Atlas of O71 | | Stress-Strain ; Curves he SECOND EDITION | REESE ESSEIRES Pea SB ABS eTAtlas of Stress-Strain Curves Second EditionTA 460 - ARS Zod Curae ert ‘ieee woot No per of this took may be reproduc sore ina etal ten or wasted cay fom ory any mess, elect ‘mechanical, shotocpying cording, or obese, without the writen permission of the copia ownen inst proting, December 202 (Great cae is aken inthe complain and production ofthis book, brit should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR [A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Athoogh his informaon is tlieved tn be accurate by ASM, ASM canct gurantee tat favorable results Wil be obtained from the eof this publication alone. 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Comments. citicisns, and saggesons ae lito, snd shuld be forwarded to ASM Iteration Prepared ander the direction ofthe ASM Imernational Techical Book Commies (2001-2072), Charles A, Parker, Char Prepared wath assistance from the ASM International Materials Properties Database Commitee, Pd, Sikorsky, Chai. ‘ASM Interaional sa who worked on ds projet included Charles Mocebrugger, Technical Editor Veronica Flint ‘cauisitions Eiltor; Bone Sanders. Manager of Production; Carol Terman, Production Project Managers and Scot Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications, Litwary of Congres Cansoyingio-Publiention Dat Atlas of sets carves —2ad od. em SAN: 206-586—Tp, vero, ISBN: 0-87170-730-X 1. Soess-szuin curves Atlee. 2. Mtale—Testin 1LASM Intemational “TAKS 4862002 620,763—e 21 2onne76. ASM Incemational® ‘Motels Park, OF 44973-0002 ‘wor asniniemstional. org Printed in the United States of AmericaContents Preface... eee eee cveeeteeteteee 7 peeabuGed ceeelv Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior. ...« Ferrous Metal Cast Iron (CD « Carbon Steel (CS) Alloy Steel (AS)... High-Strength Steel (HS) Stainless Steel (SS) Tool Steel (TS)... Nonferrous Metals. Cast Aluminum (CA)... Wrought Aluminum (WA) . Aluminum Laminates (LA). Copper (Cu) ‘Magnesium (Me) Nickel (Ni) Reactive and Refractory Metals (RM) . Titanium (Ti). Pure Metals and jiscellaneous Alloys (MA). Alloy Index .....22660+ UNS Index....++Preface In this information age, mechanical property data are lentil, However, locating needed information quickly, judging the validity of| the data, and making reasoned comparisons of data can be daunting. Suress-srain curves condense much information about the mechanical ‘behavior of metals into convenient form. From these basic curves the ‘engineer can extract such information as the strength, ductility, forma- bility, elasticity, and other information useful in prediting the per- formance of « particular alloy under stress, ‘ASM International published the fis edition ofthe Atlas of Stress Sirain Curves, a collection of over $50 curves, in 1986, This book, along with the Atlas of Farigue Curves, Atlas of Creep and Siress. Rupture Curves, and the Atlas of Stress-Corrosion and Corrosion Fatigue Curves, bas formed a set of useful materials propery resources forthe engineer, materials scientist, and designe. Well over three years ago—with the encouragement, assistance, and guidance of the ASM Technical Books and Materials Properties Database Commitees—ASM International embarked on the project to ‘create this updated, expanded, and improved Second Edition of the Atlas of Stress Serain Curves, Some of the overriding goals of this roject have been to: (© Add curves for materials that are especially useful to key indusees, including serospace, automotive, and heavy manufucturing Seek out curves with a “pedigree” so readers can trace the source of, te information and have some indication regarding its reliability Include as much pertinent information as possible for each curve. Factors such as heat-treat condition, product form, thickness, spec- imen size, orientation, history esting temperature, and testing rate all affect materials performance and may be helpful whe inter= ‘retig the curves Normalize the presenti among different materials ‘of the curves to facilitate comparisons ‘We feel ASM International has been reasonably successful in achieving these objectives in this edition. Many people are involved in a project of this size, and we would like to thank those who have contributed to, or assisted, this elfr. First and foremost, ASM International thanks the materials researchers Who created the original curves-—without their efforts this volume would not exist. Donna M. Walker, FASM, Stressolvers Inc., and Veronica Flint, ASM staf, initiated the project to revise and expand this book. ASM. Intemational thanks them for their effors in helping to define the goals for this project and in aequiring many of the new curves to be added 0 the book Special thanks are extendod to Special Metals, Gil Kaufman, FASM, Kaufiman Associates, and Broce Boardnman, FASM, Deere & ‘Company, for their contributions of stress-strain curves, Hiro Okamoto and his associates performed the huge task of ‘edrawing the curves to normalize their presentation, and we are grate= ful for their accurate and timely work. ‘The organization and final quality of dhe data as seen in the book ‘are my responsibility, and any errors, omissions, or misclassifications of alloys are mine. Thank Heather Lampman, the principal copy e ‘or, and the members ofthe ASM International production staf, who have worked diligently o keep any errors to a minimum. However, in any endeavor ofthis scope, there will be mistakes. Corrections, coat- ments, and criticisms are invited It should be noted that most of the data included in this book are ‘ot specified as being minimum, typical or having any defined confi- ence level associated with them. The reader may want to refer tothe souree of a particular curve to find additional details. The “Introduction” in this book provides a review ofthe information that can be extracted from stress strain curves, a clarification of terms used in describing mechanical behavior, and a guide tothe limitations ofthe accuracy and precision ofthe information given Charies Moosbrugger ‘Technical Editor ASM IntemationalRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior Charles Moosbrugger, ASM International IT IS APPROPRIATE that a collection of stress-srain curves is named an atlas. An alas