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in order to promote transparency and accountability in the working of every public authority,
and whereas the attached publication of the Bureau of Indian Standards is of particular interest
to the public, particularly disadvantaged communities and those engaged in the pursuit of
education and knowledge, the attached public safety standard is made available to promote the
timely dissemination of this information in an accurate manner to the public.
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Step Out From the Old to the New

Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan

Jawaharlal Nehru

IS 4880-3 (1976): Code of practice for design of tunnels

conveying water, Part 3: Hydraulic design [WRD 14: Water
Conductor Systems]

! $ ' +-
Satyanarayan Gangaram Pitroda

Invent a New India Using Knowledge

! > 0 B

BharthariNtiatakam

Knowledge is such a treasure which cannot be stolen

( Reaffirmed 2000 )

IS : 4886 (Part III) - 1976

Indian Standard
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR
-DESIGN OF TUNNELS CONVEYING
PART CII HYDRAUIJC

WATER

DESIGN

( First Revision)
Water Conductor

Systems Sectional

Committee,

BDC 58

Chaimaan
SHRI P. M. MANE

Ramalayam,

Peddar Road, Bombay 400026

Refiresenting
Public Works and Electricity Department, Government of Karnataka, Bangalore
&RI K. R. NARAYANARAO (Altimate)
Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board, Hyderabad
CHIEF ENGINEER (CIVIL)
SUPERINTENDINGENGII~EER
Members

SHRI S. P. BHAT

(DESIGN AND PLANNING) (AZBmate)

Kerala State Electricity Board, Trivandrum
C~EP ENGINEER(CIVIL)
SHRI K. RAMABHADRAN NAIR (Alternate)
Public Works Department, Government of Tamil
CHIEF ENGINEER(IRRIGATION)
Nadu, Madras
SUPERINTENDING
ENGINEER
(DESIGNS)(Alternate)
CHIEP ENGINEER(PROTECTAND
Tamil Nadu Electricitv Board, Madras
CONSTRUCTION)

.SUPERINTENDING
ENGINEER
ECHNICAL/&IL) (Al?, r;t&)
SHRIO?'
DATTA

DIRECTOR (HCD-I)

DEPUTV DIRECTOR (HCD-I)

DIRECTORIPRI
S-1

Beas Designs Organization, Nangal Township

Central Water Commission, New Delhi
(Alternate)
Irrigation
Department,
Chandigarh

H. L. SHARMA (Alternate)

SHRXR. G. GANDHI

Government

of Punjab,

Hindustan Construction Co Ltdt Bombay

SHRI R. K. JOSHI (Alternate)

DR S. P. GARG

Irrigation
Department,
Pradesh, Lucknow

Government

of

Uttar

(Continued on page 2)
Q Copyright
BUREAU

OF

INDIAN

1977
STANDARDS

This publication is protected under the Indian Copyright Act (XIV of 1957) and
reproduction in whole or in part by any means except with written permission of the
publisher shall be deemed to be an infringement of copyright under the said Act.

IS : 4880 (Fart 311)- 1976

(Cbn61ucdfrontpage 1)
I~epresertlirtg
&In bcrs
SIUU hf. S. JAIN
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta
&RI
N. K. MAND~AL (dllentate)
Ministry of Railways, New Delhi
JOINT DIKECTURS.PANDARDS
(SM)
DEPUTY DIRECTOR STANDARDS
(B & S)-1 (Alternate)
Irrigation Depar!ment,
Government
of hIallaSIIRI ]u. S. KAPRE
rtihtra, Bombay
SHRI_S. M. BHALERAO(iiben&)
National Projects Couslruction (Jorporatiou Ltd,
SHRI D. N. KOCHHAR
New Delhi
SHRI G. PARTHA~~RTHY (Alkmate)
Pate1 Engineering Co Ltd, Bombay
SHRI Y. G. PATEL
SHRI C. K. CWOKSHI(Alternate)
Assam State Electricity Board, Shillong
SHRI S. N. &XXAN
SHRI S. C. SEN (Alternate)
R. J. Shah & Co Ltd, Bombay
&RI A. R. &CHUR
Mysore Power Corporation Itd, Governmcut ol
SHRI S. R. S. SAsrRY
Karnataka, Bangalore
Irrigation Department,
Government
of Uttar
SHRI G. N. TANDON
Pradesh. Lucknow
Concrete Association of India, Bombay
SIIRI B. T. UNWALLA
S~IKIE. T. ANTIA (illiertzalc)
SlInr D. A~rrIi_4SIMIIA,
Director Gcncral:B_S (fix-o&cio Ahber)
DIRECTOR
(Civ Engg)
Secretary

