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Geological and tectonic influence on water

soilradon relationship in MandiManali area,
Himachal Himalaya
Article in Environmental Geology June 2007
Impact Factor: 1.13 DOI: 10.1007/s00254-006-0553-1

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Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

DOI 10.1007/s00254-006-0553-1

O R I G I N A L A RT I C L E

Geological and tectonic influence on watersoilradon

relationship in MandiManali area, Himachal Himalaya
V. M. Choubey P. K. Mukherjee B. S. Bajwa
Vivek Walia

Received: 4 October 2006 / Accepted: 4 October 2006 / Published online: 8 November 2006
Springer-Verlag 2006

Abstract Radon measurements in soil and groundwater (springs, thermal springs and handpumps) were
made in a variety of lithological units including major
thrusts between Mandi and Manali in Himachal
Himalaya. Analysis of radon data in light of lithological controls and influence of deep-seated thrusts has
been made to elucidate the causative factors for
anomalous emanation of radon. The lithological types
include banded gneisses, schists, quartzite, granite,
phyllites, volcanics and mylonites. The low-grade metasedimentries of Shali and Dharamsala generally
show low and narrow range of radon concentration in
water (5.613.4 Bq/l) as well as in soil (1.83.2 kBq/m3)
except for the samples related to thrusts. On the other
hand, sheared and deformed rocks of Chail and Jutogh
show moderate radon content (average 5.03 kBq/m3,
range 2.911.1 kBq/m3) in soil. However, the groundwater radon concentration shows wide variation in
different types of sources (2.180.8 Bq/l). The quartzite
and volcanic rocks of Rampur formation in this area
present as a window separated by Chail thrust. Radon
emanations on these rock types are relatively high
(6.368.1 Bq/l in water and 5.515.9 kBq/m3 in soil)

V. M. Choubey (&)
P. K. Mukherjee

Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,
33-General Mahadeo Singh Road, Dehradun 248001, India
e-mail: [email protected]
V. Walia
National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering,
Taipei 106, Taiwan
B. S. Bajwa
Department of Physics, Guru Nanak Dev University,
Amritsar 143005, India

and are exceptionally high in samples that are related

to uranium mineralization, deep-seated thrusts and hot
springs (13.5653.5 Bq/l). It is generally observed that
anomalous high radon content is associated with mineralization, deeper source and tectonic discontinuities.
Whereas it is obvious that subsurface radioactive mineralization would facilitate enhanced radon production,
however, thrust plains provide easy pathways for escape
of gases from the deeper sources. Shallow and deep
sources of the groundwater have contrasting radon
content particularly in the deformed and metamorphosed rocks of Jutogh and Chail. Shallow groundwater
sources, mainly handpumps, have lower radon concentration due to limited superficial water circulation,
whereas deeper sources, mainly perennial springs, show
higher radon content because of larger opportunity for
waterrock interaction.

Introduction
Crustal discontinuities, such as fractures and faults of
various dimensions, facilitate degassing flux from the
earth to the hydrosphere and the atmosphere (Baubron et al. 2002; Fu et al. 2005). Radon is an omnipresent radioactive gas that can be used as tracer gas in
geology, hydrology and geophysical investigations
where it accounts for interesting alternative tools (Cho
et al. 2004; Przylibski et al. 2004; Steinitz et al. 1999;
Kies and Massen 1996; Segovia et al. 1999; Yasuka
et al. 2005). Radon due to its short half-life displays
poor intrinsic mobility and therefore in diffusive
system it obviously comes from a short distance below

