generators, one on each shaft. Generators are coupled together
electrically, to keep the oppositely rotating shafts in synchronism for best blade speed to
steam speed ratio of the reaction stages. Multi-disc turbine is so arranged that the high
pressure steam enters from below. It first flows into the annular steam chest, then through
holes in the overhung blade disc to the centre area at the shaft. Steam then flows radially
outward through first concentric set of blades. Then it turns 180 to flow radially inward

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through a second set of concentric

blades. It again makes a 180 turn to
flow radially outward through the third
set of blades. From here steam flows
into annular space leading to exhaust
pipe at bottom of the turbine. By-pass
valve to the right of disc in annular
steam chest lets high pressure steam
to skip first set of blades to enter the
second set, providing overload operation
at reduced efficiency. Maximum power
developed by this type of turbine is
7,500 kW. It can be designed for automatic or non-automatic extraction of
partly expanded steam. Strip type
Labyrinth seals on the moving blade
rings reduce the steam leakage past
the blades, while concentric Labyrinth
seals between over hung discs and
inner casings cut down leakage short
Fifl-944
circuiting the blading. Labyrinth gland
seals at the two shafts, control steam flow through these clearances. This unit is used
for only power generation.

'

Fig. 9-45

9.13 Some Examples of Mechanical Drive Turbines

Mechanical drive turbines are usually single-stage velocity compounded. Fig. 9-45
shows a single-stage impulse turbine. Maximum rating is 75 kw. It is similar to De-laval
turbine.

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281

Fig. 9-46

Fig. 9-46 shows multi-stage turbine. First stage is velocity compounded and it uses
two separate wheels. This type may be condensing type and runs at 10,000 r.p.m. It
has carbon ring seals ring oiled journal bearings and a double thrust ball bearing to
control position of the shaft.

Fig. 9-47

Fig. 9-47 shows variable speed turbine. Usually this type is used to drive the compressor
with range of speed 3,500 to 6,000 r.p.m. They are usually condensing type. In this type,
as shown in fig. 9-47, two velocity compounded stages are provided.

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Tutorial - 9

1. Delete the phrase which is not applicable in the following statements :

(i) The thermal efficiency of a steam turbine is higher/lower than that of a steam engine.
(ii) Steam turbine is an internal/external combustion thermal prime mover.
(iii) Balancing is perfect in case of steam turbine/steam engine.
(iv) Steam turbines work on modified Rankine/Rankine cycle.
(v) A steam turbine develops power at a uniform/changing rate and hence does not need any flywheel.
(vi) In an impulse turbine, steam expands in nozzles/blades.
(vii) The speed of simple impulse wheel is too high/low for practical purposes.
(viii) The steam turbines are mostly of axial/radial flow type.
(ix) In case of an impulse turbine, the relative velocity at outlet is greater/less than that at inlet, due to
friction.
,
(x) If friction is neglected in case.of an impulse turbine, relative velocity at inlet and relative velocit/ at
outlet are equal/different in magnitude.
[Delete : (i) lower, (ii) internal, (iii) steam engines, (iv)
modified Rankine, (v\ changing, (vi) blades, (vii) low,
(viii) radial (ix) greater, (x) different].
2. Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements :
(i) The two main types of steam turbines are ________ and ______ .
(ii) Speed obtained in case of steam turbines may be as high as
r.p.m.
(iii) The method of abstracting steam at certain section of turbine is known as _______.
(iv) In an impulse turbine the expansion of steam takes place in the ______ only, where the pressure
decreases and velocity increases.
(v) In an impulse turbine, the pressure of steam remains constant while it passes over the
turbine.
(vi) In case of reaction steam turbine, the steam expands as it flows over th e __________ .

of the

(vii) An actual reaction steam turbine is a combined ______ arid _______ steam turbine.
(viii) In an actual reaction turbine, steam expands partly in stationary blades and partly as it flows over
______ .
the _____
(ix) Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of isentropic enthalpy drop in the moving blades to isentropic
enthalpy drop in th e ___________ of the reaction turbine.
(x) In case of reaction turbines, since the steam expands continuously in both the fixed and moving blades,
its relative velocity does not remain constant b u t
due to the expansion of steam.
(xi) The velocity of a simple impulse steam turbine is too _____ for practical purposes and as such the
speed has to be _______ by some suitable means.
(xii) The ______ turbine was the first impulse steam turbine successfully built in 1889.
[(i)impulse, reaction; (ii) 30,000, (iii) bleeding, (iv) nozzles, (v) blades, (vi) moving blades, (vii) impulse, reaction, (viii) moving blades, (ix) entire stage, (x) increases,
(xi) high, reduced, (xii) De Laval]