SIIRI K. K. SIIARMA
Assistant Director (Civ Engg), BlS

l%wd for Design of Tunnels, BDC: 58 : 11

SiilU c. K.

Cbmet!e,rer

Pate1 Engineering Co Ltd, Bombay

CHOKSIiI

~Mzntbers
DR BHAWANISINCH
CHIEFENGINEER(IRKIGI\rION)
Du<bU.roR(HCD-I)
DEPUrY l1)IRECIOR (HO-I)
SIIRI

OM

PRAKASII

C;UP.rA

SIIIU hf. S. JAIN

SIIRI

R. P.

SING~I

SIIRI 13. S. KAPRE

SlfRI 0. I~.
SIIRI

A.

~ksII-I.~

I<. hICIIUR

(dllemale)

University of Roorkee, Roorbe

Public Works Department, Governmenl of lamil
Nadu, Madras
Central Water Commission, New Delhi
(li~lernale)
Irripalion
Der)artmcnt. Governmciit
of U I Iar
-Pradesh, I&know
Geological Survey OF India, C!alcutta
irrigation Department, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay
Beas Designs Organization, Naugal lownship
R. J. Shah & Co Ltd, Bombay

IS : 4880 (Part III) - 1976

Indian Standard
DESIGN

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR

OF TUNNELS CONVEYING
PART III
I.

HYDRAULIC

WATER

DESIGN

(Fkst Revision)
0.

FO R E W 0 R I)

0.1 This Indian Standard (Part III) (First Revision) was adopted by the
Indian Standards Institution on 24 July 1976, after the draft finalized
by the Water Conductor Systems Sectional Committee had been approved
by the Civil Engineering Division Council.
0.2 The Indian Standard Code of practice for design of tunnels conveying
water : Part III Hydraulic design was first published in 1968. This revision
has bccu taker) up with a view to keeping abreast with the technological
developments that have taken place in the field of tunnel design and conWitJi the confidence gained in the construction of a large number
struction.
of tunnels and the availability of concretes of higher strengths in the country,
the provisions of the code have been recommended for adoption for tunnels
carrying water at velocities up to 8 m/s without need for model studies. In
keeping with the practice, provision for limiting instant velocity during
surge oscillations has been cl&ted.
0.3 This standard has been published in
arc as follows :
Part I-1975
General design
Part II-1976
Geometric design
Part IV-1971
Structural design
Par1 v-1972
Structural &sign
soil
Par1 VI-1971
Iunnel supports
Part VU-1975
Structural design

parts.

Other parts of the standard

(@t revision)
of concrete lining in rock
of concrelc lining ill sofi strata and

of steel lining

0.3.1 This part covers recommendations in regard to the hydraulic design

of tunnels conveying water. These recommendations may be usccl for
tunnels carrying water at velocities up to 8 m/s. For tunnels carrying water
at velocities more than 8 m/s the design based on these recommendations
may have to be corroborated by hydraulic model studies.
0.4 This code of practice represents standard ofgood practice and, therefore,
takes the form of recommendation.
3