123

1164

the measuring instrument. Deep origin signals can be

observed only if convection/advection occurs; radon
being carried upward to subsurface by a rising gas/
water column (Etiope and Martinelli 2002; Yang et al.
2003). The measurement of radioactivity in general and
in the tectonically active and seismically sensitive
Himalayan, in particular, is of special interest to various researchers (Choubey et al. 2005; Ramola 2005;
Virk and Sharma 2000). During recent years, several
reports have appeared in the literature regarding the
ever-increasing interest in monitoring radon all over
the world (Abdulrahman 1999; Choubey et al. 2001;
Baubron et al. 2002; Plastino 2001; Sakashita et al.
2004; Swakon et al. 2005; Walia et al. 2005a). The
health risks that are associated with inhalation and
ingestion of radon and its progeny are also significant.
Cross et al. 1985 suggested maximum contamination
level (MCL) of radon in public drinking water supply
in the range of 37740 Bq/l. In 1991 the US Environmental Protection Agency proposed an MCL for radon
in public water supply to be of the order of 11.1 Bq/l
(EPA 1991). However, the risk factor depends on the
total mass of radon partitioning from groundwater to
the soil gas (Oostrrom 1996).
Radon gas is continuously generated within the
rock strata as an intermediate decay product of the U
or Th radioactive series and its emanation is a wellunderstood phenomenon. However, its migration
from the earths crust to atmosphere is a complex
phenomenon (Tanner 1980). Uranium geochemistry
of highly deformed and sheared rocks is not well
understood. However, Gundersen and Gates (1989)
and Gates and Gundersen (1992) have presented
some insight into the reasons for high uranium and
favorable conditions for high emanation of radon gas.
In view of this, the present area provides better
opportunity to study the radon status in this geologically similar situation as the area is extensively traversed by a number of deep-seated thrusts and fault
and some of them are still active. Such problems can
be better addressed if the soil and groundwater radon
emanations are measured and compared with respect
to the geological and other relevant parameters.
Whereas the handpumps reveal the shallow level radon status, the spring water provides deep-seated
conditions. Moreover, there are several reports of
radioactive mineralization (not ore deposits) within
(Parvati Valley) the study area as well as in similar
geotectonic setup elsewhere in Lesser Himalaya (Das
et al. 1972, 1979; Nashine et al. 1982; Sharma et al.
1983). Radon exposure studies have been carried out
in several parts of the Himachal Himalaya in a
variety of medium like indoor air, soil and water

123

Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

(Singh et al. 2002; Virk and Sharma 2002; Walia et al.

2003), with special emphasis on its environmental
aspects. However, very little attention was given on
its geological controls. Therefore, an attempt has
been made in this paper to understand the water
soilradon relationship in such unique geological
and geohydrological situation along three transects so
that the lithological variations and major structure
and tectonic elements are fairly represented
(Fig. 1). These are (1) Manali-Handogi, (2) Manikaran-Bhuntar and (3) Handogi-Jogindra Nagar.

Geology of the area

A detailed account of the geology of the area is beyond
the scope of this paper. However, a brief and simplified
description is presented here highlighting only geological features that are relevant to the subject of this
paper. Four major lithotectonic units, each bounded by
deep-seated thrusts may broadly describe the geology
of the area (Fig. 1). These are referred to as (1)
Rampur window group; (2) Chail group; (3) Jutogh
group and (4) Dhramsala and Sali formation. The
Rampur formation tectonically rest over the Shali
formation along a thrust and made up of volcanics at
the lower level and Rampur quartzite towards the top
(Misra and Tewari 1988). Rampur quartzite is intruded
by the Bandal granite and the low-grade metamorphics
of Chail group rocks are intruded by the Mandi granite.
Chail thrust between Rampur group and Chail group
rocks was also referred as Kullu thrust (Bhargava and
Bassi 1994). The Chail group is tectonically overlain by
the huge succession of medium-grade metamorphics of
Jutogh group separated along the Jutogh thrust (Misra
and Tewari 1988; Virdi 1981). The Chail and Jutogh
thrust separates metamorphically contrasting grades of
rocks. Chail thrust defines the boundary between
green-schist facies rocks of Rampur, Shali and Dharamshala group and low-grade metamorphics of Chail
group rocks. On the other hand, the Jutogh thrust
separates low-grade rocks of Chail and medium-grade
(amphibolite facies) rocks of Jutogh group. These
thrusts play a major role in the neo-tectonics of the
area and are still active. The Jutogh group of rocks is
highly deformed and mylonitized and are frequently
referred to as imbricate thrust zone. However, the
rocks of Chail group are relatively less deformed with
development of mylonites along the thrust contacts.
The faults, thrusts, metamorphosed and mylonitized
rocks are of special importance as they provide enhanced secondary porosity and hence higher radon
emission (Gundersen and Gates, 1989). The lithologi-

Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

1165

Fig. 1 a Geological map of

the MandiManali area
showing soil and water radon
sample locations. b
Geological cross section along
A-A1 and B-B1 illustrating
the geological structure of the
area. Geological map and
section is after Misra and
Tewari (1988). 1 Fine-grained
banded gneiss, 2 foliated
micaceous quartzite, 3 biotite
schist with foliated micaceous
quartzite, 4 garnetiferousbiotite phyllonite and schist 5
intrusive Mandi granite, 6
sericite-chlorite phyllite,
quartzite, mylonitized gneiss,
quartz porphyry,
carbonaceous slate with
bands of limestone, 7
intrusive Bandal granite, 8
Rampur quartzite, 9
volcanics, 10 dolomite,
limestone, quartzite,
volcanics, shale and slate, 11
fine-grained micaceous
sandstone, purple-green clay,
claystone and micaceous
siltstone

cal make-up of different rock-types is discussed in detail by Misra and Tewari (1988) and is also mentioned
in the legend of Fig. 1.

Geohydrological framework
The study area is drained by main river Beas and its
tributaries river Parvati. Parvati River originates from

glacier in the higher Himalaya and flows through

gneiss, granite porphyroids, schist of Vaikrita, Jutogh
and Chail formations and quartzites of Rampur Group
and join finally river Beas at Bhuntar. Though the Beas
and Parvati River originate from glacier in the higher
Himalaya, and passes through a variety of rock types,
their catchment area and sub-tributaries in the Lesser
Himalaya are predominantly fed by the springs and
surface runoff of local extent.

123

1166

While most of the rainfall leaves the area as direct

surface runoff, little amount infiltrates to augment the
groundwater. The groundwater eventually returns to
the surface as springs and seepages through faults,
fractures, joints and permeable layers or zones which
are favorably perched or are under confined and
unconfined conditions. Direct infiltration of rainwater
through joints, fractures and weathered zones is the
main cause of recharge of the springs.
Genesis and conditions governing the formation of
springs in river-valley slopes typify the residency of
infiltrating water, rockwater interaction and its path
before it flows out as springs. Thus the geochemistry,
including radon, of the spring water would strongly
depend upon the residency period and more specifically on the extent of closeness of the system in case of
dissolved gas contents. Four major conditions of valley
springs have been recognized by Bhartarya (1988) that
are controlled by fracture, joints, fault/thrust and other
geomorphological conditions in Lesser Himalayan
terrain. Relatively flat areas and gently sloping land
characterized by deep weathering such as hilltops,
ridges, saddles, spurs and cones of old landslide debris,
river terraces, fluvial fans form the recharge areas;
while steeper hill slopes, first- and second-order
streams at break-of-slope, and terrace scarps and fans
are favorable discharge sites. Fractured zones related
to folds, faults and other lineaments, characterized by
sheared and crushed rocks are good locations for
springs, even in rocks that are otherwise impermeable
(Bhartarya 1988; Choubey et al. 2000a, b).
In KuluManali area several hot springs are located; the famous thermal springs at Manikaran and
Kasol in Parvati valley are located in the vicinity of
Chail Thrust where hot water gushes out through the
joint planes of the quartzite which is traversed by
several tension joints due to anticlinal folding and
thrusting. Also, the presence of Chail thrust near
Manikaran and Ksol play an important role in the
formation of these hot springs. Possibly, the water
descends very deep down along prominent structural
opening and return to the surface aided by steams,
after getting superheated by internal heat of the
earth (Sharma 1977). Beside the Parvati valley hot
springs are also located near Kullu town along Beas
River and in Vashishat near Manali.
Mostly the spring water is a major source for
drinking whereas the hot water of the thermal springs
is normally used both for washing and bathing. A
large number of shallow wells equipped with handpump (henceforth referred to as handpumps) are
also dug along the river valleys that partially supplement the drinking water requirements. Some of

123

Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

these handpumps are also selected for radon measurement in this study.