3. Select the correct phrase out of the phrases given below for each statement :
(i) In a Parsons reaction turbine, the relative velocity at outlet is
(a) less than that at the inlet,
(b) greater than that at the inlet,
(c) equal to that at the inlet,
(d) equal to blade speed.
(ii) In the impulse turbine the steam is expanded
(a) in nozzles,
(b) in blades,
(c) partly in nozzles and partly in blades,
(d) neither in nozzles nor in blades.
(iii) In a condensing steam turbine the steam is exhausted
(a)

at atmospheric pressure,

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283

(b) below atmospheric pressure,

(c) above atmospheric pressure,
(d) at any pressure.
(iv) De Laval turbine is a
(a) simple reaction turbine,
(b) simple impulse turbine,
(c) velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(d) pressure compounded impulse turbine.
(v) Steam turbine works on
(a) Rankine cycle,
(b) modified Rankine cycle,
(c) Bell-Coleman cycle,
(d) Carnot cycle.
(vi) Parsons reaction turbine is basically
(a) an impulse-reaction turbine,
(b) a pressure compounded impulse turbine,
(c) a velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(d) a pure reaction turbine.
(vii) Cuctis turbine is basically
(a) a velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(b) a pressure compounded impulse turbine,
(c) a simple impulse turbine,
(d) an impulse-reaction turbine,
(e) a pure reaction turbine.
(viii) Rateau turbine is basically
(a) a velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(b) a pressure compounded impulse turbine,
(c) an impulse-reaction turbine,
(d) a pure reaction turbine.
(ix) The main advantage of reaction turbine as compared to impulse turbine^ is
(a) high blade speed,
(b) low blade speed,
(c) high efficiency,
(d) high output
(x) Most widely used method of governing steam turbine is
(a) throttle governing,
(b) nozzle control governing,
(c) by-pass governing.
[(i) b, (ri) . (') b. C'v) b. (v) a, (vi) a, (vii) a, (viii) b, (ix) b, (x) a]
4. Steam issues from the nozzles of a single impulse turbine at 850 m/sec. on to blades moving at 350 m/sec
The blades tip angles at inlet and exit are each 36*. The steam is to enter the blades without shock and
the flow over the blades is frictionless. Determine : (a) the angle at which the nozzles are inclined to the
direction of motion of the blades, and (b) the diagram efficiency.
[(a) 22*; (b) 846%]
5. Steam leaves the nozzle of a single impulse wheel turbine at 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20* and the
blade angles are 30* at inlet and outlet. What is the blade velocity and the work done per kilogram of
steam ? Assume the flow over the blades as frictionless.
[312 m/sec; 333 kJ]
6. A stage in an impulse turbine consists of converging nozzles and one ring of moving blades. The nozzle
angles are 22* and the moving blades have both tip angles of 35*. If the velocity of steam at the exit
from the nozzles is 450 m/sec., find the blade speed so that the steam shall pass on to the blades without
shock, and the stage efficiency, neglecting frictional losses, if the blades run at this speed
If the relative velocity of the steam is reduced by 15% in passing through the blade ring, find the
actual efficiency and the thrust on the shaft, when the blade ring develops 36.8 kW.
[176 m/sec; 83-6%; 77-6%, 11 7 N)

