EVAPORATION

Introduction
Evaporation is a method of concentrating a solution by vapourising part of the solvent
(usually water). The heat is generally provided by the condensation of a vapour such as
steam. The vapour from the boiling solution is removed and the more concentrated solution
remains behind. Concentration by evaporation is normally stopped before the solute begins
to precipitate; if not, the operation is better considered as crystallization. Examples include
the concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar, NaCl, milk, and fruit juices.

Heat transfer to the solution controls the evaporation rate: Q = U A T.

General Types of Evaporators
An evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution and a means to separate
the vapor from the boiling liquid. Different types are categorized by the length and alignment
(horizontal or vertical) of the evaporator tubes. The evaporation tubes may be located inside
or outside of the main vessel where the vapor is driven off.
1)

Open Kettle or Pan:

This consists of an open pan or kettle in which the liquid is boiled. The heat is supplied by
condensation of steam in a jacket or in coils immersed in the liquid. In some cases the kettle
is direct-fired. These evaporators are inexpensive and simple to operate, but the heat
economy is poor.

2)

Horizontal-tube Natural Circulation Evaporator:

The horizontal bundle of heating tubes is similar to the bundles of tubes in a heat exchanger.
The steam enters into the tubes, where it condenses. The steam leaves at the other end of
the tubes. The boiling-liquid solution covers the tubes.

3)

Vertical-type Natural Circulation Evaporator:

In this type of evaporator, vertical rather than horizontal tubes are used, and the liquid is
inside the tubes and the steam condenses outside the tubes.

Because of boiling and decreases in density, the liquid rises in the tubes by natural
circulation and flows and flows downwards through a large central open space or
downcomer. This natural circulation increases the heat transfer coefficient.

4)

Long-tube Vertical-type Evaporator:

In this evaporator the solution to be heated is inside the tubes and the heating steam on the
outside of the tubes.

The tubes are 3 to 10 m long and the formation of vapour bubbles inside the tubes causes a
pumping action giving quite high velocities. Generally the solution passes through the tubes
only once and is not recirculated.

5)

Forced Circulation Type Evaporator:

In this evaporator the liquid-film heat-transfer coefficient is increased by pumping and forcing
the solution to circulate in the tubes. A pipe connection with a pump between the outlet
concentrate line and the feed line is added to achieve this.

The Evaporator Model:

The following mathematical model is used to make material balance energy balance and
heat transfer rate calculations to size the evaporator:

Vapour
(Pure Solvent)
MV
T1
HV

T1

Feed
(Thin-liquor)
MF
TF
HF
S

T1

Saturated Condensate

Heating Steam
(Saturated Vapour)

MS
TS
Hf

MS
Ts
Hg

Product
(Thick-liquor Concentrate)
MP
T1
HP
S

The feed to the evaporator is a solution of mass flowrate MF, having a solids content of
mass fraction, temperature TF, and enthalpy F.

Coming out as one product is a concentrated liquid MP having a solids content

temperature T1, and enthalpy P.

The vapour MV is given off as pure solvent at a temperature T1 and enthalpy V.

Saturated steam enters at a mass flowrate of MS at a temperature TS, pressure PS and

with an enthalpy of g.

This steam gives up its heat of vapourisation Vap to heat the solution in the evaporator,
and leaves at a mass flowrate of MS, at a temperature TS and an enthalpy of f.

The boiling action on the heat exchanger surface agitates the evaporatore solution so
that there is perfect mixing in the evaporator. Therefore the temperature of the
evaporator solution = temperature of vapour = temperature of product. Since the vapour
V is in equilibrium with the liquid P, the temperature of the vapour and liquid are the
same.