Experimental technique
Radon concentrations from different water sources
(handpump/spring) were measured during the winter
season, whereas the soil-gas radon measurements were
carried out in the summer season. The weather conditions were fairly stable during measurements in both
the seasons. Radon measurements in water samples
were carried out by scintillometry, using silver-activated zinc sulfide, ZnS (Ag). Alpha Scintillometer
(GBH 2002) with Lucas cell assembly supplied by
International Environmental Consulting, Germany,
was used to record the alpha counts from 1 l of water
over an interval of 10 min. Radon gas emanated from
radium present in the water or dissolved in it was
sucked by a pump connected to a radon bubbler with an
extraction efficiency of more than 90%. The electronic
digital counter records the alpha counts and radon
concentration in water is measured by using the calibration constant (10 counts = 1 Bq/l). The detection
limit for the Lucas cells used in alpha scintillometer is
0.02 Bq/l. Radon-222 in water has to be measured in the
gas phase. The radon gas from 1 l water is separated
from the matrix water and all the other radionuclides by
bubbling air through and continuously measuring of
radonair mixture under flow condition in the Lucas
cell on the ZnS(Ag) detector. The method blows out
completely all radon-222 from the water and measure
radonair mixture continuously. The sum of counts
after 10-min flows gives qualitative results. The total
number of radon counts blown out is directly proportional to the radon-222 activity in the sample in Bq/l
(10 counts = 1 Bq/l). By circulation de-gassing equilibrium in the system has been established after 10 min
bubbling and is taken for measuring as per calibration.
In soil radon emanometry, auger holes each 60 cm in
depth and 6 cm in diameter were left covered for 24 h
so that the amount of radon and thoron became stable.
The soil-gas probe was fixed in the auger hole and
formed an airtight compartment (Ghosh and Bhalla
1981). The rubber pump, soil-gas probe and alpha
detector were connected in a close circuit. Air was
circulated through a ZnS coated chamber for a period
of 15 min till the radon formed a uniform mixture with
the air. The detector was then isolated by clamping both
the ends and observations were taken after 4 h. The
resulting number of the alpha counts is converted into
Bq/m3 by using the calibration constant determined by
Choubey et al. (2000a, b) under similar conditions.

Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

1167

cussed in relation to rock-type, structural and geomorphologic context.

Results
The soil-gas radon measurements were mostly made
along the roadside. The soil cover is generally <1 m
thick except in Kullu valley. The thin soil cover is
mainly because of the hilly topography having steep
slopes which does not allow soil to accumulate.
Therefore observed soil radon variation may be considered to be mainly due to the lithology and the tectonic features associated. The site selected for water
soilradon concentration are confined to Jutogh, Chail,
Rampur Shali and Dharamsala formations of Kullu
valley between Mandi and Manali in Himachal Pradesh. The sample locations and detailed lithology are
shown in Fig. 1 and the corresponding radon concentration data in Tables 1 and 2. Overall, the radon
concentration in the water from handpumps and
springs (hot and cold) varies from 2.1 to 653.5 Bq/l
with an average of 86.9 Bq/l and geometric mean of
21.8 Bq/l and that of soil-gas concentration varies from
1.5 to 15.9 kBq/m3 with an average of 6.5 kBq/m3. The
results of radon measurements in spring and soil
underlain by different geological formations are dis-

Dharamsala and Shali formation

In Dharamsala and Shali formation, radon concentration (5.625 Bq/l) in water was measured mostly from
handpumps except one spring (5.6 Bq/l). Watersoil
radon concentrations, in general, were found relatively
low in these formations because of the sedimentary
lithologies. However, #W6 (handpump) and #S3 (soil)
samples located just on the main boundary thrust
(MBT) show considerably high radon concentration of
25 Bq/l and 8 kBq/m3, respectively, whereas in Shali
formation two soilradon samples show comparatively
low values, i.e. 1.8 and 3.2 kBq/m3.
Rampur formation
Rocks of Rampur formation consists of massive
quartzite with chlorite schist and meta-basics and further intruded by Bandal granite. Uranium mineraliza-

Table 1 Radon concentration, temperature and pH in water from handpumps, springs and the associated lithology
Sample
nos.

