Self-commutated motor[edit]

Brushed DC motor[edit]
Main article: DC motor
All self-commutated DC motors are by definition run on DC electric power. Most DC motors are
small PM types. They contain a brushed internal mechanical commutation to reverse motor
windings' current in synchronism with rotation.[64]
Electrically excited DC motor[edit]
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor and PM stator. ("N" and "S" designate polarities
on the inside faces of the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities.)

A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a

rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator, a long-lasting rotary electrical switch that
periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. Thus, every
brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its rotating windings. Current flows through one or
more pairs of brushes that bear on the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of
electric power to the rotating armature.
The rotating armature consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a
laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the
commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet).
The magnetic field produced by the armature interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced
by either PMs or another winding a field coil, as part of the motor frame. The force between the
two magnetic fields tends to rotate the motor shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils
as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the
magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but
rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to
press against the commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making
and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between
commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes
shorting together adjacent sections and hence coil ends momentarily while crossing the
gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when
its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum
speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator.
The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the
output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also generates electrical noise;
sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on
small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring
precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently
integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.
While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several segments
(typically, at least three) mounted on an insulator.
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small
brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the
brushes excessively bouncing and sparking. (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.)
Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed,
but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator
wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and
efficiency/wear.
DC machines are defined as follows:[65]

Armature circuit - A winding where the load current is carried, such that can be either
stationary or rotating part of motor or generator.

Field circuit - A set of windings that produces a magnetic field so that the electromagnetic
induction can take place in electric machines.

Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from

which DC can be derived, in DC machines.

A: shunt B: series C: compound f = field coil

There are five types of brushed DC motor:

DC shunt-wound motor

DC series-wound motor

DC compound motor (two configurations):

Cumulative compound

Differentially compounded

PM DC motor (not shown)

Separately excited (not shown).

Permanent magnet DC motor[edit]

Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor
A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide
the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating
windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under
load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are
convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most
larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could
not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to
obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and
difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made
with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With
their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all
optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors
resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to
ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that
magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Electronic commutator (EC) motor[edit]

Brushless DC motor[edit]
Main article: Brushless DC electric motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this motor,
the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic switch
synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 8590% efficient or more.
Efficiency for a BLDC motor of up to 96.5% have been reported, [66]whereas DC motors with
brushgear are typically 7580% efficient.
The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal back-emf waveform is derived partly from the stator
windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's PMs. Also known
as electronically commutated DC or inside out DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal
BLDC motors can be with single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect
sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop control of
the electronic commutator.
BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk
drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and
mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have
several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much
cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the
fan's bearings.

Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer
compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause
a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC motor may
be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.

The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans,
the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide running
speed feedback.

The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise
speed control.

BLDC motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better
suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone
which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.

BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally
used in fans to get rid of unwanted heat.

They are also acoustically very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC
motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in
high-performance electric model aircraft.
Switched reluctance motor[edit]

6/4 pole switched reluctance motor

Main article: Switched reluctance motor

The SRM has no brushes or PMs, and the rotor has no electric currents. Instead, torque comes
from a slight misalignment of poles on the rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself
with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field stator windings are sequentially
energized to rotate the stator field.
The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic reluctance,
meaning the flux will flow through poles of the rotor that are closest to the energized poles of the
stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns,
different windings will be energized, keeping the rotor turning.
SRMs are now being used in some appliances.[67]