4.10.

BIASING CALCULATIONS

237

Class C is an amplifier biased to amplify only a small portion of the waveform. Most of the
transistors time is spent in cutoff mode. In order for there to be a complete waveform at
the output, a resonant tank circuit is often used as a flywheel to maintain oscillations for
a few cycles after each kick from the amplifier. Because the transistor is not conducting
most of the time, power efficiencies are high for a class C amplifier.
Class D operation requires an advanced circuit design, and functions on the principle of
representing instantaneous input signal amplitude by the duty cycle of a high-frequency
squarewave. The output transistor(s) never operate in active mode, only cutoff and saturation. Little heat energy dissipated makes energy efficiency high.
DC bias voltage on the input signal, necessary for certain classes of operation (especially
class A and class C), may be obtained through the use of a voltage divider and coupling
capacitor rather than a battery connected in series with the AC signal source.

4.10

Biasing calculations

Although transistor switching circuits operate without bias, it is unusual for analog circuits to
operate without bias. One of the few examples is TR One, one transistor radio (page 427) with
an amplified AM (amplitude modulation) detector. Note the lack of a bias resistor at the base in
that circuit. In this section we look at a few basic bias circuits which can set a selected emitter
current IE . Given a desired emitter current IE , what values of bias resistors are required, RB ,
RE , etc?

4.10.1

Base Bias

The simplest biasing applies a base-bias resistor between the base and a base battery VBB .
It is convenient to use the existing VCC supply instead of a new bias supply. An example of
an audio amplifier stage using base-biasing is Crystal radio with one transistor . . . (page
427). Note the resistor from the base to the battery terminal. A similar circuit is shown in
Figure 4.85.
Write a KVL (Krichhoff s voltage law) equation about the loop containing the battery, RB ,
and the VBE diode drop on the transistor in Figure 4.85. Note that we use VBB for the base
supply, even though it is actually VCC . If is large we can make the approximation that IC
=IE . For silicon transistors VBE
=0.7V.
Silicon small signal transistors typically have a in the range of 100-300. Assuming that
we have a =100 transistor, what value of base-bias resistor is required to yield an emitter
current of 1mA?
Solving the IE base-bias equation for RB and substituting , VBB , VBE , and IE yields
930k. The closest standard value is 910k.

= 100
RB =

VBB = 10V

VBB - VBE
IE /

IC IE = 1ma
10 - 0.7
= 930k
1mA / 100

CHAPTER 4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

238

RB

_
+
V _
BE =
0.7
V

RC

VBB - IRB - VBE = 0

VCC
+

VBB - VBE = IBRB

IB =

(KVL)

VBB - VBE
RB

IE = (+1) IB
IE =

VBB - VBE
RB /

(IE base-bias)

Figure 4.85: Base-bias

What is the emitter current with a 910k resistor? What is the emitter current if we
randomly get a =300 transistor?

= 100
VBB = 10V
RB = 910k VBE = 0.7V
VBB - VBE
10 - 0.7
IE =
=
= 1.02mA
RB /
910k / 100
= 300
10 - 0.7
3.07mA
IE =
=
910k / 300
The emitter current is little changed in using the standard value 910k resistor. However,
with a change in from 100 to 300, the emitter current has tripled. This is not acceptable in
a power amplifier if we expect the collector voltage to swing from near VCC to near ground.
However, for low level signals from micro-volts to a about a volt, the bias point can be centered
for a of square root of (100300)=173. The bias point will still drift by a considerable amount
. However, low level signals will not be clipped.
Base-bias by its self is not suitable for high emitter currents, as used in power amplifiers.
The base-biased emitter current is not temperature stable. Thermal run away is the result
of high emitter current causing a temperature increase which causes an increase in emitter
current, which further increases temperature.

