Chapter 6

FOURIER SERIES
Focus of Attention

Definition of Fourier Series

How to find the coefficients of
the terms in a Fourier Series?
What are odd and even
functions?
What is a Fourier Sine series?
What is a Fourier Cosine series?

Recall:
Infinite Sequences a list of an
infinitely many numbers written in a
specific order using the notation {uk }
with k 1, 2,3,...n, n 1,... . Thus, u1
is the first term, u2 is the second term,
Fourier series

un is the nth term and

un 1 is the

(n+1)th term.
Infinite Series the summation of the
terms in a sequence, i.e.

u
k 1

u1 u2 u3 ... un un 1 ...

6.1Basic concepts
Why are Fourier Series important?
Fourier Series are important as it can
approximate discontinuous functions
and periodic functions.

Fourier series

Definition of Fourier series

A Fourier Series is an infinite series of
sine and cosine terms of the form
a0
a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3 x ... an cos nx ... b1 sin x b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3 x ...
2
bn sin nx ...
f ( x)

Terminology

a0
2

- constant term

a1 cos x b1 sin x. - fundamental components or

first harmonic
Remaining terms are called harmonics:

a2 cos 2 x b2 sin 2 x is called the

second harmonic

a3 cos 3 x b3 sin 3x is called the third

harmonic, etc..

Fourier series

A function f (x) is said to have period P if

f (x + P) = f (x) for all x.
The period of the function f (x) is the interval
between two successive repetitions.
Examples of Periodic Functions
1.

f(t)=sin t

For f(t)=sin t , we have: f(t)=f(t+2) . The

period is 2.
2. Saw tooth waveform, period =2.

Fourier series

For this function, we have:

f(t)=3t
(for 1 t < 1)
f(t)=f(t+2) [This expression indicates it is
periodic with period 2 .]
3.

Parabolic, period =2 .

For this function, we have:

f(t)=t 2 (for 0t<2 )
f(t)=f(t+2) [Indicating it is periodic with
period 2.]

Fourier series

4. Square wave, period = 4.

For this function, we have:

f(t)= 3 for 1t<1
3 for 1t<3
f(t)=f(t+4) [The period is 4.]
NOTE: In this example, the period p=4 . We
can write this as 2L=4.

A periodic waveform f (x) of period p=2L has

a Fourier Series given by:

With
Fourier series

a0

1
f ( x)dx
L L

Example 6.1a: Approximating a

sawtooth waveform
A sawtooth waveform is periodic and
the graph is given below, Figue 6.1a(i):

3
x

Fourier series

The sawtooth waveform can be

approximated by the series
2
1
y 2 sin t sin 2t sin 3t sin 4t .
3
4

See Figure 6.1a(ii).

Fourier series

3
2
1
-10

-5

5
x

10

-1
-2
-3

Figure 6.1a(ii)

However, if we take more terms then

the graph of the series will look more
and more like the sawtooth waveform,
see Figure 6.1a(iii).
2
1
2
1
2
1
y 2sin t sin 2t sin 3t sin 4t sin 5t sin 6t sin 7t sin8t
3
2
5
3
7
4
2
1
2
1
sin 9t sin10t sin11t sin12t ...
9
5
11
6

Fourier series

3
2
1
-10

-5

5
x

10

-1
-2
-3

Figure 6.1a(iii)
Example6.1b: Approximating a
discontinuous function
y cos x is a discontinuous function. It

can be approximated by the Fourier Series

2
2
2

y 1 cos 2 x cos 4 x .

3
15

Fourier series

10

However,

2
2
2

cos
2
x

cos
4
x

3
15

is a

continuous function and can be analysed

easily.
Figure 6.1b(i) is the graph of y cos x ,
meanwhile Figure 6.1b(ii) is the graph of
y

2
2
2

1 cos 2 x cos 4 x

3
15

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

y cos x

0.2

-4

-2

Figure 6.1b(i)

Fourier series

11

2
2
2

1 cos 2 x cos 4 x

3
15

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
-4

-2

Figure 6.1b(ii)
We can superimpose the two graphs and
see how the two graphs fit closely

Fourier series

12

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-3

-2

-1

-0.2

Figure 6.1b(iii)

Thus we can now conclude that for a

specific number of terms,
y

2
2
2

cos
2
x

cos
4
x
can

3
15

approximate the behaviour of

Fourier series

y cos x

13

However, to begin with, we will be

focusing on finding the Fourier Series of
periodic functions of period

Fourier series

only.

14

6.2 Definition of Periodic Function

f ( x) is

periodic if

f ( x p ) f ( x)

for all real

numbers x. The smallest positive

number p is called the period of f.
So, if f ( x 2 ) f ( x) then the
function has a period of

Periods of Fourier series

If the terms a1 cos x b1 sin x has a
period

, this means that

The whole series repeat every

radians

Fourier series

15

 Thus, we can study only one cycle:

(0, 2 ) or ( , ) as a

representative of the whole series.

Note: The Fourier Series is an infinite
series but we usually use only a few
terms for computation.