Water source

Radon
concentration
(Bq/l)

Temperature
(C)

pH

Group/
formations

Rock types

W22
W23
W24
W20
W21
W19

Spring
Handpump
Hot water
Handpump
Handpump
Hot water

64.0 2.5
3.4 0.6
80.8 2.8
10.2 1.0
9.2 1.0
12.3 1.1

18.1
19.2
65.4
18.6
17.9
38.2

8.2

Jutogh group

Fine-grained banded gneiss

W8
W9
W10
W11
W14
W18
W16
W17

Spring
Spring
Handpump
Spring
Handpump
Handpump
Spring
Hot water

Hot water

W13
W15
W12
W7
W6
W5
W4
W3

Handpump
Handpump
Handpump
Handpump
Handpump
Spring
Handpump
Handpump

17.8
17.6
19.3
17.4
18.1
17.7
18.1
71.9
70.1
68.5
65.3
88.4
88.2
18.5
17.9
18.2
17.8
18.2
17.7
18.4
17.6

Chail group

W17a

2.1 0.5
18.0 1.3
11.0 1.0
3.7 0.6
38.1 1.9
6.8 0.8
68.1 2.6
499.5 7.1
487.1 7.0
653.5 8.1
221.9 4.7
21.4 1.5
13.5 1.2
48.0 2.2
6.3 0.8
12.5 1.1
13.4 1.2
25.0 1.6
5.6 0.7
6.4 0.8
5.6 0.7

Biotite schist with foliated

micaceous quartzite
Garnetiferous-biotite phyllonite
and schist
Mandi granite

7.05
7.21
6.35

7.54
7.08

7.62
7.07
6.96
7.35
7.02
6.78
6.83

Rampur
formation

Sericite-chlorite phyllite,
quartzite, mylonitized gneiss,
quart porphyry, carbonaceous
slate with bands of limestone
Rampur quartzite

Volcanics
7.82

Shali formation

6.91
7.01
7.33

Dharamsala
formation

Dolomite, limestone, quartzite,

volcanics, shale and slate
Fine-grained micaceous
sandstone, purple-green clay,
claystone and micaceous
siltstone

123

1168
Table 2 Radon
concentration in soil and the
associated lithology

Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

Sample nos.

Radon
concentration
(kBq/m3)

Group/formations

Rock types

S31
S29
S30
S27
S28
S25
S26
S5
S4
S6
S7
S8
S9
S23
S24
S16
S17
S18
S19
S20
S21
S22
S12
S13
S14
S15
S3
S10
S11

11.1
3.6
2.9
2.9
3.1
8.1
4.7
6.5
5.7
2.2
1.5
3.7
9.8
7.9
4.7
8.2
7.6
6.3
5.5
6.3
7.3
15.9
8.3
10.2
9.2
11.8
8.0
3.2
1.8

Jutogh group

Fine-grained banded gneiss

Foliated micaceous quartzite

0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2

tion associated with Rampur quartzite in the form of

disseminated uraninite, pitchblende grains, uraniniterutile aggregates in chlorite schist along foliation and
as fracture and joint fillings in quartzite has been reported by Das et al. (1979). Famous Manikaran and
Kasol hot water spring systems are found in the
northern proximity of Rampur formation and are
associated with Chail thrust which is a major tectonic
discontinuity in this region. The hot water (up to 80C)
of these springs are extensively used by local population for different purposes. Six samples of this hot
water springs show 13.5 Bq/l to a maximum of
653.6 Bq/l of radon, and in a normal spring from the
same area, radon was found to be as high as 68.1 Bq/l,
even though both the hot springs (Manikaran and
Kasol) are separated by few hundred meters within
same geological setup. Manikaran springs show very
low values (sample #W17a) of radon (13.5 and 21.4
Bq/l) as compared to Kasol suite of thermal springs
(#W17) that are at least ten times more enriched in
radon with values ranging from 221.9 to 653.5 Bq/l.
Moreover, the uranium concentration in these water
samples was also found consistent, i.e. 0.10.02 ppb in