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7. An impulse turbine with a single row wheel is to develop 99-3 kW, the blade speed being 150 m/sec. A
mass of 2 kg of steam per second is to flow from the nozzles at a speed of 350 m/sec. The velocity
coefficient of the blades may be assumed to be 0-8 while the steam is to flow axially after passing through
the blade ring. Determine the nozzle angle, the blade angles at inlet and exit assuming no shock. Estimate
also the diagram efficiency of the blading.
[nozzles angle - 18-7*; Inlet blade angle - 31-75; exit
blade angle = 28-3*; Diagram efficiency * 81%]
8. Compare steam turbine with the reciprocating steam engine on the basis of the mechanical construction.
What are the advantages of steam turbine plant over the reciprocating steam engine plant ?
A De Laval steam turbine has a wheel 30 cm mean diameter and runs at 12,000 r.p.m. The nozzles
are inclined at 20* to the plane of the wheel and escape velocity of steam from nozzles is 850 m/sec.
There is a 10% loss of velocity in the blades and the inlet and outlet angles of the blades are equal.
Determine :
(a) the blade angles,
(b) the absolute velocity of the steam at the exit from the blades, and
(c) the wheel or diagram efficiency.
[(a) 25-5*; (b) 446 m/sec; (c) 60-3%]
9. The steam from the nozzles of a single-stage impulse turbine has a velocity of 800 m/sec. and are inclined
at 20* to the direction of motion of the blades. Determine the necessary inlet angle of the blades so that
no shock occurs for a blade speed of 300 m/sec.
Assuming that friction reduces the relative velocity of the steam by 10% as it passes over the blades
and the blade angles are equal, find the work done per kg of steam supplied.
131 -2*; 257-5 kJ)
10. The nozzle of a turbine stage delivers 4 kg of steam per second at an angle of 18* and a speed of 425
m/sec. If the blading outlet angle is 22* and the blade velocity coefficient is 0-76, determine the blade
power developed and the blade inlet angle. Take the peripheral speed of the wheel as 170 m/sec.
[288 kW; 29-31
11. At one stage in impulse turbine the steam is expanded from 8-5 bar and 95% dry, to 3bar. Ifthe flow
through the nozzle is frictionless adiabatic,find the velocity of the steam as it leaves thenozzle. If the
nozzle is inclined at 20* to the direction of the blades and the blade angle at exit is 30* to the same
direction, the blade speed is 0-4 of the steam velocity at exit from the nozzle, and the velocity of steam
relative to the blades suffers a 10 per cent drop in passing over the blades, find thepower developed
when the steam flow is 4-5 kg/sec.
[604 m/sec; 681 kW]
12. The outlet area of the nozzles in a simple impulse turbine is 22-5 cm2 and steam leaves them 0-9 dry at
3 bar and at 750 m/sec. The nozzles are inclined at 20* to the plane of the wheel, the blade speed is
300 m/sec., the blade outlet angles are 30* and the blade velocity coefficient is 0-82. Calculate : (a) the
power developed in the blades, (b) the steam used per kW-hour, (c) the diagram efficiency, (d) the axial
thrust on the shaft, and (e) loss of kinetic energy due to blade friction.
[(a) 680 kW; (b) 16 kg/kW-hour; (c) 79-6%; (d) 181 N; (e) 114 kJ]
13. In a De Laval steam turbine the blade angles are 30* at inlet and exit. The steam leaves the nozzle at
380 m/sec. and the blade speed is 75 m/sec. If the relative velocity of the steam is reduced by 15 per
cent during its passage through the blades, find : (a) the nozzle angle, and (b) the blade efficiency.
[(a) 24-4*; (b) 52-3%]
14. Steam leaves the nozzle of a simple impulse turbine at 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 22*, and the blade
angles are 30* at inlet and outlet, and the blade velocity coefficient is 80 per cent. Calculate :
(a) the blade velocity, and
(b) the steam flow in kg per hour if the power developed by turbine is 235 kW.
[(a) 250 m/sec; (b) 3,225 kg per hr.]
15. The steam supplied to a single-row impulse wheel turbine expands in the nozzle over such a range that
the adiabatic enthalpy drop is 88 kJ/kg. The nozzle efficiency is 93% and nozzle angle is 15 . If the blading
speed is 175 m/sec., the outlet blade angle is 18* and the velocity coefficient for the blading is 0-82,
determine : (a) suitable inlet angle for the moving blade, (b) the speed of the steam after discharge from
the blading, (c) the diagram efficiency, and (d) the power developed by the turbine if 2,750 kg of steam
per hour is supplied to the turbine.
[(a) 25-8*; (b) 62 m/sec; (c) 86-2%; (d) 54 kW]
16. In a stage of an impulse turbine provided with a single-row wheel, the mean diameter of the blade ring
is80 cm and thespeed of rotation is 3,000 r.p.m. The steam issues from she nozzle with a velocity of
275 m per sec and the nozzle angle is 20*. The inlet and outlet angles of the blades are equal, and due

