1) Swap two variables without using third variable.

a=b+a;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;
2) What is difference between pass by value and pass by
reference?
In c we can pass the parameters in a function in two different ways.
(a)Pass by value: In this approach we pass copy of actual variables in
function as a parameter. Hence any modification on parameters inside the
function will not reflect in the actual variable. For example:
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=5,b=10;
swap(a,b);
printf("%d
%d",a,b);
return 0;
}
void swap(int a,int b){
int temp;
temp =a;
a=b;
b=temp;
}
Output: 5 10
(b)Pass by reference: In this approach we pass memory address actual
variables in function as a parameter. Hence any modification on
parameters inside the function will reflect in the actual variable. For
example:
#incude<stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=5,b=10;
swap(&a,&b);
printf("%d %d",a,b);
return 0;
}
void swap(int *a,int *b){
int *temp;
*temp =*a;
*a=*b;
*b=*temp;
}
Output: 10 5

3) What is and why array in c?

Explanation:
An array is derived data type in c programming language which can store
similar type of data in continuous memory location. Data may be primitive
type (int, char, float, double), address of union, structure, pointer,
function or another array.
Example of array declaration:
int arr[5];
char arr[5];
float arr[5];
long double arr[5];
char * arr[5];
int (arr[])();
double ** arr[5];
Array is useful when:
(a) We have to store large number of data of similar type. If we have large
number of similar kind of variable then it is very difficult to remember
name of all variables and write the program. For example:
//PROCESS ONE
int main(){
int ax=1;
int b=2;
int cg=5;
int dff=7;
int am=8;
int raja=0;
int rani=11;
int xxx=5;
int yyy=90;
int p;
int q;
int r;
int avg;
avg=(ax+b+cg+dff+am+raja+rani+xxx+yyy+p+q+r)/12;
printf("%d",avg);
return 0;
}
If we will use array then above program can be written as:
//PROCESS TWO
int main(){
int arr[]={1,2,5,7,8,0,11,5,50};
int i,avg;
for(int i=0;i<12;i++){
avg=avg+arr[i];

}
printf("%d",avg/12);
return 0;
}
Question: Write a C program to find out average of 200 integer
number using process one and two.
(b) We want to store large number of data in continuous memory location.
Array always stores data in continuous memory location.
What will be output when you will execute the following program?
int main(){
int arr[]={0,10,20,30,40};
char *ptr=arr;
arr=arr+2;
printf("%d",*arr);
return 0;
}
Advantage of using array:
1. An array provides singe name .So it easy to remember the name of all
element of an array.
2. Array name gives base address of an array .So with the help increment
operator we can visit one by one all the element of an array.
4) How to add two numbers without using the plus operator in c
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int a,b;
int sum;
printf("Enter any two integers: ");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
//sum = a - (-b);
sum = a - ~b -1;
printf("Sum of two integers: %d",sum);
return 0;
}

Sample output:
Enter any two integers: 5 10
Sum of two integers: 15
Algorithm:
In c ~ is 1's complement operator. This is equivalent to:
~a = -b + 1
So, a - ~b -1
= a-(-b + 1) + 1
=a+b1+1
=a+b
5) Bubble sorting algorithm
for(i=s-2;i>=0;i--){
for(j=0;j<=i;j++){
if(a[j]>a[j+1]){
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}
printf("After sorting: ");
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
printf(" %d",a[i]);
return 0;
}
6) Fibonacci series:
printf("Enter the number range:");
scanf("%d",&r);
printf("FIBONACCI SERIES: ");
printf("%ld %ld",i,j); //printing firts two values.
for(k=2;k<r;k++){
f=i+j;
i=j;
j=f;
printf(" %ld",j);
}
return 0;
}

Sample output:
Enter the number range: 15
FIBONACCI SERIES: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Output:
Enter total numbers of elements: 5
Enter 5 elements: 6 2 0 11 9
After sorting: 0 2 6 9 11
7) differences between structures and arrays
The following are the differences between structures and arrays:
- Array elements are homogeneous. Structure elements are of different
data type.
- Array allocates static memory and uses index / subscript for accessing
elements of the array. Structures allocate dynamic memory and uses (.)
operator for accessing the member of a structure.
- Array is a pointer to the first element of it. Structure is not a pointer
- Array element access takes less time in comparison with structures.
8) Explain the meaning of "Segmentation violation".
Segmentation violation usually occurs at the time of a programs attempt
for accessing memory location, which is not allowed to access. The
following code should create segmentation violation.
main() {
char *hello = Hello World;
*hello = h;
}
At the time of compiling the program, the string hello world is placed in
the binary mark of the program which is read-only marked. When loading,
the compiler places the string along with other constants in the read-only
segment of the memory. While executing a variable *hello is set to point
the character h , is attempted to write the character h into the memory,
which cause the segmentation violation. And, compiler does not check for
assigning read only locations at compile time.
9) Floyds Triangle
#include<stdio.h>

int main(){

int i,j,r,k=1;
printf("Enter the range: ");
scanf("%d",&r);
printf("FLOYD'S TRIANGLE\n\n");
for(i=1;i<=r;i++){
for(j=1;j<=i;j++,k++)
printf(" %d",k);
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Sample output:
Enter the range: 10
FLOYD'S TRIANGLE
1
23
456
7 8 9 10
11 12 13
16 17 18
22 23 24
29 30 31
37 38 39
46 47 48