isa collection of figures, chars, or maps, so named because early books pictured the Greek Titan, Atlas, om the ‘over or title page, staining with the weight of the world and heavens ‘nm his shoulders. This concept of visualizing the reaction to mechan ‘eal stess is central to development and use of stress-strain curves "This introductory section provides a review of the fundamentals of the mechanical esting that is represented in th curves, The mathemat- ical interpretation of aspects of the curves will aid in analysis of the curves. A lst of terms common to stress-strain behavior is given atthe end of this section. (Ref 1,2). Tensile Testing ‘The simplest loading to visualize is a one-dimensional tensile test, in which a uniform slender test specimen is stretched along its long cen- tral axis, The stress-strain curve is representation ofthe performance ‘of the specimen as the applied load is increased monotonically usually to fracture, ‘Stress-strain curves are usually presented as © “Engineering” stress-strain curves, in which the original dimensions ofthe specimens are used in most calculations. f¢ “True” stress-strain curves, where the instantaneous dimensions of the specimen at each point during the test are used in the calcula- tions. This results in the “rue” curves being above the “engineer ing” curves, notably in the higher strain portion ofthe curves. ‘The development ofthese curves is described in the following sec tions. "To document the tension test, an engineering stress-strain curve is ‘constructed from the load-elongation measurements made on the fest Specimen (Fig. 1). The engincering stress, §, ploted on this stress- strain curve isthe average longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen, It Eroneergaan Fig. 1 Engineering ressinin curve, ntnection fhe dhe Ine wih the cue iB 1 [cece he ot yd seth, is obtained by dividing the load, P, by the original area of the ross sec- tion ofthe specimen, Ao a £ ean ‘The strain, e, plotted on the engineering stress-strain curve, i the aver: age linear strain, which is obtained by dividing the elongation of the ‘gage length ofthe specimen, 8, by its original length, L Blak Ln oy ‘Because both the stress and the strain are obtained by dividing the load and elongation by constant factors, the load-elongation curve has the Satine shape asthe enginoering stress-strain curve. The two curves fre= ‘quently afe used interchangeably. ‘The units of stress are forceength squared, and the strain is unitless. The struin axis of curves waditionally are given units of inJin, or -mmimam rather than being listed a a pore number. Stain is sometimes ‘expressed a8 a percent clongation. ‘The shape ofthe strest-strain curve and values assigned tothe points on the stress strain curve ofa metal depend on is 42) © Composition {© Heat treatment and conditioning (© Prior history of plastic deformation © The strain rte of test ‘Temperature Orientation of applied stress relative o the test specimens structure Size and shape ‘The parameters that are used to describe the stress-strain curve of a metal ae the tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, ultimate ten sile strength, percent elongation, and reduction in area. The frst three ae strength parameters; the last two indicate ductility The general shape of the engincering stress-strain curve (Fig. 1) requires further explanation, Ths curve represents the full loading of specimen from initial load to rupture Iisa “fullrange" curve. Often engineering curves are truncated past the 0.2% yield point. This isthe tase of many of the curves inthis Ailas. Other test data are presented asa “fullrange” curve with an “expanded range” to detail he initial parts ofthe curve. Linear Segment of Curves From the origin, O, the initial straight-line portion is the clastic region, where sess is linearly proportional to strain. When the stress is removed. ifthe stain disappears, the specimen is considered com- pletely elastic. “The point st which the curve departs from the straight-line propor- tionality , isthe proportional limit Modulus of elasticity, & also known as Youn’s modulus, is the slope of this inital inear portion ofthe stress-strain curve: «>2/ Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves where Sis engineering stess and se is engineering train, Modulus of elasticity is a measure ofthe siffness of the material. The greater the ‘modulus, the steeper the slope and the smaller the elastic strain result- ing from the application ofa given stress. Because the modulus of eas ticity is needed for computing deflections of beams and othe structural ‘members, it isan important design valve, ‘The modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms. Because these forces cannot be changed without changing the basic nature ofthe material, the modulus of elasticity is ‘one of the most structure-insensitive of the mechanical properties, Generally, i is only slightly affected by alloying additions, heat weat- ment, or cold work (Ref 3). However, increasing the temperature decreases the modulus of elasticity. At elevated temperatures, the mod- uli is often measured by a dynamic method (Ref 4). Typical values of ‘modulus of elasticity for common engineering materials are given in ‘Table I (Ref 5). Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when ‘deformed elastically and to return it when unloaded. This property usu ally is measured by the modulus of resilience, which is the strain ‘energy per unit volume, Up, required (0 sess the material from zero sures f0 the yield stress, 5, The strain energy per unit volume for any point on the line is just the area under the curve: 1 Yor Ser ea From the definition of modulus of elasticity and the above definition, the maximum resilience occurs a the yield point and is called the mod ‘lus of resilience, Up Ls mats 2S a= 5 Soba SF 3) EE ‘This equation indicates thatthe ideal material for resisting energy'loads in applications where the material must not undergo permanent istor- Table 1_Typical values for modulus of elasticity Met om Wee ‘ras 3.20 Pg 1s Coonan » Copper 0 “Son au at i ed 16 Sagres & Mayhem mm Nake ‘son 1 Notion Ios ‘thee * ‘is an 207 Oise 20 sos D736 tats a m2 Te) set i jor Tol wel anos im Bs ‘Snes 28 8c as 33 ele hs 2 ‘Tings a 36 vein Bs iss Bie as 182 “(a Re gon fs pe bw «fo Fig, 