123

Chail group

Biotite schist with foliated

micaceous quartzite
Garnetiferous-biotite phyllonite
and schist
Mandi granite
Sericite-chlorite phyllite,
quartzite, mylonitized gneiss,
quart porphyry, carbonaceous
slate with bands of limestone

Rampur formation

Rampur quartzite

Volcanics

Shali formation

Dolomite, limestone, quartzite,

volcanics, shale and slate

Manikaran as compared to 3.634.36 ppb in Kasol hot

spring (V. Walia, personal communication). On the
other hand, range of soil-gas radon content underlain
by contrasting lithologies of Rampur quartzite and
metavolcanics were found to be 5.515.9 kBq/m3 and
8.311.8 kBq/m3 respectively.
Chail group
Radon measurements were carried out in few springs
and handpumps that are located within low-grade
metamorphics (sericite-chlorite quartzite, mylonitized
gneiss, carbonaceous slate) of Chail group of rocks.
Radon concentration generally varies from 2.1 to
11 Bq/l; however, a relatively deeper handpump
located on Chail thrust show remarkably high radon
concentration (38.1 Bq/l). This group of rocks is further intruded by younger granite (Bandal granite).
Two springs sampled on this granitic lithology
show 2.1 and 18 Bq/l of radon. Both these springs are
of different types with lower values associated with
fluvial type and higher value is associated with joint
controlled spring.

Environ Geol (2007) 52:11631171

Jutogh group
Jotogh group of rocks are characterized by mediumgrade amphibolite facies metamorphism represented
by fine-grained gnisses, schist and phyllonites. The
spring waterradon concentrations within this lithology
show wide variability. In spite of higher porosity, the
schistose rocks are consistently low in radon 9.2
12.3 Bq/l but the springs on banded gneissic rocks are
many fold enriched (6480.8 Bq/l) except for a shallow
handpump (3.4 Bq/l). In the both cases the hot water
springs shows marginally higher values with respect to
normal springs. Both these hot water springs have
contrasting geomorphic conditions and lithologies.

Discussion
Superficial and shallow fluvial and colluvial springs
show relatively low Rn concentration. These spring
systems are related to higher porosity and transitivity
that neither allows accumulation or emanation of Rn
gas (Lawrence et al. 1991; Choubey et al. 2000a, b).
On the other hand, higher radon concentration values
are, in general, found to be associated with springs
that are controlled by fault/joint or thrust lineaments
irrespective of the underlain rock type within the
same geological formation. Thus, the radon contents
in spring samples are found to be highly variable in
accordance with its genetic type and depth of
groundwater circulation. Handpumps, on the other
hand, being shallower (up to 2050 m) generally
show low radon. However, few handpumps that are
right on the thrust (e.g., sample #W6, W13, W14)
show very high radon suggesting that the radon
emission is strongly influenced by the deep-seated
thrust structure. The thermal springs being deep seated in origin and are related to thrust planes show
expectedly high Rn compared to adjacent normal
springs. Except for Manikaran hot water springs, in
the rest of the three thermal springs sampled (two
from Jutogh and one from Rampur), the Rn content
is generally found to be very high (12.3653.5 Bq/l).
The depletion of Rn in Manikaran thermal spring
may be due to its loss enroute to surface. Since this
spring is situated right over the thick riverbed
deposits (mostly gravel and coarse-grained sediments), the gas finds an easy escape before the hot
water reaches on surface resulting in high Soil Rn in
and around Manikaran. The nearby Kasol hot water
spring that is situated slightly off the riverbed, having
hardly any sediments/soil cover, however, shows
abnormally high Rn concentration (221.9653.8 Bq/l).