14
19
25
32
40
49

15
20
26
33
41
50

21
27
34
42
51

28
35 36
43 44 45
52 53 54 55

10) Pascals Triangle

#include<stdio.h>
long fact(int);
int main(){
int line,i,j;
printf("Enter the no. of lines: ");
scanf("%d",&line);
for(i=0;i<line;i++){
for(j=0;j<line-i-1;j++)
printf(" ");
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
printf("%ld ",fact(i)/(fact(j)*fact(i-j)));
printf("\n");
}

return 0;
}
long fact(int num){
long f=1;
int i=1;
while(i<=num){
f=f*i;
i++;
}
return f;
}
Sample output:
Enter the no. of lines: 8
1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
11) What are the different storage class specifiers in C?
There are 4 storage class specifiers in C, out of which auto and static act
as storage classes as well. So, the storage class specifiers are:

Auto
Register

Static

Extern

12) What are static functions? What is their use in C?

In the C programming language, all functions are global by default.
Therefore, to make a function static, the static keyword is used before
the function. Unlike the global functions, access to static functions in C is
restricted to the file where they are declared.
The use of static functions in C are:

to make a function static

to restrict access to functions

to reuse the same function name in other file

13) What is the size of void pointer in C?

Whether its char pointer, function pointer, null pointer, double pointer,
void pointer or any other, the size of any type of pointer in C is of two
byte. In C, the size of any pointer type is independent of data type.
14) What are the differences between Structure and Unions?
1. Every member in structure has its own memory, whereas the
members in a union share the same member space.
2. Initialization of all the member at the same time is possible in
structures but not in unions.
3. For the same type of member, a structure requires more space than
a union.
4. Different interpretations of the same memory space is possible in
union but not in structures.
15) Differences Between C and C++ :
C

C++

1. C is Procedural Language.

1. C++ is non Procedural i.e

Object oriented Language.

2. No virtual Functions are present in C

2. The concept of virtual

Functions are used in C++.

3. In C, Polymorphism is not possible.

3. The concept of polymorphism

is used in C++.
Polymorphism is the most
Important Feature of OOPS.

4. Operator overloading is not possible 4. Operator overloading is one of

in C.
the greatest Feature of C++.
5. Top down approach is used in
Program Design.

5. Bottom up approach adopted

in Program Design.

6. Namespace Feature is present

6. No namespace Feature is present in
in C++ for avoiding Name
C Language.
collision.
7. Multiple Declaration of global
variables are allowed.

7. Multiple Declaration of global

varioables are not allowed.

8. In C
scanf() Function used for Input.

8. In C++
Cin>> Function used for
Input.

printf() Function used for output.

9. Mapping between Data and

Cout<< Function used for

output.

9. Mapping between Data and

Function is difficult and complicated.

Function can be used using

"Objects"

10. In C, we can call main() Function

through other Functions

10. In C++, we cannot call

main() Function through other
functions.

11. C requires all the variables to be

defined at the starting of a scope.

11. C++ allows the declaration

of variable anywhere in the scope
i.e at time of its First use.

12. No inheritance is possible in C.

12. Inheritance is possible in C+

+

13. In C, malloc() and calloc()

Functions are used for Memory
Allocation and free() function for
memory Deallocating.

13.In C++, new and delete

operators are used for Memory
Allocating and Deallocating.

14. It supports built-in and primitive

data types.

14. It support both built-in and

user define data types.

15. In C, Exception Handling is not

present.

15. In C++, Exception Handling

is done with Try and Catch block.

16) What is the difference between calloc() and malloc() ?

calloc(...) allocates a block of memory for an array of elements of a certain
size. By default the block is initialized to 0. The total number of memory
allocated will be (number_of_elements * size).
malloc(...) takes in only a single argument which is the memory required
in bytes. malloc(...) allocated bytes of memory and not blocks of memory
like calloc(...).
malloc(...) allocates memory blocks and returns a void pointer to the
allocated space, or NULL if there is insufficient memory available.
calloc(...) allocates an array in memory with elements initialized to 0 and
returns a pointer to the allocated space. calloc(...) calls malloc(...) in order
to use the C++ _set_new_mode function to set the new handler mode.
17) What is the difference between strings and character arrays?
A major difference is: string will have static storage duration, whereas as a
character array will not, unless it is explicity specified by using the static
keyword.
Actually, a string is a character array with following properties:
* the multibyte character sequence, to which we generally call string, is
used to initialize an array of static storage duration. The size of this array
is just sufficient to contain these characters plus the terminating NUL
character.