2 suesatsin cues forsee secs, Soc: Ref? tion, such as mechanical spring, is one having a high yield siess and 2 low modulus of elasticity For various grades of stel, the modulus of resilience ranges from 100 104500 ki/m? (14.5 10 650 bt inJin.’), with the higher values rep- resenting steels with higher carbon of alloy contents (Ref 6). This can be seen in Fig. 2, where the modulus of resilience for the ehromium- tungsten alloy would be the greatest of the stels, Because it has the highest yield strength and similar modulus of elasticity. The modulus of resilience is represented as the tiangllr areas under the curves i Fig. 3 Figure 2 shows that while the modulus of elasticity is consistent for te given group of steels, the shapes of the curves past their propor ‘onality limits are quite varied (Ref 7). Highearbon spring soe! rane ig. 3. Comparison of sreseaain caves fra hghatrengthhighation sping Fi. 3 ecands ovecteng srl sel Pe ee cai at spingel pin 8 ne dane Ina of icra ale cosrhched Va Hes re he mechs of race (i. Tee a ary ae work don On Rates ange he ore esting farce wi te maraeNonlinear Segment of Curves to Yielding ‘The elastic limit, B, on Fig. 1, may coincide with the proportional- ity limit, o it ay occur at some preater stress. The elastic limit is the ‘maximum stress tat can be applied without permanent deformation to the specimen, Some curves exhibit a definite yield point, while others fdo not. When the stress exceeds a value corresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes gross plastic delormation. I the load is subsequently reduced to 0, the specimen will remain pempanent]y Seformed. ‘Measures of Yielding. The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the sensitivity ofthe stain measurements. With most materials, there isa gradual transition from Clastc to plastic behavioe, and the Point at which plastic deformation begins is difficult to define with precision. In tests of materials under Uniaxial foading, three criteria for the initiation of yiekdng have been ‘sed: the elastic Timi, the proportional limit, and the yield strength. Elastic limit, shown at point B in Fig, 1, isthe greatest stress the ‘material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain remaining after the complete release of load. With incressing sensitiv ity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit is decreased tnt it equals the tre elastic limit determined from microstrain meas- ‘urements, With the sensitivity of stain typically used in engineering studies (10-* mnvfaxm oi.) the elastic limit is greater than the pro- portional limit. Determination of the elastic limit requires 2 tedious Incremental loading-unloading test procedure. For this reason, itis often replaced by the proportional limit ‘The yield strength, shown at point YS in Fig. 1 is the stress required to produce a small specified amount of plastic deformation. The usial definition ofthis property is the offset yield strength determined by the stress coresponding tothe intersection of the stress-strain curve offset bya specified strain (sce Fig, 1) In the United States, the offset is ust ally spocified as a strain of 0.2% or 0.1% (e = 0.002 or 0.001) (Offet yield strength determination requires specimen that has been Yoaded to its 0.28 offset yield strength and unloaded so that itis 0.2% Jonger than before the test. The offset yield strength is referred to in 180 Standards asthe proof stess (Ry, oF Ryq.)- Inthe EN standards for materials that do not have a yield phenomenon present, the 0.2% proof strength (Ryg2) 0.5% (&yq.s) is determined. The nonpropor- Tional elongation is either 0.1%, 0.2%, of 0.5%. The yield strength ‘oblained by an offset method is commonly used for design and speci- FReation purposes, because i avoids the practical dificulties of measur ing the elastic limit or proportional Limit. ‘Some materials have essentially no linear portion to their stress strain curve, for example, soft copper or gray cast iron. For these mate rials, the offset method cannot be used, and the usual practice is to define the yield strength asthe stress to produce some total strain, for example, ¢ = 0.005. The European Standard for general-purpose cop- Der rod, EN 12163 (Ret 8), gives approximate 0,2% proof strength (Ryo) for information, but itis not a requitement. This approach i fl- Towed for other material forms (bar and wire), but for some copper tuhes, a maximum Ryo2 is specified For copper alloy pressure vessel plate and some spring strip, a minimum Ryo is specified. Materials with Yield Point Phenomenon. Many metals, particu- larly annealed low-carbon stel, show a localized, heterogeneous type Of transition from elastic to plastic deformation tat produces a yield point in the stress-strain curve. Rather than having a flow curve with a ‘gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, such as Fig. 4(0, "cals with a yield point proce a low curve ora load-elongation di ‘gram similar to Fig. 4(b). The load increases steadily with elastic strain, Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 3 ~ Elongation Tiongason Fig. 4 lene los of ese sin} Contacus ying condition.) Discon 1B 4 aoe eng with an upper i ol Aaa elaely costa yet ing wes Bue drops suddenly, fluctuates about some approximately constant value of load, and then rises with further strain. Tn EN standards for materials exhibiting yield point, the upper yield strength, Re may be specified. The upper and lower yield stess (Re, Fa) are specified in some EN and ISO standards in units of Nim (ENimum?