Fourier series

16

A periodic waveform f (x) of period

p=2L has a Fourier Series given by:

with
L

1
a0 f ( x)dx
L L

1
nx
a n f x cos
dx,
L L
L
L
1
nx
bn f x sin
dx,
L L
L
L

( n 1,2,3, ),
( n 1,2,3, ),

a0, an and bn are called the coefficients of f(x).

The interval L <x< L is the fundamental
interval.
Do example 6.1

Fourier series

17

6.3 Finding the coefficients of

Fourier Series:

Fourier series

18

A periodic function f ( x) defined on the

interval x , can be replaced
with the Fourier series
a
f ( x) 0 a1 cos x b1 sin x a2 cos 2 x b2 sin 2 x a3 cos3x ... an cos nx ...
2
b3 sin 3x ... an cos nx bn sin nx ...

Another way of representing the Fourier

Series is by using the notation for
summation:
a0
f ( x) an cos nx bn sin nx
2 n 1

where

f ( x)

is a periodic function

defined on the interval x and

n 1, 2,3,...

where
Fourier series

a0

f ( x)dx

(1)
19

an
bn

Fourier series

f ( x) cos nxdx

f ( x) sin nxdx

(2)
(3)

20

Example 2
Given the function,

f ( x ) x,

(a) If f ( x 2 ) f ( x) , sketch the

graph of the function for

3 x 3 .
(b) Find the first four terms of the
Fourier series expansion.
Solution:
(a) Sketch the basic graph

f ( x) x, x . Since f ( x) is
periodic, the basic graph is repeated
every 2 radians. So

Fourier series

21

f ( x) x, 3 x 3 looks like the

following:

3
x

(b) Find
a0

f ( x ) dx

a0 , an , bn

x dx

a0

1 x2
1 2
1 2

0

2
2
2

1
an f ( x) cos nx dx

Fourier series

22

an

x cos nxdx

Solve using integration by parts:

u dv uv v du
ux

du dx
sin nx
v
n

dv cos nx dx
ao

1
=

1
1
an x cos nxdx

x sin nx
n

sin nx
1 cos nx

dx
2

n
n

1
bn f ( x ) sin nx dx

Using integration by parts:

Fourier series

23

1
1 x cos nx
bn x sin nxdx


n

cos nx
1 x cos nx
sin
nx

dx
2

n
n
n

2 cos n 2(1) n
bn

n
n
Note:

sin( x) sin x; sin n 0

cos( x) cos x; cos n (1) n
Thus the first four terms of the Fourier
Series are:

2
1
f ( x) 2sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x ...
3
2

Fourier series

24

Fourier series

25

Example 3:
Given the function,
,1 x 0
f ( x)
x, 0 x

(a) If f ( x 2 ) f ( x) , sketch the

graph of the function for

3 x 3

(b) Find the first four terms of the

Fourier series expansion..
Solution:
(a) Sketch the graph for the period
x . Since it is periodic,

the basic shape is repeated for

Fourier series

26

every phase 2 . Note that it is a

piecewise function as it made up of
two different functions defined in
its respective domains.
y

3 2

(b) Find

2 3

a0 , an , bn

Since two equations describe f(x), we

will need two separate integrals to find a
or b:
Fourier series

27

a0

an

an

f ( x)dx (1))dx ( x)dx

f ( x) cos nxdx

(1) cos nxdx

bn

bn

( x) cos nxdx
0

f ( x) sin nxdx

(1) sin nxdx

Fourier series

( x) sin nxdx

28

6.4 Fourier Series of Even and Odd

functions
6.4.1 Characteristics of Even functions

Functions that are symmetric about the

yaxis

f ( x) f ( x)

( x, y )

is on the graph if and only if

( x, y )

is

also on the graph.

Examples:
(1)

y x2

(2)

y x4

Fourier series

29

y
250
200
150
100
50
-4

(3)

-2

y cos x

0.5

-4

-2

-0.5
-1

Fourier series

30

6.4.2 Characteristics of Odd

Functions
Functions that are symmetric to the
origin

f ( x) f ( x)

( x, y )

is on the graph if and only if

x, y is also on the graph.

Examples:
(1)

y mx

Fourier series

31

(2)

y x3

0
x

(3)

y sin x

Fourier series

32

Mathematical facts
l

Even function: l
Odd function:

f ( x)dx 2

l
l

l
0

f ( x)dx

f ( x)dx 0

Theorem 6.4
Basic characteristics of Combination
Even and Odd functions
Even Even Even
Even Odd Neither even or odd
Odd Odd Odd
Even Even Even
Even Odd Odd
Odd Odd Even
Fourier series

33

6.2.2 Fourier series of even and odd

functions
Theorem 6.6: Fourier series for even
functions
If f(x) is an even function in the interval
x , then the Fourier Series has only

cosine terms with possibly a constant term, given

by:

2
a0 f ( x )dx
0
2
an f ( x)cos nx dx n = 1,2,3,
0

bn 0

Fourier series

n = 1,2,3,

34

Thus, the Fourier series for an even

function is

a0
f ( x) an cos nx
2 n 1

Fourier series

35

Theorem 6.7: Fourier series for odd

functions
If f(x) is an odd function in the interval
x , then the Fourier Series has

only sine terms and no constant term,

given by:
a0 0 and an 0 for n = 1,2,3,
2
bn f ( x ) sin nx dx
0

n = 1,2,3,

Thus, the Fourier Series for an odd

function is

f ( x ) bn sin nx
n 1

Fourier series

36

Exercises 6.1
For each the following questions 1- 6,
(a) If

f ( x 2 ) f ( x)

3 x 3

, sketch the graph of

f (x)

for

(b) State whether the function is odd, even or

neither even nor odd.
(c) Find the first four terms of the Fourier
Series.
1)

f ( x ) 1 x,

2)

f ( x)

x2 ,
4

x 0

0 x

3) f (x) 2
4)

f ( x) x

0 x 0
5) f (x)
cos x 0 x
6)

f ( x) 2 x

Fourier series

37

6.5 Fourier Series with a period of L (over any

range)
A periodic function f ( x) has a period L if
f ( x L) f ( x ) for all real numbers x.

To find a Fourier Series for a function in the range

of

L
L
x ,
2
2

we introduce a new variable, u, such

that f (u ) has a period of 2.

If u

2 x
L
then when x ,
2
L

And if

L
x ,
2

Lu
F (u )
2

Then If f ( x) f

The Fourier Series for

F (u )

is given by:

F (u ) a0 an cos nu bn sin nu
n 1

where

Fourier series

38

1
a0
2

1
an

F (u ) du

F (u ) cos nu du

1
and bn

F (u )sin nu du

But, we can change the formula in terms of x since

u

2 x
2
then du dx and the limits are from
L
L

L
L
x instead of
2
2

x .

Hence the Fourier Series can be expressed in terms

of x and is given by:
2 nx
2 nx
f ( x) a0 an cos
bn sin

L
L

n 1

where
a0

Fourier series

1
L

L
2

L
2

f ( x ) dx ;

39

an

2
L

2
bn
L

L
2

L
2

L
2

L
2

2 nx
dx
L

f ( x ) cos

and

2 nx
f ( x) sin
dx
L

The limits of integration may be replaced by

any interval of length L, such as from

0 to L .

Example 4: The voltage from a square wave

generator is of the form:
0,
10,

v(t )

4 t 0
0t 4

and has a period 8

ms.
Find the Fourier series for this periodic
function.
Solution:

Fourier series

40

The graph of the square wave is

10

0
8

Period L is 8 ms

The Fourier Series of the square wave is:

2 nt
2 nt
v(t ) a0 an cos

b
sin
n

L
L

n 1

1
a0
L

L
2

L
2

L
2

1
1
1
1
1
4
f ( x) dx v (t ) dt v(t ) dt then a0 0 dt 10 dt 10t 0 5
L L
8 4
8 4
80
8

Fourier series

41

L
2

2
2 nt
2 nt
v
(
t
)
cos
dt

v
(
t
)
cos

dt
L

8 4
8
L

2
an
L

1
1
2 nt
2 nt
an 0 cos
dt 10 cos
dt
4 4
8
4
8

0
0

nt
10sin

4
n

1

4

10
sin n sin 0 0; n 1, 2, 3,...
n

L
2

2
2 nt
2 nt
L v(t ) sin L dt 8 4 v(t ) sin 8 dt

2
bn
L

1
1
2 nt
2 nt
bn 0sin
dt

10sin

dt

4 4
40
8
8

nt

10
cos

1
10
4

cos n cos 0 ; n 1, 2,3,...
4

n
n

4
0
When n is even, bn 0

10
20
1 1

10
20
b3 1 1
3
3
10
20
b5 1 1
5
5

When n is odd, b1

And so on.
Fourier series

42

v(t ) 5

20
1 3
1
t
t
5 t
sin

sin

sin

...

3
5
4
4
4

Exercises 6.2: Fourier Series over any range L

Fourier series

43

 0;
5;

1) The voltage from a square wave generator is of the form v (t )

10 x 0
.
0 x 10

It has a period os 20. Sketch the function. Show that the Fourier Series is given by:
v(t )

5 10
1 3
1
t
t
5 t
sin sin
sin
...
2
3 10
5
10

10

2) Determine the first four terms of the Fourier Series for the function f (t ) t in the range
t 0 to t 3. Sketch the function.
3

2 t

[Ans: f (t ) sin
sin
2
2
3
3

4 t
1
6 t
sin
... ]
3
3
3

3) Obtain the first four terms of the Fourier Series for the function defined by:
0;

f ( x) 5;
0;

2 x 1
1 x 1
1 x 2

Sketch the function and determine whether it is even, odd or neither.

5 10
1 3 x
1
x
5 x
cos
cos
cos
...

2
3
2
5
2
2

[Ans: f ( x)

Fourier series

44