* it not specified what happens if this array, i.e., string, is modified.

* Two strings of same value[1] may share same memory area.
18) What is a pointer?
Pointer is a variable that contains address of another variable in the
memory. Pointers are quite useful in creation of linked data structures
(such as linked lst, trees graphs), managing object allocated memory
dynamically, optimize the program to execute faster and use less memory
19) What are macros? What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
Macro is a Pre-processor.Major advantage of using the macro is to increase
the speed of the execution of the program.
Major disadvantage of the macros are:
(i) No type checking is performed in macro. This may cause error.
(ii) A macro call may cause unexpected results.

20) Differentiate between a for loop and a while loop? What are it
uses?
For executing a set of statements fixed number of times we use for loop
while when the number of
iterations to be performed is not known in advance we use while loop

21) What are the uses of a pointer?

(i)It is used to access array elements
(ii)It is used for dynamic memory allocation.
(iii)It is used in Call by reference
(iv)It is used in data structures like trees, graph, linked list etc

22) Difference between formal argument and actual argument?

Formal arguments are the arguments available in the function
definition. They are preceded by their own data type. Actual arguments
are available in the function call. These arguments are given as
constants or variables or expressions to pass the values to the
function.
23) What are different methods of collision resolution in hashing.
A collision occurs whenever a key is mapped to an address that is already
occupied. Collision Resolution technique provides an alternate place in

hash table where this key can be placed. Collision Resolution technique
can be classified as:
1) Open Addressing (Closed Hashing)
a) Linear Probing
b) Quadratic Probing
c) Double Hashing
2) Separate Chaining (Open Hashing)
24) Describe binary tree and its property.
In a binary tree a node can have maximum two children, or in other words
we can say a node can have 0,1, or 2 children.
Properties of binary tree.
1) The maximum number of nodes on any level i is 2i where i>=0.
2) The maximum number of nodes possible in a binary tree of height h is
2h-1.
3) The minimum number of nodes possible in a binary tree of height h is
equal to h.
4) If a binary tree contains n nodes then its maximum possible height is n
and minimum height possible is log2 (n+1).
5) If n is the total no of nodes and e is the total no of edges then e=n1.The tree must be non-empty binary tree.
6) If n0 is the number of nodes with no child and n2 is the number of nodes
with 2 children, then n0=n2+1.
25) What are different application of stack.
Some of the applications of stack are as follows:
-

Function calls.
Reversal of a string.
Checking validity of an expression containing nested parenthesis.
Conversion of infix expression to postfix.

26) What is Data Structure?

- Data structure is a group of data elements grouped together under one
name.

- These data elements are called members. They can have different types
and different lengths.
- Some of them store the data of same type while others store different
types of data.
27) What is a queue ?
- A Queue refers to a sequential organization of data.
- It is a FIFO type data structure in which an element is always inserted at
the last position and any element is always removed from the first
position

28) What is a postfix expression?

- It is an expression in which each operator follows its operands.
- Here, there is no need to group sub-expressions in parentheses or to
consider operator precedence

29) Quick sort employs the divide and conquer concept by dividing the
list of elements into two sub elements
The process is as follows:
1. Select an element, pivot, from the list.
2. Rearrange the elements in the list, so that all elements those are less
than the pivot are arranged before the pivot and all elements those are
greater than the pivot are arranged after the pivot. Now the pivot is in its
position.
3. Sort the both sub lists sub list of the elements which are less than the
pivot and the list of elements which are more than the pivot recursively.
Merge Sort: A comparison based sorting algorithm. The input order is
preserved in the sorted output. Run time is T(n log n).
Merge Sort algorithm is as follows:
1. The length of the list is 0 or 1, and then it is considered as
sorted.
2. Other wise, divide the unsorted list into 2 lists each about
half the size.
3. Sort each sub list recursively. Implement the step 2 until the
two sub lists are sorted.
4. As a final step, combine (merge) both the lists back into one
sorted list.