= | MPa), EN 10027-1 (Ref 9) notes te term “yield strength” as used inthis European standard roles to upper or lower yield strength (Rag oF Rx), proof strength (Re), or the proof strength (otal extension (R), depending on the requirement specified in the relevant product standard. This serves as caution thatthe details on how the “yield strength of “yield point” is defined must be known when making ny ‘comparisons or conclusions as to the materials characteristics “Typical yield point behavior of low-carbon steel is shown in Fig. 5. The slope ofthe initial linear portion ofthe stress-strain curve, desig nated by B, isthe modulus of elasticity. The load at which the sudéen drop occur is called the upper yield point. The constant load is called the lower yield point, and the elongation that occurs at constant load is called the yield-point elongation. The deformation occurring through ‘out the yield-point elongation is heterogeneous. At the upper yield Point, «discrete band of deformed metal, often readily visible, appears ata siess concentration such asa fillet Coincident with the formation ‘of the band, the load drops to the lower yield point. The band then Propagates slong the length ofthe specimen, causing the yield point longation Tn typical cases, several bands form at several pons of stress con- centration. These bands are generally at approximately 45° to the ten4/ Allas of Stress-Strain Curves re bSovtton | Fig, 5. typical yl point behavior of iow-cbon tt sile axis. They are usually called Liders bands, Hartmann lines, or stretcher strains, and this type of deformation is sometimes referred to asthe Piobert effect They are visible and canbe aesthetically undesir- able. When several Liders bands are formed, the How eurve during the yiekd-point elongation is iregular, each jog corresponding to the for- mation ofa new Liders band. After the Lders bands have propagated to cover the entre length of the specimen test section, the flow will Jncrease with strain in the typical manner. This marks the end ofthe yield-point elongation. The transition from undeformed to deformed ‘matecal atthe Liters front ean be seen at low magnification in Fig. 6 ‘The rough surface areas are the Liders bands inthe low-carbon steel ‘These bands are also formes in certain sluminum-magnesium alloys, Nonlinear Segment of Continued Deformation Strain Hardening, The stress required to produce continued plastic deformation increases with increasing plastic strain; that is, the metal strain hardens. The volume of the specimen (area x length) remains constant during plastic deformation, AL = Aol, and as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area decreases uniformly along the gage length Inidally, the strain hardening more than compensstes for this ecrease in area, and the engineering stress (proportional to load P) continues to rise with increasing strain. Eventually, a point is reached ‘where the decrease in specimen cross-sectional area is greater than the increas in deformation load arising from strain hardening, This condi tion will be reached fist at some point in the specimen that i slightly ‘weaker than the rst. All futher plastic deformation is concentrated in Fig, 6 ders bands roughenad areas) which have propagated along the lng "© ls specinan of eal stel shew Wot wae teed it terion, Unplitied,cnetched Low magicston ‘his region, andthe specimen begins to neck oF thin down locally. The strain up to this point hss been uniform, as indicated on Fig. 1, Because the cross-sectional area is now decreasing far more rapidly than the ability to resist the deformation by strain hardening, the actual load required to deform the specimen decreases and the engineering sttess defined in Eq 1 continues to decrease until fracture oceuts, at X. The tensile strength, oF ultimate tensile strength, Sy 6 de max- mur oad divided by the original eoss sectional area of he specimen = fam £46) The tensile strength isthe value mos frequently quoted from the results of a tension test. Actually, however, iti a vale of little Fundamental significance with regard tthe strength of a meta. For ductile metals, the tensile strength should be regarded as a measure of the maxim Toad that a metal can withstand under the very restrictive conditions of ‘uniaxial loading. This value bears lite elation tothe useful strength of the metal under the more complex conditions of stress that usually are ‘encountered For many years, it was customary to hase the strength of structural ‘members on the tensile strength, suitably reduced by a factor of safety, The current trend isto the more rational approach of basing the static design of ductile metals onthe yield strength. However, because of the long practice of using the tensile strength to describe the strength of materials, it has become a familiar property, and as such, i isa useful identification of a material in the same sense thatthe chemical compo- sition serves to identity a metal or alloy. Furthermore, because the fen- sile strength is easy to determine and isa reproducible property itis useful for the purposes of specification and for quality control of a product, Extensive empirical coreations between tensile strength and properties such as hardness and fatigue strength are often useful, For brite materials, the tensile strength is a valid design criterion, Measures of Ductility. Curealy, ductility is considered « qualita tive, subjective propecty of a material. In general, measurements of Auctlty are of interest in three respects (Ref 10) © To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without {racture in metalworking operations such a8 rolling and extrusion ‘© TToindicate tothe designer the ability of the metal to flow plastically before fracture. A high ductility indicates that the material is “for giving” and likely to deform locally without fracture should the de- signer erin the stress calculation oF the prediction of severe loads, (© To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions. Ductlity measurements may be specified to assess ma- terial quay, eventhough no direct relationship exists between the ‘ductility measurement and performance in service. ‘The conventional measures of ductility that arc obtained from the tension fest are the engineering strain at fracture, cy, (usualy called the elongation) and the reduetion in area at fracture, q. Hlongation and reduction in area usually are expressed as a percentage. Both of these properties are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back together and taking measurements of the final length, Le and Binal spec- men cross section, Ar 7 An=Ae . es) Because an appreciable fraction ofthe plastic deformation will be ‘concentrated in the necked region ofthe tension specimen, the value of|Representation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 5 will depend on the gage length Lo over which the measurement was. taken (ee the section of ths article on ductility measurement in teasion testing) The smaller the gage Tength the greater the contribution to the ‘overall elongation from the necked region and the higher the