A sculpture is created either by adding material to a core or removing it from a block.

In the
additive method, the sculptor builds up his work from the inside out in a soft material,
generally clay or wax; the clay is then hardened by firing, while the wax is destroyed when
the form is cast in bronze. The subtractive method is much more common in the late Middle
Ages.
Over half of the sculptures produced in the medieval period were carved from wood (Saint
Anthony Abbot, 1988.159). A standing figure was typically cut from a halved section of a
tree trunk, clamped horizontally in an adjustable workbench that allowed the block to be
rotated. Working from this angle, the sculptor was able to envision the figure in strong
foreshortening, much as the viewer would when the finished work was installed above eye
level; thus the sculptor could compensate for visual distortions by adjusting proportions and
modeling. After marking the contours of the figure on the block with calipers and compasses,
he roughed out the form with a variety of tools: two types of axes, curved and straight adzes
used in an overhand chopping motion, broad chisels, and mallets. The deeper recesses were
created with augers and hand-cranked borers. Various chisels and gouges were used for the
elaboration of forms, working from the highest point to the deepest. Certain parts of a figure,
such as hands, attributes, and protruding folds of a drapery, were carved separately and
attached to the figure with dowels. The backs of figures were normally hollowed out to
prevent the wood from cracking as it aged. The carvings were meticulously finished with
knives and scrapers, exploiting the contrast between broad, smooth areas and incisive
details. Last, decorative patterns were either appliqud or cut or pressed into the surface
with punches. Before a figure left the sculptor's workshop, the eyes and lips were often
tinted.

Equal mastery of wood and stone sculpture is a technical achievement, since the two
materials present different qualities (Virgin and Child, 1986.340). Stone is brittle because of
its crystalline structure, while wood is tougher because of its cellular structure. Although
stone breaks easily if dropped or struck, it offers greater resistance to precision cutting with
a chisel than wood does. The sculptor must therefore combine physical strength with a
steady hand, removing material little by little as he works toward the intended form.
Among the most engaging works of the later Middle Ages are carvings in alabaster, a
translucent sedimentary stone that varies in color from white to light beige (Christ on the
Road to Calvary, 1996.581; Saint John the Baptist, 1995.412). Extremely soft when first
quarried, this material allows a high degree of detail in carving. Fastened to a sculptor's
bench, it could be worked with much the same tools as used to carve wood. The stone could
be polished to a bright sheen, and was occasionally enhanced with paint and gilding.
Citation
Chapuis, Julien. "Late Medieval German Sculpture: Materials and Techniques". In Heilbrunn
Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grmn_2/hd_grmn_2.htm (October 2002)
Many medieval figures that were originally polychromed fell victim to the nineteenth-century
antipathy to color in sculpture, and were stripped of their decoration to reveal the bare

wood. The polychromy of wood sculpture, which was often not carried out in the sculptor's
workshop but left to painters, relied on much the same techniques as panel painting. A glue
sizing was applied to the wood to close the pores and prevent the absorption of paint media,
and knots and joints were covered with textile or plant fibers. The figure then received
several layers of a chalk-based ground, which served as a support for metal leaf and for
opaque and translucent layers of pigment. The painter could achieve highly illusionistic
effects, especially in the rendering of textiles and the treatment of flesh tones, which greatly
enhanced the immediacy of the sculpture. In the Baptism of Christ (12.130.1) by a pupil of
Veit Stoss, different types of gilding clarify the distinction between Christ's loincloth and his
tunic, and between the angel's tunic and wings. On the Saint Barbara (55.166), the blush on
the cheeks, the red lips, and pensive eyes all add dramatically to the sense of life.

The development of the graphic arts in Germany in the fifteenth century contributed to the
acceptance of uncolored sculpture. The final appearance of a commissioned sculpture was
specified in a contract, and the abandonment of polychromy cannot be attributed to artistic
license alone; economic factors (the application of paint and gilding was sometimes more
expensive than the carving itself) must also have informed a commissioner's decision. A
master such as Tilman Riemenschneider transcended the limitation of monochromy, relying
exclusively on his carving skills to achieve direct emotional appeal. The pensive face of his
Seated Bishop (1970.137.1) at once commands respect and conveys the wisdom of old age.
The drapery contains rich contrasts between florid and quiet passages, which create a
complex play of light and dark. Their broad tonal range brings to mind the subtleties of
Martin Schongauer's engravings, which Riemenschneider often took as a point of departure
for his own compositions.
Citation
Chapuis, Julien. "Late Medieval German Sculpture: Polychromy and Monochromy". In
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grmn_3/hd_grmn_3.htm (October 2002)