30)Bubble Sort: The simplest sorting algorithm. It involves the sorting

the list in a repetitive fashion. It compares two adjacent elements in the
list, and swaps them if they are not in the designated order. It continues
until there are no swaps needed. This is the signal for the list that is
sorted. It is also called as comparison sort as it uses comparisons.
Quick Sort: The best sorting algorithm which implements the divide and
conquer concept. It first divides the list into two parts by picking an
element a pivot. It then arranges the elements those are smaller than
pivot into one sub list and the elements those are greater than pivot into
one sub list by keeping the pivot in its original place.
31) What is the difference between a stack and a Queue?
Stack Represents the collection of elements in Last In First Out order.
Operations includes testing null stack, finding the top element in the
stack, removal of top most element and adding elements on the top of the
stack.
Queue - Represents the collection of elements in First In First Out order.
Operations include testing null queue, finding the next element, removal
of elements and inserting the elements from the queue.
Insertion of elements is at the end of the queue
Deletion of elements is from the beginning of the queue.
32) Explain in brief a linked list.
A linked list a linear arrangement of data. It allows the programmer to
insert data anywhere within the list. The pointer of the list always points
to the first node and can be moved programmatically to insert, delete or
update any data. Each node in the list contains a data value and the
address or a reference to the adjoining node. A linked list is a dynamic
data structure. It consists of a sequence of data elements and a reference
to the next record in the sequence. Stacks, queues, hash tables, linear
equations, prefix and post fix operations. The order of linked items is
different that of arrays. The insertion or deletion operations are constant
in number.
33) Define a linear and non linear data structure.
Linear data structure: A linear data structure traverses the data
elements sequentially, in which only one data element can directly be
reached. Ex: Arrays, Linked Lists
Non-Linear data structure: Every data item is attached to several other
data items in a way that is specific for reflecting relationships. The data
items are not arranged in a sequential structure. Ex: Trees, Graphs

34) Which data structure is applied when dealing with a recursive

function?
Recursion, which is basically a function that calls itself based on a
terminating condition, makes use of the stack. Using LIFO, a call to a
recursive function saves the return address so that it knows how to return
to the calling function after the call terminates

35) What are multidimensional arrays?

Multidimensional arrays make use of multiple indexes to store data. It is
useful when storing data that cannot be represented using a single
dimensional indexing, such as data representation in a board game, tables
with data stored in more than one column.
36) What is Data abstraction?
Data abstraction is a powerful tool for breaking down complex data
problems into manageable chunks. This is applied by initially specifying
the data objects involved and the operations to be performed on these
data objects without being overly concerned with how the data objects will
be represented and stored in memory.

37) What is an AVL tree?

An AVL tree is a type of binary search tree that is always in a state of
partially balanced. The balance is measured as a difference between the
heights of the subtrees from the root. This self-balancing tree was known
to be the first data structure to be designed as such.

38) What are the advantages of inheritance?

It permits code reusability. Reusability saves time in program
development. It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged highquality software, thus reducing problem after a system becomes
functional.

39) How do you write a function that can reverse a linked-list?

void reverselist(void)

{
if(head==0)
return;
if(head->next==0)
return;
if(head->next==tail)
{
head->next = 0;
tail->next = head;
}
else
{
node* pre = head;
node* cur = head->next;
node* curnext = cur->next;
head->next = 0;
cur-> next = head;
for(; curnext!=0; )
{
cur->next = pre;
pre = cur;
cur = curnext;
curnext = curnext->next;
}
curnext->next = cur;
}
}

40) What do you mean by inline function?

The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at
the point where the function is called. If done carefully, this can improve
the application's performance in exchange for increased compile time and
possibly (but not always) an increase in the size of the generated binary
executables

41) What is public, protected, private?

Public, protected and private are three access specifiers in C++.

Public data members and member functions are accessible outside
the class.

Protected data members and member functions are only available to

derived classes.

Private data members and member functions cant be accessed

outside the class. However there is an exception can be using friend
classes

42) What is polymorphism?

Polymorphism is the idea that a base class can be inherited by several
classes. A base class pointer can point to its child class and a base class
array can store different child class objects.

43) What are the advantages of inheritance?

It permits code reusability.
Reusability saves time in program development.
It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software,
thus reducing problem after a system becomes functional.
44) Define a constructor - What it is and how it might be called (2
methods).
Answer1
constructor is a member function of the class, with the name of the
function being the same as the class name. It also specifies how the
object should be initialized.
Ways of calling constructor:
1) Implicitly: automatically by complier when an object is created.
2) Calling the constructors explicitly is possible, but it makes the code
unverifiable.
Answer2
class Point2D{
int x; int y;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
};
main(){
Point2D MyPoint; // Implicit Constructor call. In order to allocate memory
on stack, the default constructor is implicitly called.
Point2D * pPoint = new Point2D(); // Explicit Constructor call. In order to
allocate memory on HEAP we call the default constructor
45) What are the elements of OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING?

The main concepts of object oriented programming are :

Data Abstraction

Encapsulation

Inheritance

Polymorphism

46) What is an object?

An object is an instance of a class. It can be uniquely identified by its
name and it defines a state, which is represented by the values of its
attributes at a particular point in time.

47) What is class?

A class is a collection of objects. A class may be defined as a group of
objects with same operations and attributes. The class is a key word in
C++ programming. The user deals with classes instead of dealing with
various individual objects.

48) What are the advantages of OOPs?

Object Oriented Programming has the following advantages over

conventional approaches :
OOP provides a clear modular structure for programs which makes it
good for defining abstract data types where implementation details
are hidden and the unit has a clearly defined interface.

OOP makes it easy to maintain and modify existing code as new

objects can be created with small differences to existing ones.

OOP provides a good framework for code libraries where supplied

software components can be easily adapted and modified by the
programmer. This is particularly useful for developing graphical user
interfaces.