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285

to friction in the blade channels the relative velocity of the steam at outlet from the blade is 0-86 times
the relative velocity of steam entering the blades. What is the power developed hn the blading when the
axial thrust on the blades is 120 N ?
(285 kW]
17. The mean diameter of the blades of impulse turbine with a single-row wheel is one metre and the speed
of rotation is 3,000 r.p.m. The nozzle angle is 18*, the ratio of blade speed to steam speed is 0-42, the
ratio of the relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that at inlet is ,0-84. The outlet angle of blade is
tobe 3* less than the inlet angle. The steam flow is 7 kg persecond.
Determine : (a) the tangential force on the blades, (b) the power developed in the blades, (c) the blading
efficiency, and (d) the axial thrust on the blades.
[(a) 2,600 N; (b) 407 kW; (c) 83-2%; (d) 190 N]
18. Steam issues from nozzle of a De Laval turbine with a velocity of 1,000 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20*,
the mean blade velocity is 365 m/sec. and the inlet and outlet angles of the blades are equal. The steam
flow through the turbine is 800 kg per hour. The ratio of relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that
at inlet is 0-8.
Calculate :
(a) the blade angles,
(b) the relative velocity of the steam entering the blades,
(c) the tangential force on the blades,
(d) the power developed, and
(e) the blade efficiency
[(a) 30-8*; (b) 669 m/sec; (c) 230-5 N; (d) 84 kW; (e) 75-8%]
19. Steam issues from the nozzles
of a
De Lavalturbine with a velocity of 920 m per sec. The nozzle angle
is 20*, the mean diameter of the blades is 25 cm and the speed of rotation is 20,000 r.p.m. The steam
flow through the turbine is 0-18 kg per sec. If the ratio of relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that
at inlet is 0-82, calculate :
(a) The tangential force on blades,
(b) The work done on blades per sec.,
(c) The power of the wheel,
(d) The efficiency of blading,
(e) The axial force on blades, and
(f) The inlet angle of blades for shcokless inflow of steam.
Assume that the outlet angle of blades is equal to the inlet angle.
[(a) 197 N; (b) 51-8 kJ; (c) 51-8 kW; (d) 68%; (e) 10-1 N; (f) 27-6*]
20. Enumerate the types of steam turbines. Explain why impulse turbines are compounded and explain with
diagrams the methods of compounding.
21. Explain with the aid of neat sketches the various methods adopted to reduce the rotor speed of the impulse
steam turbines.
Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of velocity compounded impulse turbines.
In a velocity compounded impulse turbine, the initial speed of the steam is 700 m per sec and turbine
uses 4-5 kg of steam per second. The nozzle discharge angle is 16* and the outlet angles for the blades
are :
First moving blades 20*, fixed blades 25*, and second moving blades 28*.
The blade speed is 150 m/sec and the ratio between the relative velocities at the outlet and inlet edges
of the blades is 0-9. Draw the velocity diagrams to a scale of 1 cm = 25 m/sec. and determine : (a) the
power developed, (b) the diagram or blade efficiency, and (c) the axial thrust on moving blades.
[(a) 864 kW; (b) 78-4%; (c) 292 3 N]
22. The outlet angle of the blade of Parsons turbine (reaction turbine) is 20* and the axial velocity of flow of
steam is 0-5 times the mean velocity of the blade. Draw the velocity diagram for a stage consisting of
one fixed and one moving row of the blades, given that the mean diameter is 70 cm and that speed of
rotation is 3,000 r.p.m. Find the inlet angles of the blades if steam enters without shock.
If the mean steam pressure is 5-5 bar and the blade height is 6-25 cm, and the steam is dry saturated,
find the power developed per pair of blades.
[53* 54; 457 kW]
23. A reaction turbine runs at 300 r.p.m. and its steam consumption is 15,500 kg/hour. The pressure of steam
at a certain pair is 1-8 bar, and its dryness is 0-92. The power developed by the pair is 3-31 kW and the