value of fr Therefore, when reporting values of percentage elongation, the gage Tength, Zo, should always be given ‘Reduction in area does not sufer from this difficulty. These values can be converted into an equivalent 2ero-gage-length elongation, ey From the constancy of volume relationship for plastic deformation (AL = Aol) L oo 9) ‘This represents the elongation based on a very short gage length near the fracture. Another way to avoid the complications resulting from necking is fo base the percentage elongation on the uniform stain out to the point at which necking begins. The uniform elongation, ey, co relates well with stretch-forming operations. Because the engineering stress strain curve often is quite flat in the vicinity of necking, it may be difficult o establish the stein at maximum load without ambiguity. In this case, the method suggested in Ref 1 is useful ‘The toughness of « material is its ability to absorb energy up tothe point of fracture or rupture. The ability to withstand occasional stresses fbove the yield stress without fracturing is particularly desirable in parts such as feight-car couplings, gears, chains, and crane hooks, ‘Toughness is a commonly used concept that is difficult to precisely define. Toughness may be considered to be the total area under the Stress strain curve tothe point of fracture. This area, which is refered tos the moduls of toughness, Ur, is the amount of work per unit vol- tame that can be done on the mutetil without causing i to rupture Figure 3 shows the stres-srain curves for high- and low-toughness saterials. The high-carbon spring stel has a higher yield stength und tensile strength than the medium-cazbon structural steel. However, the structural steel is more ductile and has a greater total elongation, The total area under the stress-strain curve is greater forthe structural see; therefore, itis a tougher material. This ilustrates that toughness is a parameter that comprises both strength and ductility ‘True Stress-Strain Curves “The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal, ecause i is based entirely on the orginal dimensions of the specimen and these dimensions change continously during the test. Also, a ductile metal that is pulled in tension bbecomes unstable and necks down during the course ofthe test. Because the cross sectional area ofthe specimen is decreasing rapidly at this stage in the test, the load required to continue deformation lessens. "The average stress based on the original area likewise decreases, and this produces the downturn in the engineering stress-strain curve beyond the point of maximum load, Actually, the metal continues to stain harden to fracture, so thatthe tess required to produce further defor ‘mation should also increase If the rue stess, based on the actual eross- sectional area of the specimen, is used, the stress-strain curve increases ‘continuously to fracture. Ifthe stain measurement is also based on instantaneous measurement, che curve that i obtained is known as true- stresgrue-sran curve. Flow Curve. The «me scres-strain curve js also known as a flow curve, beeause it represents the basic plastc-flow characteristics of the ‘material. Any point on the flow curve can be considered the yield stress {ora metal strained in tension by the amount shown on the curve. Thus, ifthe load is removed at his point and then reapplied, the material will ‘throughout the entire range of reloading The true stress, 0, i expressed in terms of engineering sess, S, by: (6410) ‘The derivation of Bq 10 assumes both constancy of volume (AL ‘AgLe) and a homogeneous distribution of stain along the gage length ‘of the tension specimen. Thus, Eq 10 should be used only until the ‘onset of necking. Beyond the maximum load, the true sress should be determined from actual measurements of load and cross-sectional area, rn on 2 1p ‘The true strain, ¢, may be determined from the engineering or con: ventional strain, e, From Eq 2: Mtl bh ky ‘To determine the tue stain, the instantaneous change in length (dis divided by the length, HL tate) 412) (&q13) exin(er)) 41s) ‘This equation is applicable only tothe onset of necking forthe reasons discussed above. Beyond maximum load, the tue strain should be based on actual area or diameter, D, measurements: A (x Divs Do ole on SOM oa es Figure 7 compares the te-stress/rue-srain curve with its come- sponding engineering stress-strain curve. Note that, because of the rel- atively lange plastic strains, the elastic region has been compressed into the years, In agreement with Eq 10 and 14, the tue-stress/rue-strain ‘cuve is always fo the left of the engineering curve unil the maximum Toad is reached, Necking. Beyond maximum load, the high, localized strains in the necked region that are used in Eq 15 far exceed the engineering strain '* Meximum lose © Fracture Fig. 7 Comparison of engineering and wesresstestain coves6 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves 3 5 | ae 8 oping lt of seston cue. nthe tn hadeig ox Fig 8 Teer the seg cout aed calculated from Fi 2. Frequently, the flow curve is linear from mani- mum load to fractare, while in other cases its slope continuously decreases to fracture. The formation of a necked region or mild notch introduces triaxial stresses that make it difficult to determine accurately the longitudinal tensile stress fom the onset of necking until fracture ‘occurs. This concept is discussed in greater detail in the section “Corrected Stess-Stran Curves” in this anicle. The following param ers usually are determined from tho trve-stress/tre-stain curv. ‘The true stress at maximum load comesponds to the true tensile strength. For most materials, necking hegins at maximuan load at a value of strain where the tue stress equals the slope ofthe flow curve. Let oy and e, denote the ue stress and true stain at maximum load when the cross-sectional area of the specimen is Ay. From Eq 6 the engineering ultimate tensile strength can be defined a 415) 1) (ea 18) ea where ¢ isthe base of natural logarithm, so ye 4% The true fracture stress isthe load at fracture divided by the cross- scetional area at facture, This stress should be corrected forthe trax Jal state of stress existing inthe tensile specimen at fracture. Because the data requited for this correction frequently are not availabe, trbe