4.10.2

Collector-feedback bias

Variations in bias due to temperature and beta may be reduced by moving the VBB end of the
base-bias resistor to the collector as in Figure 4.86. If the emitter current were to increase, the
voltage drop across RC increases, decreasing VC , decreasing IB fed back to the base. This, in
turn, decreases the emitter current, correcting the original increase.
Write a KVL equation about the loop containing the battery, RC , RB , and the VBE drop.
Substitute IC
=IE and IB
=IE /. Solving for IE yields the IE CFB-bias equation. Solving for IB
yields the IB CFB-bias equation.
Find the required collector feedback bias resistor for an emitter current of 1 mA, a 4.7K
collector load resistor, and a transistor with =100 . Find the collector voltage VC . It should be

4.10. BIASING CALCULATIONS

+
RC
_
+

VC

RB
_

VCC +

+
V _
BE =
0.7
V

239

IC = IB
IC IE
IE IB
VCC - ICRC - IBRB - VBE = 0
VCC - IERC - (IE / )RB - VBE = 0
VCC - VBE = IERC + (IE / )RB
VCC - VBE = IE((RB / ) + RC)
VCC - VBE
IE =
RB / + RC
RB =

VCC - VBE
IE

- RC

(KVL)

(IE CFB-bias)

(RB CFB-bias)

Figure 4.86: Collector-feedback bias.

approximately midway between VCC and ground.

= 100
RB =

VCC = 10V

VCC - VBE
IE

IC IE = 1ma

- RC = 100

RC = 4.7k

10 - 0.7 -4.7k
1mA

= 460k

VC = VCC - ICRC = 10 - (1mA)(4.7k) = 5.3V

The closest standard value to the 460k collector feedback bias resistor is 470k. Find the
emitter current IE with the 470 K resistor. Recalculate the emitter current for a transistor
with =100 and =300.

= 100
IE =

VCC = 10V

VCC - VBE
RB / + RC

= 300
VCC - VBE
IE =
RB / + RC

RC = 4.7k

RB = 470k

10 - 0.7
470k / 100 + 4.7k
10 - 0.7
470k / 300 + 4.7k

= 0.989mA

= 1.48mA

We see that as beta changes from 100 to 300, the emitter current increases from 0.989mA
to 1.48mA. This is an improvement over the previous base-bias circuit which had an increase
from 1.02mA to 3.07mA. Collector feedback bias is twice as stable as base-bias with respect to
beta variation.

4.10.3

Emitter-bias

Inserting a resistor RE in the emitter circuit as in Figure 4.87 causes degeneration, also known
as negative feedback. This opposes a change in emitter current IE due to temperature changes,
resistor tolerances, beta variation, or power supply tolerance. Typical tolerances are as follows:

CHAPTER 4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

240

resistor 5%, beta 100-300, power supply 5%. Why might the emitter resistor stabilize a
change in current? The polarity of the voltage drop across RE is due to the collector battery
VCC . The end of the resistor closest to the (-) battery terminal is (-), the end closest to the
(+) terminal it (+). Note that the (-) end of RE is connected via VBB battery and RB to the
base. Any increase in current flow through RE will increase the magnitude of negative voltage
applied to the base circuit, decreasing the base current, decreasing the emitter current. This
decreasing emitter current partially compensates the original increase.

VBB -IRB - VBE - IERE = 0

IE = (+1)IB IB
VBB -(I/)RB - VBE - IERE = 0
VBB - VBE = IE ( (RB / ) + RE )

RC
V VCC
0.7BE =
V

_+

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE
VBB - VBE
RB/ + RE =
IE

IE =

RB =

VBB - VBE
IE

- RE

(IE emitter-bias)

(RB emitter-bias)

KVL

loop

RB +
+
VBB RE
+
_

Figure 4.87: Emitter-bias

Note that base-bias battery VBB is used instead of VCC to bias the base in Figure 4.87.
Later we will show that the emitter-bias is more effective with a lower base bias battery.
Meanwhile, we write the KVL equation for the loop through the base-emitter circuit, paying attention to the polarities on the components. We substitute IB
=IE / and solve for emitter
current IE . This equation can be solved for RB , equation: RB emitter-bias, Figure 4.87.
Before applying the equations: RB emitter-bias and IE emitter-bias, Figure 4.87, we need
to choose values for RC and RE . RC is related to the collector supply VCC and the desired
collector current IC which we assume is approximately the emitter current IE . Normally the
bias point for VC is set to half of VCC . Though, it could be set higher to compensate for the
voltage drop across the emitter resistor RE . The collector current is whatever we require or
choose. It could range from micro-Amps to Amps depending on the application and transistor
rating. We choose IC = 1mA, typical of a small-signal transistor circuit. We calculate a value
for RC and choose a close standard value. An emitter resistor which is 10-50% of the collector
load resistor usually works well.