49) What is the difference between class and objects?

Classes and objects are separate but related concepts. Every object
belongs to a class and every class contains one or more related objects.
A Class is static. All of the attributes of a class are fixed before, during,
and after the execution of a program. The attributes of a class dont
change.

50) What are methods and fields?

A class can have members. Methods and fields are two important
members of classes. Member functions are known as methods and data
members are known as fields.

51) Define Encapsulation?

The wrapping up of data and functions into a single unit is known as data
encapsulation.
Encapsulation means combining data and related functions that use that
data together and providing it as a logical entity.
52) What is function overloading?
Function Overloading more than one method with the same name but
different type of parameters and/or number of parameters can be defined.
Depending on the actual number and/or static type of the parameters
used, the compiler will resolve the call to the correct method.

53) What is the difference between compile time and run time
polymorphism?
Function overloading, operator overloading,and parametric types
(templates in C++ or generics in Java) are done at compile time.
Dynamic binding (virtual functions) is runtime polymorphism.

54) What is difference between C++ and Java?

C++ has pointers Java does not

Java is the platform independent as it works on any type of
operating systems

Java has no pointers where c ++ has pointers

Java has garbage collection C++ does not.

55) What is the use of scope resolution operator?

A variable declared in an inner block cannot be accessed outside the
block. To resolve this problem the scope resolution operator is used. It can
be used to uncover a hidden variable. This operator allows access to the
global version of the variable.

56) What are adaptor class?

Adaptor classes modify the existing interface of an existing class and
provide a new interface. In other words, an adapter class adapts a class
for a specific purpose.

57) What is the use of default constructor?

A constructors that accepts no parameters is called the default
constructor.If no user-defined constructor exists for a class A and one is
needed, the compiler implicitly declares a default parameterless
constructor A::A(). This constructor is an inline public member of its class.
The compiler will implicitly define A::A() when the compiler uses this
constructor to create an object of type A. The constructor will have no
constructor initializer and a null body.

58) What is the difference between break and continue

statement?
The break statement is used to terminate the control from the loop
statements of the case-switch structure. The break statement is normally
used in the switch case loop and in each case condition, the break
statement must be used. If not, the control will be transferred to the
subsequent case condition also.
The continue statement is used to repeat the same operations once
again even checks the error.

59) What is the difference between class and structure?

By default, the members ot structures are public while that tor class
is private.
Structures doesn't provide something like data hiding which is
provided by the classes.
Structures contains only data while class bind both data and
member func

60) What is the difference between the terms overloading and

overriding?
The term overriding refers to providing an alternative function definition of
a virtual function in a derived class. Overriding is useful for runtime
polymorphism. With overloading, more than one method definition with
the same name (but with different types/number of arguments) are
provided, whereas in overriding, the methods with the same name are
provided with alternative definition in derived class
61) What are the types of inheritance?

Single inheritance
Multiple inheritance

Multi level inheritance

Hierarchical inheritance

Hybrid inheritance

62) What is method overriding?

Method overriding is a mechanism in which the sub class method
overrides the base class method. If the same function name is present in
both the base class and the sub class then the sub class method overrides
the base class method.
63) What do you mean by pure virtual functions?
A pure virtual member function is a member function that the base class
forces derived classes to provide. Any class containing any pure virtual
function cannot be used to create object of its own type.

64) friend Function in C++.

If a function is defined as a friend function then, the private and protected
data of class can be accessed from that function. The complier knows a
given function is a friend function by its keyword friend. The declaration
of friend function should be made inside the body of class (can be
anywhere inside class either in private or public section) starting with
keyword friend.
65) Virtual function:
If you want to execute the member function of derived class then,
you can declare display( ) in the base class virtual which makes that
function existing in appearance only but, you can't call that function. In
order to make a function virtual, you have to add keyword virtual in front
of a function.
/* Example to demonstrate the working of virtual function in C++
programming. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class B
{
public:
virtual void display()
/* Virtual function */
{ cout<<"Content of base class.\n"; }
};
class D1 : public B
{
public:
void display()
{ cout<<"Content of first derived class.\n"; }
};
class D2 : public B
{
public:
void display()
{ cout<<"Content of second derived class.\n"; }
};
int main()
{
B *b;
D1 d1;
D2 d2;

/* b->display(); // You cannot use this code here because the function of
base class is virtual. */
b = &d1;
b->display(); /* calls display() of class derived D1 */
b = &d2;
b->display(); /* calls display() of class derived D2 */
return 0;
}
Output
Content of first derived class.
Content of second derived class.
After the function of base class is made virtual, code b->display( ) will call
the display( ) of the derived class depending upon the content of pointer.
In this program, display( ) function of two different classes are called with
same code which is one of the example of polymorphism in C++
programming using virtual functions.

66) Define SQL.