IS : 4880 (Part III) - 1976

0.5 In the formulation

of this standard due weightage has been given to

international
co-ordination
among the standards and practices prevailing
in different countries in addition to relating it to the practices in the field
in this country.
This has been met by referring to various publications
including the following :
United States of America,
Department
of the Interior and Bureau
of Reclamation.
Design of small dams.
Government
Printing
Office, Washington.
United States of America.
Department
of the Interior and Bureau
of Reclamation.
Engineering
monograph
No. 7, friction factors
for large conduits flowing full.
Government
Printing
Office,
Washington.
Brown (JG), Ed. Hydro-Electric
Engineering Practice, Vol I.Blackie
Son Ltd, Glasgow (by permission of the publisher).

&

1. SCOPE
1.1 This standard (Part III} covers the hydraulic design of tunnels conveying water under pressure or under free flow conditions.
This does not,
however, cover the hydraulic design of other tunnel structures.
2. GENERAL

CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 General -

For the hydraulic design, in most cases hydraulic gradient

shall be required.
However, in addition to hydraulic gradient in certain
locations, energy gradient, principles of momentum,
transient conditions
like water hammer, surges, etc, shall have to be considered.
Where air is
likely to be entrained because of high velocities, its effect due to bulking
should be considered.
Due consideration shall be given to maximum and
minimum levels at the head and tail end.
2.1.1 The factors which combine to determine the
tunnel include such variables as pressure head, slope,
surface roughness of the tunnel, and the inlet and
combined effect of these factors determines the location
turn determines the discharge
characteristics
of the
free flowing tunnels proper aeration shall be ensured.
be so designed that pulsating conditions are minimised.
of flow, expected variations in the friction factor shall

nature of flow in a
size, shape, length,
outlet shapes.
The
of control which in
tunnel.
In case of
The tunnel shall
In the calculation
be considered.

2.2 Obligatory Levels of Tunnel - In case of a pressure

of intake shall be such that no air is sucked in under any
location of outlet of a tunnel shall be such that the entry
adversely affect tunnel operation and safety provided that
tions for preventing air locks are taken (see 6).

tunnel the depth

condition.
The
of air would not
sufficient precau-

2.2.1 All tunnels should preferably have a positive gradient in the direction of flow, since they may have to be emptied and drained from time to time
4

IS : 4880 (Part III) - 1976

However, it may be borne
for the purpose of inspection and maintenance.
in mind that in a well designed and constructed tunnel there would be only
Gradients and depth shall be such that under
a little need of maintenance.
fluctuating
conditions,
including
transient
conditions,
there shall be no
possibility of air locks.
2.3 Cross
Section - The geometric
design of various sections
adopted for tunnels is covered in IS : 4880 (Part II)-1976.

usually

2.3.1 Area of cross section of a tunnel shall be of sufficient size to carry

the maximum required flow on the head available and in addition shall
conform to construction
requirements.
2.3.1.1
Tunnel dimensions and shape should be decided on the basis of
The following
economic studies so as to obtain a most economical section.
should be taken into account :
a) Velocity requirements,
b) Loss due to tunnel friction,
c) Interest charges on capital cost of tunnel,
d) Annual maintenance
charges,
e) Whether lined or unlined, and
f) Cost of gates and their hoists.
2.3.1.2
The tunnel diameter determined as a result of economic studies
should be examined from practical considerations,
such as space requirements for the excavating
equipment
and the section may be modified if
A minimum height of 2 m
necessary, based on the above considerations.
For mechanized handling of excavated material a minimum
is necessary.
section of 2.5 x 2.5 m is required.
NOTE- In sound rock the unit cost of excavation decreases as the diameter increases
to a point that permits the use of full sized shovel equipment, say up to 10 m in diameter.
In weak rock the unit cost may increase as the size increases owing to extra cost of supports.