4.10. BIASING CALCULATIONS

241

VC = VCC / 2 = 10 / 2 = 5V
RC = Vc / IC = 5/1mA = 5k (4.7k standard value)
RE = 0.10RC = 0.10(4.7K) = 470
Our first example sets the base-bias supply to high at VBB = VCC = 10V to show why a lower
voltage is desirable. Determine the required value of base-bias resistor RB . Choose a standard
value resistor. Calculate the emitter current for =100 and =300. Compare the stabilization
of the current to prior bias circuits.

= 100

IE IC = 1ma

V - VBE
RB = BB
IE

- RE

Vcc = VBB= 10V

= 100

RE = 470

10 - 0.7
0.001

= 883k

- 470

An 883k resistor was calculated for RB , an 870k chosen. At =100, IE is 1.01mA.

= 100
IE =

RB = 870k

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE

10 - 0.7
870K/100 + 470

= 1.01mA

10 - 0.7
870K/300 + 470

= 2.76mA

= 300
IE =

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE

For =300 the emitter currents are shown in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.
Bias circuit
IC =100 IC =300
base-bias
1.02mA
3.07mA
collector feedback bias 0.989mA
1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB =10V 1.01mA
2.76mA
Table 4.7 shows that for VBB = 10V, emitter-bias does not do a very good job of stabilizing
the emitter current. The emitter-bias example is better than the previous base-bias example,
but, not by much. The key to effective emitter bias is lowering the base supply VBB nearer to
the amount of emitter bias.
How much emitter bias do we Have? Rounding, that is emitter current times emitter resistor: IE RE = (1mA)(470) = 0.47V. In addition, we need to overcome the VBE = 0.7V. Thus,
we need a VBB >(0.47 + 0.7)V or >1.17V. If emitter current deviates, this number will change
compared with the fixed base supply VBB ,causing a correction to base current IB and emitter
current IE . A good value for VB >1.17V is 2V.

= 100
RB =

IE IC = 1ma
VBB - VBE
IE

- RE

Vcc = 10V
= 100

VBB = 2V
2 - 0.7
0.001

RE = 470
- 470

= 83k

CHAPTER 4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

242

The calculated base resistor of 83k is much lower than the previous 883k. We choose 82k
from the list of standard values. The emitter currents with the 82k RB for =100 and =300
are:

= 100 RB = 82k
IE =

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE

2 - 0.7
82K/100 + 470

= 1.01mA

2 - 0.7
82K/300 + 470

= 1.75mA

= 300
IE =

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE

Comparing the emitter currents for emitter-bias with VBB = 2V at =100 and =300 to
the previous bias circuit examples in Table 4.8, we see considerable improvement at 1.75mA,
though, not as good as the 1.48mA of collector feedback.

Table 4.8: Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.

Bias circuit
IC =100 IC =300
base-bias
1.02mA
3.07mA
collector feedback bias 0.989mA
1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB =10V 1.01mA
2.76mA
emitter-bias, VBB =2V
1.01mA
1.75mA
How can we improve the performance of emitter-bias? Either increase the emitter resistor
RE or decrease the base-bias supply VBB or both. As an example, we double the emitter resistor
to the nearest standard value of 910.

= 100
RB =

IE IC = 1ma
VBB - VBE
IE

- RE

Vcc = 10V
= 100

VBB = 2V
2 - 0.7
0.001

RE = 910
- 910

= 39k

The calculated RB = 39k is a standard value resistor. No need to recalculate IE for = 100.
For = 300, it is:

= 300 RB = 39k
IE =

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE

2 - 0.7
39K/300 + 910

= 1.25mA

The performance of the emitter-bias circuit with a 910Onega emitter resistor is much
improved. See Table 4.9.
As an exercise, rework the emitter-bias example with the emitter resistor reverted back to
470, and the base-bias supply reduced to 1.5V.

4.10. BIASING CALCULATIONS

243

Table 4.9: Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.