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It allows access,
insert/update/delete records and retrieve data from the database.
Structured Query Language is a relational database language, designed
for managing data. The scope of SQL includes data query, including data,
deleting and modifying data and controlling the access to the data. A
specialized language for sending queries to database. Every specific
application will have its own version of implementing SQL features, but all
SQL-capable database managers support a common subset of SQL
67) What is an Entity-Relationship diagram?
It is a graphical representation of tables with the relationship between
them. ER diagram is a conceptual and abstract representation of data and
entities. ER is a data modeling process, which is to produce a conceptual
schema of a system, often an RDBMS and the needs in top down fashion.
ER diagrams are derived by using this model.
68) What is RDBMS? Explain its features.
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. It organizes
data into related rows and columns.
Features

It stores data in tables.

Tables have rows and column.
These tables are created using SQL.
And data from these tables are also retrieved using SQL
RDBMS is a database management system based on relational model
defined by E.F.Codd. Data is stored in the form of rows and columns. The
relations among tables are also stored in the form of the table.
Features:
- Provides data to be stored in tables
- Persists data in the form of rows and columns
- Provides facility primary key, to uniquely identify the rows
- Creates indexes for quicker data retrieval
- Provides a virtual table creation in which sensitive data can be stored
and simplified query can be applied.(views)
- Sharing a common column in two or more tables(primary key and foreign
key)
- Provides multi user accessibility that can be controlled by individual
users
69) Define Primary key and Foreign key.
A column or combination of columns that identify a row of data in a table
is Primary Key.
A key in a table that identifies records in other table in called a foriegn
key.
Primary key and unique key
Both are used to provide uniqueness of the column.
Primary key creates clustered key on the column by default whereas
unique key creates non-clustered index by default.
Primary doesn't allow NULL values whereas unique key can allow one
NULL value.
Primary Key: Primary key is used for unique identification of each row in
a table. Unique and not null values only are accepted to persist in primary
key.
Foreign Key: Foreign Key identifies a column with the primary key
column of another table (parent table) for storing data. The values in the
foreign key must be the values of primary key of other columns. Thus it
ensures the data integrity correct data.
70) Define Trigger.

Triggers are similar to stored procedure except it is executed

automatically when any operations are occurred on the table. A Trigger is
a code that associated with insert, update or delete operations. The code
is executed automatically whenever the associated query is executed on a
table. Triggers can be useful to maintain integrity in database.
71) Explain the types of relationships in database.
There are four relationships in database.
- One to One: One entity is associated with another entity. For Ex: Each
employee is associated with one department
- One to Many: One entity is associated with many other entities. For Ex: A
company is associated with all working employees in one
branch/office/country.
- Many to One: Many entities are associated with only one entity. For Ex:
Many employees are associated with one project.
- Many to Many: Many entities are associated with many other entities. For
Ex: In a company many employees are associated with multiple
projects(completed/existing), and at the same time, projects are
associated with multiple employees.
72) What is normalization?
Normalization is the way of organizing data in a database by removing
redundancy and inconsistent dependency.
Database normalization has the rules to be followed while creating
databases.
Each rule is called as normal form.
First Normal form states - Remove duplicate column and identify each set
of related data with a primary key.
Second normal form - Create relationship between master and master
detail tables using foreign key.
Third normal form - Remove the fields that do not depend on the primary
key.
It is the process of organizing data into related table.
To normalize database, we divide database into tables and establish
relationships between the tables.
It reduces redundancy. It is done to improve performance of query.
Normalization is the technique for designing database tables to eliminate
data redundancy, to safe guard the database against certain anomalies
(structural problems). It is a step-by-step breakdown of data structure
complexity into simple structure that facilitates no loss to information and
relationship.
73) What are the benefits of normalizing database?

The benefits of normalization are:

- The process of searching, sorting and creating indexes is faster
- More tables can be derived for clear and needed tables to be designed
- Clustering indexes can be created which provides the flexibility in fine
tuning queries.
- Less redundant data and fewer null values will make the database more
compact.
- The indexes of tables make data modification commands execution
much faster.
- If redundant data is not maintained, the execution of triggers is quicker.
- Normalization facilitates in reducing data modification anomalies

74) Explain DML and DDL statements.

DDL-Data Definition Language: DDL is the syntax of SQL for defining the
way the database is organized physically. Database meta data is created
by DDL of SQL. The tables, views, indexes, sequences, triggers, database
users (by DBA) are well defined using DDL statement, CREATE.
Modification for the metadata or schema is done by ALTER command and
removing database objects is done by DROP command.
DML-Data Manipulation Language: DML statements, INSERT, DELETE,
UPDATE AND SELECT INTO are used for data manipulation, adding new
rows, deleting unwanted rows and changing data in the rows. These are
known as SQL-change statements. DML does not change the schema of
database.

75) What is a join and explain different types of joins.