2.4 Cavitation
- Design shall be such that negative pressures are avoided.
To make sure that cavitation is avoided and to allow for uncertainties,
the
residual positive pressure shall not be less than 3 m of water head in concrete
lined tunnels.
2.4.1 The recommended
limiting sub-atmospheric
pressures, based on
probable minimum atmospheric
pressures at different elevations above sea
ievel, are indicated in Fig. 1.
NOTE- In locations which are susceptible to effects of cavitation such as downstream

of gate slot, where there is a change of grade in high velocity floi~, etc, steel lining may be
considered.

3. TRANSITION

SHAPES

3.1 From the tunnel section, either entry into or exit from the tunnel requires
transition. to reduce the head losses to a minimum and to avoid cavitation.
The length and shape of the transition depends upon the velocity and flow
*Code
revtin).

of practice

for design of tunnels conveying water: Part II Geometric

design (first

IS : 4880

(Part II+1976

-4
ALLOWABLE

FIG. 1

5
SUBATMOSPHERIC

PRESSURE

7
IN METRES

OF WATER

ALLOWABLE SUBATMOSPHERICPRESSURESFOR VARIOIX

ELEVATIONS ABOVE SEA LEVEL

conditions prevailing in the tunnel, economics, construction limitations, etc.

It is recommended
that hvclraulic model studies are conducted to determine
an efficient and econoniical
transition.
The recommended
shapes for
entrance, contraction
or expansion and exit transitions for pressure tunnels
are given in 3.2 to 3.4.
However, for partly flowing tunnels the methods
of design shall be the same as for open channel transition.
3.2 Entrance - To minimize head losses an&to avoid zones where cavitation pressures may develop, the entrance to a pressure tunnel shallhe streamTo obtain best ink-t
lined to provide gradual and smooth changes in flow.
eIficiency the shape
entrance should simulate that of a jet discharging into
air and should guide and support the jet with minimum interference until
it is contracted
to the tunnel dimensions.
If the entrance
curve is too
sharp or too short, subatmospheric
pressure arcas which may induce cavitation, will develop.
A bellmouth
entrance Avhich conforms to or slightly
encroaches upon free jet profile will provide the best entrance shape.

of

3.2.1 For a circular tunnel the bellmouth shape may be approximated

by an elliptical entrance curve represented by the following equation :

x2
(0.5D)2

-I- &,=l
ci

IS : 4880 (Part III) - 1976

where x and y are co-ordinates and D is the diameter of the tunnel at
The x-axis of the elliptical entrance is
the end of entrance transition.
parallel to and at a distance of 0.65 0 from the tunnel centre line; y-axis
is normal to the tunnel centrc line and 0.5 D downstream from the entrance
face.
3.2.2 The jet issuing from a square or rectangular opening is not ar,
easily defined as one issuing from a circular opening; the top and bottom
curves may differ from the side curves both in length and curvature.
Consequently, it is more difficult to determine a transition which will eliminate
subatmospheric pressures. An elliptical curved entrance which will tend
to minimize the negative pressure effects may be defined by the following
equation :
-&+

(0.;;

0)

=I

where D is the vertical height of the tutmel for defining the top and bottom
curves, and also is the horizontal width of the tunnel for defining the side
curves. The major and minor axes~are positioned similar to those indicated
for the circular bellmouth in 3.2.1.
3.2.2.1 For a rectangular entrance with the bottom placed even with the
upstream floor and with curved guide piers at each side of the entrance
openings, both the bottom and side contractions will be suppressed
and a sharper contraction will take place at the top of the opening. For
this condition the top contraction curve may be defined by the following
equation :
g+

(0.6;2D)Z =

where D is the vertical height of the tunnel downstream from the entrance.
3.3 Contraction
and Expansion - To minimize head losses and to avoid
cavitation tendencies along the tunnel surfaces, contraction and expansion
transitions to and from gate control sections in a tunnel should be gradual.
For contractions, the maximum convergent angle should not exceed that
indicated by the relationship :