Bias circuit
IC =100 IC =300
base-bias
1.02mA
3.07mA
collector feedback bias
0.989mA
1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB =10V
1.01mA
2.76mA
emitter-bias, VBB =2V, RE =470 1.01mA
1.75mA
emitter-bias, VBB =2V, RE =910 1.00mA
1.25mA

= 100
RB =

IE IC = 1ma
VBB - VBE
IE

- RE

Vcc = 10V
= 100

VBB = 1.5V RE = 470

1.5 - 0.7
0.001

- 470

= 33k

The 33k base resistor is a standard value, emitter current at = 100 is OK. The emitter
current at = 300 is:

IE =

VBB - VBE
RB / + RE

1.5 - 0.7
33K/300 + 470

= 1.38mA

Table 4.10 below compares the exercise results 1mA and 1.38mA to the previous examples.
Table 4.10: Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.
Bias circuit
IC =100 IC =300
base-bias
1.02mA
3.07mA
collector feedback bias
0.989mA
1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB =10V
1.01mA
2.76mA
emitter-bias, VBB =2V, RB =470
1.01mA
1.75mA
emitter-bias, VBB =2V, RB =910
1.00mA
1.25mA
emitter-bias, VBB =1.5V, RB =470 1.00mA
1.38mA
The emitter-bias equations have been repeated in Figure 4.88 with the internal emitter
resistance included for better accuracy. The internal emitter resistance is the resistance in
the emitter circuit contained within the transistor package. This internal resistance rEE is
significant when the (external) emitter resistor RE is small, or even zero. The value of internal
resistance REE is a function of emitter current IE , Table 4.11.
Table 4.11: Derivation of rEE
rEE = KT/IE m
where:
K=1.381023 watt-sec/o C, Boltzmans constant
T= temperature in Kelvins
=300.
IE = emitter current
m = varies from 1 to 2 for Silicon
rEE
= 0.026V/IE = 26mV/IE

CHAPTER 4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

244

For reference the 26mV approximation is listed as equation rEE in Figure 4.88.

RC
VCC +
_

+_ + rEE
_

RB 0VBE =
.
+ + 7V
_

VBB

VBB -IRB - VBE - IErEE - IERE= 0

IE = ( +1)IB IB
VBB -(IE / )RB - VBE - IErEE - IERE = 0
VBB - VBE = (IE(RB / ) + IErEE + IERE)
IE =

(KVL)

VBB - VBE
RB / + rEE + RE

RB/ + REE + RE =

VBB - VBE
IE

VBB - VBE
IE

- rEE -RE

RE
RB =

(IE EB)

(RB EB)

rEE = 26mV/ IE

(rEE)

Figure 4.88: Emitter-bias equations with internal emitter resistance rEE included..
The more accurate emitter-bias equations in Figure 4.88 may be derived by writing a KVL
equation. Alternatively, start with equations IE emitter-bias and RB emitter-bias in Figure 4.87, substituting RE with rEE +RE . The result is equations IE EB and RB EB, respectively
in Figure 4.88.
Redo the RB calculation in the previous example (page 241) with the inclusion of rEE and
compare the results.

= 100

IE IC = 1ma

Vcc = 10V

VBB= 2V

RE = 470

rE E = 26mV/1mA = 26
RB =

Vcc - VBE
IE

- rEE - RE

= 100

2.0 - 0.7
- 26 - 470
0.001

= 80.4k

The inclusion of rEE in the calculation results in a lower value of the base resistor RB a
shown in Table 4.12. It falls below the standard value 82k resistor instead of above it.
Table 4.12: Effect of inclusion of rEE on calculated RB
rEE ?
rEE Value
Without rEE 83k
With rEE
80.4k

Bypass Capacitor for RE

One problem with emitter bias is that a considerable part of the output signal is dropped
across the emitter resistor RE (Figure 4.89). This voltage drop across the emitter resistor is in

4.10. BIASING CALCULATIONS

245

series with the base and of opposite polarity compared with the input signal. (This is similar to
a common collector configuration having <1 gain.) This degeneration severely reduces the gain
from base to collector. The solution for AC signal amplifiers is to bypass the emitter resistor
with a capacitor. This restores the AC gain since the capacitor is a short for AC signals. The
DC emitter current still experiences degeneration in the emitter resistor, thus, stabilizing the
DC current.