Joins are utilized to get the results from two or more tables. There are two
types of joins available.
1. Outer Join: Outer join has two categories left outer join and right outer
join. In this join functionality, two or more tables are joined by including
blank rows in the specified side, once the criterion satisfies.
The combination of left outer join and right outer join is simple outer join.
2. Inner Join: In this join functionality, two or more tables are joined by
leaving the blank rows for checking.
Other than these two joins, there areNatural Join: This join is the Cartesian product.
Equi Join: A condition includes an operator

NonEqui Join: They are conditional joins which does not use their
conditions.
76) What are the restrictions applicable while creating views?
The following are the restrictions for creating views in RDBMS;
- Views can be created only in the current database.
- A computed value can not be changed in a view
- INSERT and DELETE statements may be used subject to the integrity
constraints
Views can be created referencing tables and views only in the current
database.
A view name must not be the same as any table owned by that user.
You can build views on other views and on procedures that reference
views.
Rules or DEFAULT definitions can't be associated with views.
Only INSTEAD OF triggers can be associated with views.
The query that defines the view cannot include the ORDER BY, COMPUTE,
or COMPUTE BY clauses or the INTO keyword.
You cannot define full-text index definitions for views.
You cannot create temporary views
You cannot create views on temporary tables.
77) What are the uses of view?
1. Views can represent a subset of the data contained in a table;
consequently, a view can limit the degree of exposure of the underlying
tables to the outer world: a given user may have permission to query the
view, while denied access to the rest of the base table.
2. Views can join and simplify multiple tables into a single virtual table
3. Views can act as aggregated tables, where the database engine
aggregates data (sum, average etc.) and presents the calculated results
as part of the data
4. Views can hide the complexity of data; for example a view could appear
as Sales2000 or Sales2001, transparently partitioning the actual
underlying table
5. Views take very little space to store; the database contains only the
definition of a view, not a copy of all the data which it presentsv.
6. Depending on the SQL engine used, views can provide extra security
78) What is a transaction? What are ACID properties?
Ans: A Database Transaction is a set of database operations that must be
treated as whole, means either all operations are executed or none of
them.
An example can be bank transaction from one account to another
account. Either both debit and credit operations must be executed or none
of them.

ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a set of properties

that guarantee that database transactions are processed reliably.
79) What are the functions of operating system?
The operating system controls and coordinates the use of hardware
among the different processes and applications. It provides the various
functionalities to the users. The following are the main job of operating
system.

Resource utilization
Resource allocation

Process management

Memory management

File management

I/O management

Device management

80) Explain Booting the system and Bootstrap program in

operating system.
The procedure of starting a computer by loading the kernel is known as
booting the system.
When a user first turn on or booted the computer, it needs some initial
program to run. This initial program is known as Bootstrap Program. It is
stored in read-only memory (ROM) or electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory (EEPROM). Bootstrap program locates the kernel and
loads it into main memory and starts its execution.

81) Describe Main memory and Secondary memory storage in

brief.
Main memory is also called random access memory (RAM). CPU can
access Main memory directly. Data access from main memory is much
faster than Secondary memory. It is implemented in a semiconductor
technology, called dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).
Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs. It is a
volatile storage device that loses its contents when power is turned off.
Secondary memory can stores large amount of data and programs
permanently. Magnetic disk is the most common secondary storage

device. If a user wants to execute any program it should come from

secondary memory to main memory because CPU can access main
memory directly.

82) What is a Kernel?

- Kernel is the part of OS which handles all details of sharing resources and
device handling.
- It can be considered as the core of OS which manages the core features
of an OS.
- Its purpose is to handle the communication between software and
hardware
- Its services are used through system calls.
- A layer of software called shell wraps around the Kernel.

83) Explain the basic functions of process management.

Important functions of process management are:
-

Creation and deletion of system processes.

Creation and deletion of users.
CPU scheduling.
Process communication and synchronization.

84) What do you know about interrupt?

- Interrupt can be understood as a signal from a device causing context
switch.
- To handle the interrupts, interrupt handlers or service routines are
required.
- The address of each Interrupt service routine is provided in a list which is
maintained in interrupt vector.

85) What do you mean by a zombie process?

- These are dead processes which are not yet removed from the process
table.
- It happens when the parent process has terminated while the child
process is still running. This child process now stays as a zombie.

86) What is a named pipe?

- A traditional pipe is unnamed and can be used only for the
communication of related process. If unrelated processes are required to
communicate - named pipes are required.
- It is a pipe whose access point is a file available on the file system. When
this file is opened for reading, a process is granted access to the reading
end of the pipe. Similarly, when the file is opened for writing, the process
is granted access to writing end of the pipe.
- A named pipe is also referred to as a named FIFO or just FIFO.
87) What is a semaphore?
- A semaphore is a hardware or a software tag variable whose value
indicates the status of a common resource.
- Its purpose is to lock the common resource being used. A process which
needs the resource will check the semaphore to determine the status of
the resource followed by the decision for proceeding.
- In multitasking operating systems, the activities are synchronized by
using the semaphore techniques.

88) What is context switching?