Wll.ElY?
L,=

lJ=
v and

n =
g=

angle of the tunnel wall surfaces with respect to its

centre line,
arbitrary

parameter

&
average of the velocities and diameters
beginning and end of the transition, and
acceleration due to gravity.
7

at

the

IS : 4660 (Part Ill)

- 1976

3.3.1 Expansion should be more gradual than contraction because of the

danger of cavitation where sharp changes in the side walls occur.
Furthermore, head loss coefficients for expansions increase rapidly after the angle 4
exceeds about IO. Expansion should be based on the following relationship :
1
tan 4

2u

The notations are the same as for equation given

tunnels, the angle < may not normally exceed 10.

in 3.3.

For

pressure

3.4 Exit - When a circular tunnel flowing partly full empties into a chute,
the transition from the circular section to one with a flat bottom may be
made in the open channel downstream from the tunnel portal, or it may
be made within the tunnel so that the bottom will be flat at the portal
Ordinarily,
the transition should be made by gradually decreasing
section.
the circular quadrants from full radius at the upstream end of the transition
For usual installations the length of the
to zero at the downstream end.
transition can be related to the exit velocity.
An empirical rule which may
be used to design a satisfactory
transition for velocities up to 6 m/s is as
follows:
L -2vD
-where
L =
v =
D =

length of transition in m,
exit velocity in m/s, and
tunnel diameter in m.

NOTE- For velocities higher than 6 m/s and depths greater than 5 m hydraulic model
studies are essential.

4. PREssuRE

FLOW LOSSES

factors for estimating

the friction losses
4.1 Friction Losses -Friction
For tunnels flowing full, friction
shall be based on actual field observations.
loss may be computed by the use of the formula given in 4.1.1 and 4.12.
4.1.11 Mannings Formula -

The formula

is given below :

where
V

R=
S=
n =

velocity

in m/s,

area
in m,
( wetted perimeter >
slope of energy gradient, and
roughness coefficient or rugosity coefficient.
hydraulic

radius

IS : 4880 (Part III) - 1976

4.1.1.1 For concrete lined
varies from 0.012 to O-018.

tunnels

the value of rugosity

coefficient

4.1.1.2
The value of rugosity coefficient n for use in the Mannings
formula for an unlined tunnel depends on the nature of the rock and the
quality of trimming, and is possibly influenced by the amount and distributian Qf overbreak.
Recommended
values of n for various rock smface
conditions are given below:

Surface Characteristic
Min
Very rough
Surface

trimmed

Surface

trimmed

and invert concreted

Max

0.04

0.06

0.025

0.035

0*020

0.030

NOTE - In a number of unlined tunnels the~roughness haF been experimentally determined by measuring discharges and friction losses or aerodynamically, data about which
are given in Appendix A which may be used for design purpose assuming the effective
area and overbreak.

4.1.2 Darcy Waisbach Formula -

The formula

is given below :

where
11, =
JL

.:-

n=_
I!
R

friction

headloss in m,

friction coefficient,
the length of the tunnel in m,
diamctcr

of the tunnel in m,

velocity of flow in the tunnel in m/s, and

-= acceleration due to gravity in m/3.

Nope L- The formula given above is superior to the other empirical formulae, such as
Bazin, Rehbock and Williams and Hazen because the friction factorfis dimensionless and
no fractional powers are involved. The friction coefficient depends on the Rayllolds
number and the relative roughness,

K;:
- where

KS is the equivalent sand grain roughness.

4.1.2.1 For lined tunnels the value ofJshal1 be computed in accordance

The values of Xs, the equivalent sand grain
with IS : 2951 (Part I)-1965.
roughness for concrete, may be adopted as below :
*Recommendations
for estimation of flow of liquids in closed conduits: Part I Head Ioss in
straight pipes due to frictional resistance.