RC
Ccoupling

Rin
Vin

VCC +
RB

RE

RC
4.7k V
CC +

Ccoupling

Rin
Vin

RB
33k
RE
470

Cbypass

Figure 4.89: Cbypass is required to prevent AC gain reduction.

What value should the bypass capacitor be? That depends on the lowest frequency to be
amplified. For radio frequencies Cbpass would be small. For an audio amplifier extending down
to 20Hz it will be large. A rule of thumb for the bypass capacitor is that the reactance should
be 1/10 of the emitter resistance or less. The capacitor should be designed to accommodate the
lowest frequency being amplified. The capacitor for an audio amplifier covering 20Hz to 20kHz
would be:

XC =

1
2fC

C=

1
2fXC

C=

1
= 169F
220(470/10)

Note that the internal emitter resistance rEE is not bypassed by the bypass capacitor.

4.10.4

Voltage divider bias

Stable emitter bias requires a low voltage base bias supply, Figure 4.90. The alternative to a
base supply VBB is a voltage divider based on the collector supply VCC .
The design technique is to first work out an emitter-bias design, Then convert it to the voltage divider bias configuration by using Thevenins Theorem. [4] The steps are shown graphically in Figure 4.91. Draw the voltage divider without assigning values. Break the divider

CHAPTER 4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

246

RC
_

R1

+
R2
_

+_ + rEE
_

V
0.7BE =
V

RB
+ +

VCC +

VBB

VCC +

+
RE

RC
+_ + rEE
_

V
0.7BE =
V

+
RE

Emitter-bias

Voltage divider bias

Figure 4.90: Voltage Divider bias replaces base battery with voltage divider.

loose from the base. (The base of the transistor is the load.) Apply Thevenins Theorem to yield
a single Thevenin equivalent resistance Rth and voltage source Vth.

RC

R1
+
R2
-

R1

VCC +

VCC +

+_ + rEE
_

V
0.7BE =
V

+
RE

Rth
Vth +
Vth

+
R2
_

Figure 4.91: Thevenins Theorem converts voltage divider to single supply Vth and resistance
Rth.

The Thevenin equivalent resistance is the resistance from load point (arrow) with the battery (VCC ) reduced to 0 (ground). In other words, R1||R2.The Thevenin equivalent voltage is
the open circuit voltage (load removed). This calculation is by the voltage divider ratio method.
R1 is obtained by eliminating R2 from the pair of equations for Rth and Vth. The equation of
R1 is in terms of known quantities Rth, Vth, Vcc. Note that Rth is RB , the bias resistor from
the emitter-bias design. The equation for R2 is in terms of R1 and Rth.

4.10. BIASING CALCULATIONS

247

Rth = R1 || R2
1
Rth
1
Rth

1
R1

R2
R1 +R2

Vth
=
VCC

R2
R1 +R2

1
R2

f=

R2 +R1
R1R2

R1 = Rth
f

Vth = VCC

= Rth

1 R2 +R1
= 1 1
R1 R2
R1 f

VCC
Vth

1
=
R2

1
1
Rth
R1

Convert this previous emitter-bias example to voltage divider bias.

RC
R1

VCC +
10V
RB
VBB

33k
+
RE

RC

VCC +

10V
R2

470

RE

470

Figure 4.92: Emitter-bias example converted to voltage divider bias.

These values were previously selected or calculated for an emitter-bias example

= 100
RB =

IE IC = 1ma
VBB - VBE
IE

- RE

Vcc = 10V

VBB = 1.5V RE = 470

= 100

1.5 - 0.7
0.001

- 470

= 33k

Substituting VCC , VBB , RB yields R1 and R2 for the voltage divider bias configuration.

VBB = Vth = 1.5V

RB = Rth = 33k
R1 = Rth

VCC
Vth

R1 = 33k 10 = 220k
1.5

1
=
R2

1
1
Rth
R1

1
=
R2

1
1
33k
220k

R2 = 38.8k

CHAPTER 4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

248

R1 is a standard value of 220K. The closest standard value for R2 corresponding to 38.8k is
39k. This does not change IE enough for us to calculate it.
Problem: Calculate the bias resistors for the cascode amplifier in Figure 4.93. VB2 is the
bias voltage for the common emitter stage. VB1 is a fairly high voltage at 11.5 because we
want the common-base stage to hold the emitter at 11.5-0.7=10.8V, about 11V. (It will be 10V
after accounting for the voltage drop across RB1 .) That is, the common-base stage is the load,
substitute for a resistor, for the common-emitter stages collector. We desire a 1mA emitter
current.