- Context is associated with each process encompassing all the
information describing the current execution state of the process
- When the OS saves the context of program that is currently running and
restores the context of the next ready to run process, it is called as
context switching.
- It is important for multitasking OS.

89) What is synchronization? What are the different

synchronization mechanisms?
Synchronization means controlling access to a resource that is available to
two or more threads or process. Different synchronization mechanisms
are:
-

Mutex
Semaphores
Monitors
Condition variables
Critical regions
Read/ Write locks

90) What is a critical section?

It is a section of code which can be executed only by one process at a
time

91) What is the basic difference between pre-emptive and nonpre-emptive scheduling.
Pre-emptive scheduling allows interruption of a process while it is
executing and taking the CPU to another process while non-pre-emptive
scheduling ensures that a process keeps the CPU under control until it has
completed execution.

92) What is a deadlock? What are the necessary conditions for

deadlock to occur?

- It is a condition where a group of two or more waiting for the resources

currently in use by other processes of the same group.
- In this situation every process is waiting for an event to be triggered by
another process of the group.
- Since no thread can free up the resource a deadlock occurs and the
application hangs
a.) At least one resource should be occupied in a non-sharable condition.
b.) A process holding at least one resource is waiting for more resources
currently in use by other processes.
c.) It is not possible to pre-empt the resource.
d.) There exists a circular wait for processes.
93) Name the different types of memory?
a.) Main memory also called primary memory or RAM
b.) Secondary memory or backing storage
c.) Cache
d.) Internal process memory

94) What are page frames? What are pages?

Page frames are the fixed size contiguous areas into which the main
memory is divided by the virtual memory.
-Pages are same sized pieces of logical memory of a program. Usually
they range from 4 KB to 8 KB depending on the addressing hardware of
the machine.
- Pages improve the overall system performance and reduces requirement
of physical storage as the data is read in 'page' units.
95) Differentiate between logical and physical address.
- Physical addresses are actual addresses used for fetching and storing
data in main memory when the process is under execution.
- Logical addresses are generated by user programs. During process
loading, they are converted by the loader into physical address.

96) Explain thread. What are the advantage of using threads?

What are the disadvantages of using threads?

- It is an independent flow of control within a process.

- It consists of a context and a sequence of instructions for execution.
The main advantages of using threads are:
a.) No special communication mechanism is required.
b.) Readability and simplicity of program structure increases with threads.
c.) System becomes more efficient with less requirement of system
resources.
The main disadvantages of using threads are:
- Threads can not be re-used as they exist within a single process.
- They corrupt the address space of their process.
- They need synchronization for concurrent read-write access to memory.
97) What is paging? Why paging is used?
OS performs an operation for storing and retrieving data from secondary
storage devices for use in main memory. Paging is one of such memory
management scheme. Data is retrieved from storage media by OS, in the
same sized blocks called as pages. Paging allows the physical address
space of the process to be non contiguous. The whole program had to fit
into storage contiguously.

Paging is to deal with external fragmentation problem. This is to allow the

logical address space of a process to be noncontiguous, which makes the
process to be allocated physical memory
98) What is the meaning of physical memory and virtual memory?
Physical memory is the only memory that is directly accessible to the CPU.
CPU reads the instructions stored in the physical memory and executes
them continuously. The data that is operated will also be stored in physical
memory in uniform manner.
Virtual memory is one classification of memory which was created by
using the hard disk for simulating additional RAM, the addressable space
available for the user. Virtual addresses are mapped into real addresses.

99) What are the difference between THREAD, PROCESS and

TASK?
A program in execution is known as process. A program can have any
number of processes. Every process has its own address space.
Threads uses address spaces of the process. The difference between a
thread and a process is, when the CPU switches from one process to
another the current information needs to be saved in Process Descriptor
and load the information of a new process. Switching from one thread to
another is simple.
A task is simply a set of instructions loaded into the memory. Threads can
themselves split themselves into two or more simultaneously running
tasks

100) What is cache memory? Explain its functions

Cache memory is RAM. The most recently processing data is stored in
cache memory. CPU can access this data more quickly than it can access
data in RAM. When the microprocessor starts processing the data, it first
checks in cache memory.
The size of each cache block ranges from 1 to 16 bytes. Every location has
an index that corresponds to the location which has data to access. This
index is known as address. The locations have tags; each contains the
index and the datum in the memory that is needed to be cached.
Cache memory is a high speed memory in the CPU that is used for faster
access to data. It provides the processor with the most frequently

requested data. Cache memory increases performance and allows faster

retrieval of data.
101) Describe different job scheduling in operating systems.
Job scheduling schedules or decides which process will get to acquire the
resource based on some parameters.
FIFO- The process that comes first is executed first.
Shortest job First- The time taken to complete the job of all processes is
computed and the shortest length process is executed first.
Round Robin- Each process gets a time share for running and is later
prevented to get the next process running.
Priority scheduling- here, the process on highest priority gets the resource.