1169

The source of hot water in both cases is certainly

deep seated and is related to the Chail thrust system.
Thus, from the above observations we conclude that
the Rn content of springs may be a good indicator of
the underlying geology and depth of water circulation
versus the shallow depth local springs. Shallow springs
along the mountain slopes normally results from the
seepage of superficial water through the weathered
regolith or highly porous soil/sediments terraces. Under this condition radon gas would escape easily and
hence low radon would be encountered. In case of
deep-seated origin or the water circulating deeper into
the strata, the radon gas would remain dissolved in the
water under confining pressure for longer period.
Therefore, hill slope springs with high radon would
possibly indicate deep groundwater circulation. It may
be noted that in Himalayan terrain, different genetic
type of springs occur which may or may not be structurally controlled. Some are even related to local
geomorphologic features with shallow water circulation on the hill slopes. Rn study thus seem to be a
potential tool to distinguish such dubious nature of the
spring in hilly terrain provided the geological aspects
(such as faults, thrust, fractures, lithological and mineralization) are taken into account.
The soil radon values in Parvati valley is generally
high which may be controlled by the known presence of
uranium mineralization; this in turn is controlled by the
Chail thrust. These high values are particularly restricted around the Manikaran, Kullu and Bhuntar triangle. In addition to this, there are three more soil
samples in the studied area that shows considerably high
Rn content, viz., Handogi (S9), Mandi (S3) and Manali
(S31). While the Handogi and Mandi samples are
measured right above the thrust (Chail thrust), however,
the Manali sample is relatively away from the Vakrita
thrust to its north. Also, the nearby hot water spring w24
and a deep-water spring w22 near Manali also show
anomalously high radon. The shallow hand-pump sample (w23), however, shows expected low value. Therefore, some deep-seated structure (fault and thrust) and/
or uranium mineralization in this area are predictable.
Apart from this the rest of the soil samples show radon
concentration within 212 kBq/m3 irrespective of the
underlying rock types. We therefore infer that in relation to the structural and tectonic influence, the lithological control on Rn content is much less predominant
in case of soil-Rn . Thus a value of 10 kBq/m3 may be
considered as background in the area, which are many
folds higher than the worldwide soil gas average value.
Like Parvati valley, other quartzite terrains in lower
Himalaya normally show high radon (Choubey et al.
1997, 1999) due to the occurrence of sporadically dis-

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seminated uranium mineralization. In the present case

also the reported uranium mineralization east of ShutJari are hosted by quartzite. Thus, the observed high
radon in soil and also in deep spring water within
quartzite near Kasol and Manikaran further substantiate the possibility of uranium mineralization in this area.
Volcanic province is generally depleted in uranium and
radium concentration and hence the soilradon concentration should also be low. However, the high soil
radon values south of the Jari and Shat within volcanic
lithology may be attributed to the soil derived from the
upstream of Parvati valley catchments that are naturally
high in radioactive elements.

Conclusion
The observed concentration of radon both in soil and
water in this area is controlled by the presence of
uranium mineralization and associated different thrust
that help in easy escape of gases from the deeper part
of the crust. It has been also noticed that the coarse
sediment cover on valleys may deplete the radon
contents substantially through near surface de-emanation as observed in Manikaran thermal spring. The
lithological controls on radon content of the overlying
soil seem to be less prevalent compared to structural
and tectonic discontinuities. The enhancement may be
as much as order of magnitude higher than the normal
expected concentration within the same lithology.
Shallow handpumps normally show low Rn content but
may also show enhanced Rn concentration if situated
on thrust/faults, whereas deep springs normally show
relatively high radon concentration. Thus, the radon
measurements on spring may be useful in discriminating between deep-source and shallow superficial
springs in hilly terrain provided other influencing factors like uranium mineralization, fault, thrusts, and
sediment cover are accounted for.
Acknowledgment The authors (VMC & PKM) are thankful to
Director of Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun for
providing necessary facilities. The research work was partially
funded by DST sponsored project awarded to BSB and VW.

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