286

Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

discharge blade tip angle is 20* for both fixed and moving blades, and the axial velocity of flow is 0-72
of the blade speed. Find the drum diameter and the blade height Neglect blade thickness.
[92-55 cm; 10-45 cm]
24. What is the object of compounding in steam turbines ? Distinguish between velocity compounding and
pressure compounding. With the help of suitable curves show the variations of pressure and velocity in the
above methods of compounding.
25. Write briefly on the following, giving sketches wherever necessary :
(a) The reason for velocity compounding and pressure compounding of steam turbines.
(b) Principle of working of reaction steam turbines, and
(c) Blade friction and its effects on velocity diagrams of impulse steam turbines.
26. An impulse stage of a turbine has two rows of moving blades separated by fixed blades. The steam leaves
the nozzles at an angle of 20* with the direction of motion of the blades. The exit angles are : 1st moving
30*; fixed, 22*; 2nd moving 30*.
If the adiabatic enthalpy drop for the nozzle is 188 kJ/kg and the nozzle efficiency is 90%, find the
blade speed necessary if the final velocity of the steam is to be axial. Assume a loss of 15% in the
relative velocity for all blade passages. Find also blade efficiency and the stage efficiency.
[116-4 m/sec; 70-04;% 63-6%]
27. Define the term "re-heat factor used in connection with steam turbines.
In a four-stage pressure compounded turbine the steam is supplied at pressure of 24 bar and superheated
to a temperature of 350*C. The exhaust pressure is 0-07 bar, and the overall turbine efficiency is 0*72.
Assuming that the work is shared equally between the stages, and that the condition line is straight
estimate: (a) the stage pressures, (b) the efficiency of each stage, and (c) the re-heat factor.
[(a) 7 bar, 1-84 bar, 0*4 bar; (b) 61%, 65-5%, 68-8%, 73-5%; (c) 107]
28. Steam at 21 bar with 60*C of superheat expands in a turbine to 3*5 bar. It is then re-heated at this
pressure to its original temperature and finally expanded in a second turbine to 0*15 bar, the efficiency
being 0*8 for each expansion. Sketch the enthalpy - entropy diagram for the whole process and mark on
it the heat content of the steam at the beginning and end of each expansion. Determine the final condition
of the steam and the work done per kilogram of steam.
[0*977; 774 kJ/kg]
29. Explain the process of feed heating by bleeding.* Show that in general, bleeding improves the efficiency
of steam plant.
Find the theoretical thermal efficiency of a steam plant working between the pressures 10 bar, steam
being dry saturated, and 0*06 bar, (a) without bleeding, (b) when the correct mass of steam is bled at 1-5
bar.
[(a) 28-7%; (b) 30-0%]
30. What are advantage of feed heating by bled steam ?
A steam turbine is fitted with a regenerative feed water heating system in which the heating is performed
by steam extracted from the turbine at two different pressures. The heating steam, condensed to water in
the high-pressure heater, is drained into the steam space of the low-pressure heater and, together with the
water condensed in the low-pressure heater, is then drained to the condenser. The following table gives
particulars of the process :
Total enthalpy in kJ/kg
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam

entering turbine
entering high-pressure heater
entering low-pressure heater
entering condenser

3,232
2,830
2,604
2,324

Temperature
Feed water leaving hot-well and enteringlow-pressure heater
Feed water entering high-pressure heater
Feed water leaving high-pressure heater
/Drain water leaving low-pressure heater andentering condenser

. . 28 C
. . 75 C
123 C
. . 78 C

Drain water leaving high-pressure heater

127 C
Assuming that the mass of feed water passing through the heaters is equal to the mass of steam
entering the turbine, each being 13,500 kg per hour, find the mass of bled steam passing per hour into
each heater, the power developed by steam in the turbine, and the thermal efficiency of the process.
[heater No.1 - 1,180 kg/hr; Heater No. 2 - 1,070 kg/hr; Power = 3,154 kW; Thermal eff. = 30-97%]

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287

31. Explain what do you understand by bleeding as applied to steam turbine practice.
32. Write short notes on the following, giving sketches wherever necessary :
(i) Governing of steam turbines, (ii) Choice of materials for turbine blades, (iii) Back-pressure steam
turbines, (iv) Steam extraction turbines, (v) Balancing end thrust of reaction steam turbines, (vi) Exhaust
steam turbines, and (vii) Turbines for power generation.
33. Write detailed note on the governing of steam turbines.
34. What is the material of construction in the steam turbines components ? Suggest the material for low cost
and long life of critical parts of steam turbines.
35. Illustrate some examples of mechanical drive steam turbines.