IS : 4880 (Part IIl) - 1976

Surface Characteristics
Concrete Lining :
Unusually rough
Rough wood form work
Erosion of poor concrete
Poor alignment of joints
Rough
Eroded by sharp materials in transit
Marks visible from wooden forms
Spalling of laitance
Granular
Wood floated or brushed
dition-good
joints

0.4 to 0%

O.lC to o-4,

surface in good con-

New or fairly new-smooth

concrete
Steel forms-average
workmanship
Noticeable air voids on surface-smooth

joints

I
J

New-unusually
smooth concrete steel forms
0.015 to tYO6
-first
class workmanship
Smooth joints
>
NOTE - The value of KS for steel shall be taken from IS : 2951 (Part I)-1965*.

4.1.2.2 For unlined tunnels the value off depends on the variation in
cross-sectional
area obtained in the field as well as the direction of drivirlg
Tests in, mostly, granite
indicate
that the friction loss mify lx;
the tunnel.
estimated
by measuring
cross-sectional
areas at intwvals
and drtcrmmir,~
the value off by the following formula :

,f =1 0*002

57 6

where
6 =
A,,
AI

Ass ---A, icl()o

AI
area corresponding
area corresponding

to 99 percent Frequency,
to 1 percent frequency,

anIl

4.1.2.3
For tunnels of non-circular
cross-section
the diameter II in
4.1.2 shall be replaced by 4R, where R is the hydraulic mean raciills, 11~~
reading as follows:

*Recommendations
in straight

for estimation of flow of liquids in closed conduits:

pipes due to frictional

resistance.

10

Par1 I IIIYHI low

IS : 4880 (Part

I?.I) - 1976

4.1.3 For tunnels flowing partly full the head loss in friction shall be
computed by the method specified in IS : 4745-1968*.

4.2 Trash Rack Losses - Trash rack structure which consists of widely
i;>aced structural members without rack bars will cause very little head loss
and trash rack losses in such a case may be neglected in computing tunnel
losses. When the trash rack consists of a rack of bars, the loss will depend
on bar thickness, depth and spacing and shall be obtained from the Following
formula :
ht= E-t u
%

where
ht = trash rack head loss,
Xt = loss coefhcient for trash rack
1*45_0*45

Cl

an $
)
at
an - net area through trash rack bars,
at = gross area of the vent (racks and supports),
U = velocity in net area, and
= acceleration due to gravity.
s
_=

4.2.1 Where maximum loss values are desired, 50 percent of the rack area
shall be considered clogged. This will result in twice the velocity through
the trash rack. For minimum trash rack losses, the openings may not be
considered clogged when computing the ICAYS
coefficient or the loss may be
neglected entirely.
4.3 Entrance
cqua tion :

Losses

Entrance loss shall be computed by the following

h, z Ic, u?
%

where
he
K,
V

= head loss at entrance,

= loss coefficient for entrance,
=
velocity, and
= acceleration due to gravity.

4.3.1 Values of loss coefficient ,K, for various types of entrances shall be
assumed to be as given in Table 1.
4.4 Transition Losses - Head loss in gradual contractions or expansions
in a tunnel may be considered in relation to the increase or decrease in
velocity head and will vary according to the rate of change of area and
*Code of practice for designof cross-sectionof lined canals.
11

IS : 4880 (Part TII) - 1976

TABLE

LOSS

COEFFICIENT

FOR

TUNNEL

ENTRANCES

(clallre 4.3.1)
SL
No.