fracture stress values ae frequently in eror ‘The true fracture strain, ey isthe true strain based onthe original area, Ag, and the area after facture, A tents Ae a1 rata A ea) This parameter represents the maximum tue stsin tha dhe material can withstand before fracture and is analogous othe total strain to frac- (ure ofthe engineering stress-strain curve. Because E14 isnot valid beyond the onset of necking, itis not possible to calculate from Fig. 9 Various ams of power cares = et measured values of ep However, for cylindrical tensile specimens, the reduction in ares, qis related to the te fracture strain by ta 42) ‘The true uniform strain, ey is the true strain based only on the strain up to maximum load, ft may be calculated from either the spec- ‘men cross-sectional area, 4, oF the gage length, Z, at maximum load. Equation 15 may be used to convert conventional uniform stra to trae ‘uniform strain. The uniform strain frequently is useful in estimating the formability of metals from the results ofa tension test an eam The true local necking strain ys the strain required to deform the specimen from maximum load to fracture: ea) ‘Mathematical Expression of the Flow Curve. The flow curve of ‘many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be expressed by tho simple power-curve relation on Ke (ea25) where m isthe strain-hardening exponent and K isthe strength coeffi- cient. A log-log plot of true stress and true stain up to maximum load will result in a straight line if Fq 25 is satisfied by the data (Fig. 8) ‘The linear slope ofthis line isn, and K isthe tre stress at € = 1.0 (corresponds to q = 0.63). As shown in Fig, 9, the stain-hardening ‘exponent may have values from n =O (peefectly plastic solid) to m = 1 {elastic solid), For most metals, n has values between 0.10 and 0.50 (see Table 2) Table 2 Values for n and K for metals at room temperature 005% exon ied Annee os > SAL Anedod Oise os OGiccatonsel —Guencdanengert DID 151228 500°C (000) Soe cubonsest —Qlentedsodenperd 019 BT 78S 708" 300" Songer meals os mas Sab tse ‘wes 08 BeRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 7 ‘The rate of strain hardening do/de isnot identical to the strain hardening exponent. From the definition ofn ogo) _ ddne) _ 2, ogo) ~ dine) ~ oat . €426) tions from Bq 25 frequently are observed, often at low strains (10) or high strains (@ = 1.0), One common type of deviation is fora Tog-log plo of Eq 25 to result ia two straight lines with different slopes. Sometimes data that do not plot according to Eq 25 will yield a straight Tine according to the relationship: = Keore" eam qcan be considered tobe the smount of strain hardening thatthe mate- rial received prior tothe tension test (Ref 14). Another commen varia tion on Eq 25 is the Ludwik equation: = 09+ Ke 428 where isthe yield stress, and K and n are the same constants as in Eq 25. This equation may bo more satisfying than Eq 25, because the latter implies that at 0 rue strain the sires is 0, Tt has been shown that {9 can be obined from the intercept ofthe strain hardening portion of the stess-strain curve and the elastic modatus line by (Ref 15): o-(S)"" 429) The true-sress/rue-sran curve of metals such as austenite stainless steel, which deviate markedly from Ei 25 at low strains (Ref 16), can be expressed by: Om Ker cho chi et 430) ‘where eX; is approximately equal to the proportional mit, andy isthe slope of the deviation of suess from Eq 25 plotted against e. Other expressions forthe flow curve are available (Ref 17,18). “The true strain term in Eq 25 10 28 properly should be the plastic rt 2 eas where eg opresets cae sin, Sahisaly, ss shown on te engineering curve as gion of cla longaion anda opon op ongaton sre geet ‘omuke ool congue Instability in Tension, Necking generally begins at maximum load daring the tensile deformation of ductile metal. An ideal plaste mate- rial in which no stain hardening occurs would become unstable in ten- Sion and begin to neck as soon a yielding occurred. However an actual metal undergoes strain hardening, which tends to increas the load-car- fying capacity ofthe specimen at deformation increases. Ths effect is ‘opposed by the gradual decrease inthe cross-sectional area of the spec- ‘men as it elongates. Necking or localized deformation begins at max- ‘mum load, where the incroase in stress due to decrease inthe cross- sectional ara ofthe specimen becomes greater than the increase in the Toad-carzying ability of the metal due to strain hardening, This condi- tion of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the condition that Pisa its maximum, dP. , ea) From te eons olan eosin = a and fm ns cotioe 4 32): oe cea39 soit ata pont es nai a) Se oe a $ ” =| apie Fig. 10, Gopi option rch crion the pil ego a ‘tum lod canbe cred Forth tuestestnasatan cave y finding lahheponton te cane hangs sng o unity or the pen hee doe = Fig, 11 Comicon othe derision fh pit of sen8 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Therefore, the point of necking at maximum load can be obtained from the true-stress/irie-strain curve by finding the point on the curve hav inga subtangent of unity (Fig. 10a) or the point where the rate of strain hardening equals the stess (Fig. 106). The necking criterion can be expressed more explicitly if engineering stan is used. Starting with Eq 36 iene ee HEB aye £. by Ga [Equation 37 permits an interesting geometrical construction forthe determination ofthe point of maximum load (Ref 19). In Fig. 11, the stress.srain curve is plotted in terms of rue stess against engineering strain, Let point A representa negative strain of 1.0. ine drain fom, point A. which is tangent to the stress-strain curve, will establish the point of maximum load, because according t9 Eq 37, the slope at this point is a(t +) By substituting the necking criterion given in Bq 36 into Fag 26, a simple relationship for the stain at which necking occurs is obtained This strain is the rue uniform strain, ey fon (438) Although Bq 26 is based on the assumption thatthe flow cure is given bby Eq 25, ithas been shown that ¢, = n docs not depend on this power- law behavior Ref 20) Corrected Stress-Strain Curves Stress Distribution at the Neck. The formation of a neck in the tensile specimen introduces a complex triaxial state of stress in that region. The