VCC = 20V
RB1
Q1

VBB1 = 11.5V

RL

VB1
A
Vi

Q2
RB2

Vo

VCC
+

IE = 1mA = 100

RL = 4.7k

VBB2 = 1.5V

IE =

VBB - VBE
RB /

RB1 =

VBB - VBE
IE /

RB2 =

VBB2 - VBE
IE /

VB2
+

VA = 10V

(IE base-bias)

(VBB1 - VA) - VBE

(11.5-10) - 0.7
=
= 80k
IE /
1mA / 100

(1.5) - 0.7
1mA / 100

= 80k

Cascode
Figure 4.93: Bias for a cascode amplifier.
Problem: Convert the base bias resistors for the cascode amplifier to voltage divider bias
resistors driven by the VCC of 20V.
VCC = Vth = 20V
RBB1 = 80k
RBB2 = 80k
VBB1 = 11.5V

VBB2 = 1.5V

VBB = Vth = 11.5V

VBB = Vth = 1.5V

RB = Rth = 80k

RB = Rth = 80k

V
R1 = Rth CC
Vth

R3 = Rth

R1 = 80k 20 = 139.1k
11.5

R3 = 80k 20 = 1.067Meg
1.5

1
=
R2

1
1
Rth
R1

1
=
R4

1
1
Rth
R3

1
=
R2

1
1
80k 139.1k

1
=
R4

1
1
80k 1067k

R2 = 210k

VCC
Vth

R4 = 86.5k

4.11. INPUT AND OUTPUT COUPLING

249

The final circuit diagram is shown in the Practical Analog Circuits chapter, Class A
cascode amplifier . . . (page 433).
REVIEW:
See Figure 4.94.
Select bias circuit configuration
Select RC and IE for the intended application. The values for RC and IE should normally
set collector voltage VC to 1/2 of VCC .
Calculate base resistor RB to achieve desired emitter current.
Recalculate emitter current IE for standard value resistors if necessary.
For voltage divider bias, perform emitter-bias calculations first, then determine R1 and
R2.
For AC amplifiers, a bypass capacitor in parallel with RE improves AC gain. Set XC 0.10RE
for lowest frequency.

4.11

Input and output coupling

To overcome the challenge of creating necessary DC bias voltage for an amplifiers input signal
without resorting to the insertion of a battery in series with the AC signal source, we used a
voltage divider connected across the DC power source. To make this work in conjunction with
an AC input signal, we coupled the signal source to the divider through a capacitor, which
acted as a high-pass filter. With that filtering in place, the low impedance of the AC signal
source couldnt short out the DC voltage dropped across the bottom resistor of the voltage
divider. A simple solution, but not without any disadvantages.
Most obvious is the fact that using a high-pass filter capacitor to couple the signal source
to the amplifier means that the amplifier can only amplify AC signals. A steady, DC voltage
applied to the input would be blocked by the coupling capacitor just as much as the voltage
divider bias voltage is blocked from the input source. Furthermore, since capacitive reactance
is frequency-dependent, lower-frequency AC signals will not be amplified as much as higherfrequency signals. Non-sinusoidal signals will tend to be distorted, as the capacitor responds
differently to each of the signals constituent harmonics. An extreme example of this would be
a low-frequency square-wave signal in Figure 4.95.
Incidentally, this same problem occurs when oscilloscope inputs are set to the AC coupling mode as in Figure 4.97. In this mode, a coupling capacitor is inserted in series with the
measured voltage signal to eliminate any vertical offset of the displayed waveform due to DC
voltage combined with the signal. This works fine when the AC component of the measured
signal is of a fairly high frequency, and the capacitor offers little impedance to the signal.
However, if the signal is of a low frequency, or contains considerable levels of harmonics over
a wide frequency range, the oscilloscopes display of the waveform will not be accurate. (Figure 4.97) Low frequency signals may be viewed by setting the oscilloscope to DC coupling in
Figure 4.96.