Total Mass Balance:

MF + MS = MV + MP + MS

MF = MV + MP

. . . (1)

Component Mass Balance:

Solute Balance:

MFS

MSV MLS

MFS

MLS

FSMF

LSML

. (2)

Energy Balance:

inlets

1 2

i
W

Q
Hi Pi V i v i gz i M

H R
S
2

1 2

o
W

Ho Po V o v o gz o M Q
HR
S
2

outlets

Simplifying Assumptions:
1) Insignificant change in kinetic and potential energies
2) No shaft work
3) No heat losses or gains

MF H
MS
H
F
g

MV H
MS H
Mp
H
V
f
P

MF MS H
H

H
F
g
f

MF MS H
Vap
H
F

MV H
Mp
H
V
P

MV H
Mp
H
V
P

MF Q H
MV H
Mp
H
F
V
P

(3)
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Heat Transfer:
Q = U A T = U A (TS T1)

. . . (4)

Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions:

The vapor pressure of the aqueous solution in the evaporator is less than that of pure water
at the same temperature; so the boiling point of the solution will be higher than that of the
water. This is called Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) or vapor pressure lowering. When working
with problems involving heat transfer to or from boiling solutions, it is necessary to adjust the
temperature difference driving force for the boiling point elevation.
The boiling point of a solution is a colligative property -- it depends on the concentration of
solute in the solution, but not on what the solute and solvent are.
Note that the equilibrium vapour rising from a solution exhibiting boiling point elevation will
exist at a temperature and pressure such that it is superheated with respect to pure vapor.
The vapor rises at the solution boiling point, elevated with respect to the pure component
boiling point. The vapor, however, is solute free, so it won't condense until the extra heat
corresponding to the elevation is removed, thus it is superheated.

There are several methods to determine the boiling point elevation:

a)

Duhring Plot:

Dhrings rule is a useful approach to predict the boiling point of solutions. Basically there is
a linear relationship between the boiling point of a solution and that of pure water. All that is
needed therefore is to know the boiling point temperature of the solution at two pressures
and one can then estimate any intermediary boiling points.

To use a Duhring plot:

1. For a particular system pressure, determine the boiling temperature of pure water.
This can be done from a vapor pressure equation or steam tables.
2. Enter the plot from the bottom (the water boiling point), trace up to the diagonal line
representing the NaOH fraction, then trace left to read the solution boiling point from
the vertical axis.
3. The boiling point elevation is the difference between the two temperatures.

10

Eg:

11

12

Enthalpy-Concentration Charts of Solutions:

If the enthalpy (heat) of solution of the aqueous solution being concentrated in the
evaporator is large, neglecting it could cause errors in the heat (energy) balances.

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Example:
An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/h of a 20% solution of NaOH in water entering
at 60oC to a product of 50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4 kPa
and the pressure in the vapour space of the evaporator is 11.7 kPa. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 1560 W/m2K. Calculate the steam used and the heating surface area in m2.

Vapour
(Pure Solvent)
T1 = ?
P = 11.7 kPa

MV
T1
HV

Feed
(Thin-liquor)
MF = 4536
TF = 60oC
HF=
S = 0.2

T1

Saturated Condensate

Heating Steam
(Saturated Vapour)

MS
TS
Hf

MS =
TS = ? (Ps = 172.4 kPa)
Hg =

Product
(Thick-liquor Concentrate)
MP
T1
HP
S = 0.5

Total Mass Balance:

MF = MV + MP
4536 = MV + MP

. . . (1)
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Component Mass Balance (Solute Balance):

LSML

FSMF

(0.2)(4536) 0.5ML
ML = 1814 kg/h

and

...(2)

MV = 2722 kg/h

Energy Balance:

MF H
MS
H
F
g

MV H
MS H
Mp
H
V
f
P

MF MS H
H

H
F
g
f

MF MS H
Vap
H
F

MV H
Mp
H
V
P

MV H
Mp
H
V
P

MF Q H
MV H
Mp
H
F
V
P

(3)

F enthalpy of feed:
The feed contains 20% solute (NaOH) and is at 60 oC.
Note: if the concentration of the solute in the feed is very low, we could assume the feed to
be similar to that of pure water and determine the enthalpy of pure water at 60 oC.
Since 20% solute is not very low, we will have to use an enthalpy-concentration diagram to
determine the enthalpy of the 20% solution:
The temperatures on the diagram are in oF. Therefore 60 oC 140 oF:

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 F = 214 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of Steam:
We know that steam enters at 172.4 kPa (saturated), gives up its latent heat of vapourisation
(condensation) to the solution in the evaporator and then leaves as a liquid all this
happens at the same temperature. We need to determine what this temperature is. To do
this we need to look at steam tables:

Steam tables are in bars 172.4 kPa 1.724 bars.

to find the enthalpy we need to interpolate:
From table above: fg = vap = 2214 kJ/kg

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Enthaply of Vapour (V):

To determine the enthalpy of the vapour we need to know the temperature T 1:
We are given the pressure of the vapour space as 11.7 kPa (0.117 bars)

From steam tables

T= 48.9 oC (from interpolation).

This is the corresponding temperature for pure water. We, however, do not have pure water
in the evaporator we have a solution that is 50% solute. To determine the actual
temperature T1, we make use of either the Dhring chart or the PCEH to determine the
boiling point rise:

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 actual temperature T1 = 89.5 oC. (Use the PCEH chart to see if you get a similar result!)

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For the superheated vapour at 89.5oC and 0.117 bars,the enthalpy of the vapour is
approximately 2667 kJ/kg (by interpolating)

Enthalpy of product (P):

Once again use the enthalpy-concentration product is 50% NaOH at a temperature of
89.5oC:
P = 505 kJ/kg

Therefore steam use is given by:

MF MS H
Vap
H
F

MV H
Mp
H
V
P

MS = 3255 kg steam/hr

Vap
Q MS H

32552214

1
2002 kW
3600

Use Q = U A T to determine A

Multiple Effect Evaporators

Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In a single-effect evaporator, steam
provides energy for vaporization and the vapor product is condensed and removed from the
system. In a double-effect evaporator, the vapor product off the first effect is used to provide
energy for a second vaporization unit. Triple- effect evaporator problems are familiar to
generations of engineering students. This cascading of effects can continue for many
stages. Multiple-effect evaporators can remove much larger amounts of solvent than is
possible in a single effect.
In a multiple effect arrangement, the latent heat of the vapor product off of an effect is used
to heat the following effect. Effects are thus numbered beginning with the one heated by
steam. It will have the highest pressure. Vapor from Effect I will be used to heat Effect II,
which consequently will operate at lower pressure. This continues through the train: pressure
drops through the sequence so that the hot vapor will travel from one effect to the next.
Normally, all effects in an evaporator will be physically the same in terms of size,
construction, and heat transfer area. Unless thermal losses are significant, they will all have
the same capacity as well.
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Evaporator trains may receive their feed in several different ways. The feed order is NOT
related to the numbering of effects. Effects are always numbered according to decreasing
pressure (steam flow).
Forward Feed arrangements follow the pattern I, II, III. These require a single feed pump
(reduced fixed costs). They typically have reduced economy (higher operating costs) since
the cold feed must be raised to the highest operating temperature. These also tend to have
the most concentrated liquour, which tends to be the most viscous, in the lowest temperature
effects, so their may be difficulties getting a good overall heat transfer coefficient.
Backward Feed arrangements go III, II, I. These need multiple pumps to work against the
pressure drop of the system; however, since the feed is gradually heated they usually have
better economies. This arrangement also reduces the viscosity differences through the
system and so is better for viscous solutions.
Mixed Feed arrangements offer a compromise, with the feed entering in the middle of the
system (i.e. II, III, I). The final evaporation is done at the highest temperature so economies
are still better than forward feed, but fewer pumps are required than in a backward feed
arrangement.
Parallell Feed systems split the feed stream and feed a portion to each effect. This is most
common in crystallizing evaporators where the product is likely to be a slurry.

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Tutorial: Evaporation-Single, Double Effects

Question 1

Solution

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Question 2

Solution

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Question 3

Answer: 67.5 m2
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