necked region isin effet a mikd notch. A notch under ten sion produces radial stress, 6, and transverse stress, cy, Which raise the value of longitudinal stress required to cause’ the plastic flow. Therefore, the average true stress atthe neck, which is determined by dividing the axial tensile load by the minimum cross-sectional area of the specimen at the neck, is higher than the stress that would be required to cause flow if simple tension prevailed ig, 12 Sues dtbion atthe rack ofa tetle specimen. a) Geomety of Fig 12 veedrepon fishes cunt of heels eso an es ate nek, EF Sess acing on eee apo othe esi the ‘lt dct: heal sro, he cave ss igure 12 illustrates the geometry at the necked region and the stresses developed by this localized deformation, Ris the radius of cur= ‘ature ofthe neck, whieh can be measured ether by projecting the con ‘our ofthe necked region on a screen or by using # tapered, conical radius gage. Bridgman made 2 mathematical analysis that provides @ correction to the average axial stress to compensate for the introduction of trans- verse stresses (Ref 21). This analysis was based on the following assumptions {The contour ofthe neck i approximated by the arc ofa ciel. '© The cross section of the necked region remiins circular throughout the tet, ‘The von Mises criterion for yielding applies. (© The strains are constant over the cross section of the neck: ‘According to this analysis, the uniaxial flow stress corresponding to that which would exist in the tension testi necking had not introduced teaxial stresses is 39) where (6) the measured sires inthe axial direction (load divided by minimum cross section). Figure 7 shows how the application of the Bridgman correction changes the true stess/true-strain curve. A cor- rection forthe triaxial siresses in the neck ofa flat tensile specimen has been considered (Ref 22). The values of a/R needed forthe analysis can be obitined either by straining a specimen a given amount beyond necking and unloading to measure a and R dicecty, or by measuring these parameters continuotsly past necking using photography or & ‘tapered ring gage (Ref 23). ‘Toavoid these measurements, Bridgeman presented an empirical rela- sion between a/R and the re strain in the neck. Figure 13 shows that {his gives close agreement for see! specimens, but not for other metals with widely different necking strains. A much better correlation is jobiained between the Bridgman correction and the true stain i the neck minus the tre strain at necking, ey (Ref 25). Suein.« 13 Selon twee Bran conection fa eng aed ue seRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 9 ‘Measurement in Tension Testing. The measured clonga- tion from a tension specimen depends on the gage length of the speci men or the dimensions ofits cross section. This is Decause the total txtension consists of two components: the uniform extension up 10 recking and the localized extension once necking begins (Fig. 1). The «extent of uniform extension depends on the metallurgical condition of the material (Whrough ) and the effect of specimen size and shape on the development of the neck. The shorter the gage length, the greater the influence of localized ‘deformation atthe neck on the otal elongation of the gage length. The ‘extension of a specimen at fracture can be expressed by: ly lo=a+ eo e440) ‘where cris the local necking extension and eyl9 is the uniform exten sion. The tensile elongation is then: as) ‘This clearly indicates thatthe total elongation is function of the spec imen gage length The shorter the gage length, the greater the percent elongation. "Numerous attempts have eon made to rationalize the strain distri= bution in the tension test. Perhaps the most general conclusion that can be drawn is that geometrically similar specimens develop geometr- cally similar necked regions. ‘Further details on the necking phenomenon can be found inthe arti- cle "Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive Loads” in Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Volume 8 of the ASM Handbook (Ref 25). Notch Tensile Test. Ducilty measurements on standard smooth ten sile specimens do not always reveal metallurgical or environmental ‘changes that lead to reduced local ductility. The tendency for reduced ‘doctility inthe presence ofa triaxial stress field and steep stress gradients (uch a8 arise a a notch) i called notch sensitivity. A common way of ‘evaluating notch sensitivity is tension test using notched specimen, Compression Testing ‘The compression test consists of deforming a cylindrical specimen to produce a shorter ylinder of larger diameter (upsetting). The com- pression testis a convenient method for determining the stress-strain response of materials at large strains (¢ > 0.5) because the testis not subject tothe instability of necking that occurs in a tension test. Also, itmay be convenient t0 use the compression test because the specimen, is relatively easy to make, and it does not require a large amount of material. The compression testis frequently used in conjunction with evaluating the workability of materials, especially at elevated tempera ture, because most deformation processes, such as forging, havea high ‘component of compressive stress. The test is also used with brittle ‘materials, which are difficult to machine into test specimens and diffi- cult to tensile test in perfect alignment "There are two inhctent difficulties wit the compression tes that must be overcome by the test technique: buckling of th specimen and barel- ing of the specimen. Both conditions cause nonuniform stess and strain lstribation in the specimen that make it dificult to analyze the results. Buckling is a mode of failure characterized by an unstable lateral material deflection caused by compressive stresses. Buckling is con trolled by selecting a specimen geometry with alow length-4o-diameter ratio, /D should be less than 2, and a compression specimen with LID = Lis often used, It also is important to have a very well-aligned load train and to ensure that the end faces ofthe specimen are parallel and perpendicular to the oad axis (Ref 27) Often a special alignment fix ture is used with the testing machine to ensure an accurate load path (Rel 28). Barreling isthe generation of a convex surface on the exterior of a cylinder that is