TYPE

(1)

Loss

ENTRANCE

OF

i) Gate in thin wall-unsuppressed

rontrartion
and side:

FOR

ENTRANCE,

Kp

*
Minimum

Average

(3)

(4)

(5)

I.80

1.00

1.50

h~aximum

(2)

ii) Gate in tbill wall-bottom

suppressed

COEFFICIENT

1.x

0.50

I.00

iii) Gate in thin wall-corners rounded

1.00

0.10

0.50

iv) Square-cornered

entrances

0.70

0.40

0.50

v) SIightly roundecEentranccs

0.60

0.18

0.25

0.27

0.08

0.10
0.05

vi) Fully rounded entrances

~.0.15

vii) Circular I~clln~outI~entrances

0.10

0.04

Square bellmouth entrances

0.20

0.07

0.16

ix) Inlvard projecting entrances

0.93

0.56

0.80

viii)

length of transition.
(Bart II)-1965*.
4.4.1

For

These losses shall be assumed as specified in IS : 2951

gradual

the following equation

contractions,

loss of head

he, shall

be computed

by

KC == loss coefficient for contraction,

vz = velocity in contracted section,
q
z velocity in normal section, and
g

acceleration

due to gravity.

4.4.1.1
The value of loss coefficient K, shall be assumed to vary from
0.1 for gradual contractions
to 0.5 for abrupt contractions.
Where flare
angle does not exceed those specified in 3.3 the loss coefficient shall be assumed to be 0.1.
For grca.ter flare angles the loss coefficient shall be assumed
to v;ry in straight lint rcla~tionship to a maximum of 0.5 for a right angle
contraction.
*Recommendations
in valves and fittings.

for estimation of flow of liquids in closed~conduits:

12

Part II Head loss

IS : 4880 (Part III) - I976

4.5 Bend and Junction Luss - Head loss at bends and junctions
assumed as given in IS : 2951 (Part II)-1965*.

shall be

4.6 Gate Loss in Pressure

Tunnels - ~NOgate loss need be assumed
if the velocity of flow is less than 1 m/s. Where a gate is mounted at either
the upstream or downstream side of a thin head wall such that the sides and
bottom ofjet are suppressed and the top is contracted, loss coefficients given
in item (ii) of Table 1 shall be taken. Where a gate is so mounted in a tunnel
that the floor, sides and the roof, both upstream and downstream, are
continuous with the gate openings, only the losses due to the slot shall be
considered as given below assuming the value of loss coefficient Ke not
exceeding 0.10 :

gate head loss,

loss coefficient for gate,
velocity, and
acceleration due to gravity.
4.6.1 For partly open gates Ae coefficient of loss will depend on top
contraction;
for smaller openings it will approach a value of I.0 as indicated
in item (ii) of Table 1.
4.6.2 For wide open gates value of loss coefficient shall be assumed to
be 0.19.
Similar to partly open gates, value of the loss coefficient
will
increase for smaller gate openings.
4.7 Exit Losses .- Where no recovery of velocity head will occur, such as
where the release from a pressure tunnel discharges fi-eely, or is submerged
or supported on a downstream floor, velocity head loss coefficient Ke, shall
be assumed to be equal to 1-O. IHead loss at exit shall be computed by the
Mowing
equation:

f1e+ -r;,,-where

4.7.1

h,,
Kex
II

=
=
=

exit head loss,

loss coefficient for exit,

acceleration

exit velocity,

2g

and
due to gravity.

Where a diverging tube is provided at the end of tunnel, recovery

of the velocity head will be obtained if the tube expands gradually

of a portion

*Recommendations for estimation of flow of liquids in closed conduits:

valves and fittings.

Part II FIead ioss in

r

13

Is : 4880 (Part *II) - 1976

and if the end of the tube is submerged, the loss coefficient &
reduced from the value of 1.0 by the degree of head recovery.

shall bc

5. VELOCITY
5.1 Average permissible velocity in a concrete lined tunnel may be about
6 m/s. For steel lined tunnels velocities as dictated by economic studies
shall be chosen. In case of river diversion tunnels and tunnel spillways
there may be no such limitations on the maximum permissible velocity,
however, the lining and its surface shall bc designed to withstand the velocities
which will occur.
5.1.1 Permissible velocities in tunnels of different surfaces (unlined, concrete lined, steel lined) also depend upon the sediment load carried by the
water. Where water carrying abrasive material in suspension and as bed
load is to be conveyed the permissible velocity should be reduced.
A recommended velocity is 2.3 m/s.
6. AIR LOCXING AND REMEDIAL
MEASURE
6.1 General - The presence of air in a pressure tunnel can IX a source of
grave nuisance as given below:
The localization of an air pocket at the high point in a tunnel or at
a change in slope which occasions a marked loss of head and diminution of discharge.
The slipping of a pocket of air in a tunnel and its rapid elimination
by an air vent can provoke a water hammer by reason of the impact
between two water columns.
The supply of emulsified water to a turbine affects its operation by
a drop in output and efficiency thus adversely affecting the operation
of generator.
The presence of air in a Pelton nozzle can be the
cause of water hammer shocks. Admission of air to a pump may
occasion loss of priming.
4 If the velocity exceeds a certain limit air would be entrained causing
bulking.
6.2 Source of Air .-- Air iuay cntcr and accumulate in a tmmcl by the
following means:
a) During filling, air may bc trapped along the crown at high points
or at changes in cross-sectional size or shape;
b) Air may be entrained at intake tither by vortex action or by means
of hydraulic jump associated with a partial gate opening; and
c) Air dissolved in the flowing water may come out of solution as a
result of decrease in pressure along the tunnel.
6.3 Remedial Measures -The
following steps arc recommended to
prevent the entry of air in a tunnel:
a) Shallow intakes are likely to induce air being sucked in. Through14

IS : 4880 (Part IIf) - 1976

out the tunnel the velocity should either remain constant or incrcasc
towards the outlet end. Itshould be checked that at no point on the
tunnel section negative pressures are developed.
b) Vortices that threaten to supply air to a tunnel should be avoided,
however, if inevitable they should be suppressed by floating baffles,
hoods or similar devices.
c) Partial gate openings that result in hydraulic jumps should be
avoided.
d) Traps or pockets along the crown should be avoided.
6.3.1 In some cases, such as secondary feeder shafts supplying a main
tunnel air entrance may appear inevitable.
In such cases de-aeration chamber with enlarged area should be provided so that no air enters the main
tunnel. Where possible it is advisable that such intakes are checked on
hydraulic models to ensure no entrance of air.

APPENDIX
(Note
VALUES
YL
No.

T&E

OF

ROCK

OF n FOR

THEORETICAL
-Area

(4

vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)

Granite-gneiss
Granite-gneiss
Granite-gneiss
Granite-gneiss
Gneiss-granite with
some diabase
Vein-gneiss
Arkose sand-storm
Arkose sand-stone
Upper sillurian
slate horizontally
stratified
Black slate with
granite intrusions

Hydrau-
lit
Radius
(R)

EXISTING

TUNNELS

ACTUAL
EFFECTIVE
-Area Hvdrau lit
Radius
(4)
(R,)

OVERBREAK

-A,
A:

Percent
(Volume)

MANNING'S
n

ms

30
50
50
30

1.46
1.85
1.85
1.45

33.8
57.4
61.5
35.9

1.54
2.09
2.16
I.62

1.128
1.15
1.23
1.20

12.7
14.8
23.0
19.6

0.035
0.034
0.030
0.038

60

2.00
0.59
1.53
168

64.0
3i.z
40.1

0%
164
1.74

167
1.32
1.21
1.13

6.6
32.0
-

0.027 0*
0.033 9*
0.038 1
0.038 t

105

2.74

114.3

2.88

1.088

8.9

8029 2*

70

2.24

80.5

2.42

1.15

15.1

0.043 7*

ma
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

ztnder Clause 4.1.1.2)

22.7
35.4

4*
3*
o*
4*

Calculated from the length of tunnel, the effective area and the hydraulic radius and
he observed friction head.
tCalculated from the length of tunnel, from actual area of tunnel and hydraulic radius of
quivalent circle.

15