deformed in compression, The cross section of such a specimen is barrel shaped. Burelin is caused by the ition between the end faces of the compression specimen and the anvils that apply the Toad. As the cylinder decreases in eight (h), it wants to increase in siameter (D) because the volume of an incompressible material must remain constant xin Bik, aks. Dat 2 i a £ i 7 ; 10 fi B é rocking | : co sss i 7 2's) | 310920059. —S0 a a a “hu tin conse san ig, 15 Flo canes 2M aly teed in conresion vs hbk Fig 14 cops ot rm si cnn csi, FA 1S re ga encom fig ent ‘andor iran conons| or Al2Mg aly Cove 2, Molo spay curve 4, boron mide alco cue 5, tllon » Malye spay, cuve 8, nse te Sores He 30. cure 3, bro aie pay carve 4 boron re shell carve 3 Teflon sd Molise spay cone posed ry anil carve 7 grooved anv Soca! Re 3010 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Compress unger nosis, GPa So ale” a «| sco Sot anda ane ong St | — 2 SN “© _| 220 » 1 a ° eee oe Oe Stain 0001 in. Compressive angen mosis? 10 pet Fig. 16 cans contig composi ssn wth compe tt ‘As the material spreads outward over the anvils, itis restrained by the fiction at this interface. The material near the midheight position is less restrained by friction and spreads laterally o the pretest extent, ‘The material next ro the anvil surfaces is restrained from spreading the ‘most; thus, the creation ofa barreled profile. This deformation pattem also leads to the development of a fegion of relatively undeformed ‘materials under the anvil surfaces, ‘This deformation behavior clearly means thatthe sess state is not uniform axial compression. In addition tothe axial compressive sess, 1 circumferential tensile stress develops asthe specimen barels (Ret 29), Beeause barreling increases with the specimen ratio Dh, the force to deform a compression eylinder increases with Dih. Calculation of Compressive Stress and Strain, The calculation of stress and strain forthe compression testis based on developing a test ‘condition that minimizes fiction (and barreling) and assumes the stress State is axial compression. When fiction can be neglected, the uniaxial ‘compressive stress (No sires) i elated tothe deformation fore P by: Ph A pees £8 44) ‘where the last term is obtained by substituting from Eq 42. In Bq 43, subscript I refers to the initial values of D and A, while subseript 2 refers 10 conditions at some subsequent value of specimen height, Equation 43 shows that the flow stress ean be obtained directly from the load P and the instantancous height (ia), provided that friction can be neglected. ‘The tre strain inthe compression testis given by: cow(e) 203) erie th dpa oft amir ameter othe se- Intron wed wise sme como ea ‘Minimizing barreling ofthe compression specimen can be accom= plished by minimizing fiction between the ends ofthe specimen and the anvils. This is dane by using an effective lubricant and machining ‘concentric rings on the end of the specimen to retain the lubricant and keep it from being squeezed out. An extensive series of tests have shown what works best (Ret 30). Figure 14 shows the te stess-true strain curve (low curve) for an annealed Al-2Mg alloy. Stess and strain were calculated as desribed in the previous section. Note how the flow curve in compression agrees ‘with that determined ina feasile rest and how the compressive curves extend 10 much larger strains because there is no specimen necking. Figure 15 extends the strain over double the range of Fig. 14, Note that fonce beyond e > 0.5, the curves begin to diverge depending on the effectiveness ofthe lubrication. The highest curve (greatest deviation fom uniaxial stress) is for grooved anvils (platens) that dig in and pre~ vent sidewise flow. Te last friction is forthe condition where a Teflon (EL DuPont de Nemours & Co, Inc., Wilmington, DE) film sprayed With Molykote (Dow Corning Corporation, Midland, MI) is placed between the anvil and the specimen. stesso) —e ‘Suess fo) ° Stain) —e « °% © Seain() Fig, 17 Diforncesbaxoen constant ses incterens and cost stain neem) qual tes increments eu in sans of ncresing cements) Equal san Inerrons ein docresing sess ncerensRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 11 Wee tht ie pe Se Siain rate") ce | ummauny (hematin air | Hghucaty ‘ ("Some | unpect | ‘tempat : Tag amagua ORR comontoat | iyaoueor Lari IMeSume TS at mated suns Macog | someone |mctinat | eae | “aie oF oading ' aches | “Tne 1 gullet i i i 1 1 T T ein ven te | Meo | eae | sea creo rate [i ascmen [plane wave | propeon ‘woes | Niece) (meee oyramie i oe | ' ‘considerations. |. ners nagiectes—el-+———inti faceimgonant ——>] 19 [eterna r= Aaaoate——> pane ent > Pane sain Exsentally no barreling occurs in room-temperature compression tests when Teflon film is placed hetween the anvil and the end of the specimen. Because the film will eventually tar, tis necessary to run the test incrementally and replace the film when an electrical signal tndcates that there is no longer a continuous film. ‘Obviously, the need to run the test incrementally is inconvenient, A seties of single-increment compression tests on a range of materials ‘with strain-hardening exponents from n = 0.08 10 049 showed that Tubricant conditions do not become significant until > 0.5 so long as este ame, Paste (nasi) range ‘Sin hardening ange ‘Yiekeint elongaton brereago nyo pat cused Eran paren ‘veces —~ Fat unioacng ¢ fan roan sata sing {-—— Duct aor rat loacng — Sean Decay ater uety of gin materi ge 19 lcs ot ws lading on sres-tan bhai, te saps nt Fig, 19 ie: th saline rprsose fe behavior og plese Te ted line specimen that hasbeen arioaed A and then rel The dashed Une Iepreseis second unnading B. ineach ease the sess based on the cose "na rex ofthe specmen messi ser he woud, ig- 18 rainste ranges and aocitd experimental equipment condtions and consequences > 0115, For stains € $ 1.0, 2 grooved specimen with molybdenum disulfide (MoS) grease lubricant gave consistenlly good results. Nearly as good results ae achieved with smooth anvils and spray coat of MoS (Ref 30). Another approach to minimize the effects of barreling is to rema- chine the specimens to their original diameter after some degree of deformation. This is costly and incoavenient and adds uncertainties to the results, For additional details on compression testing, see the arti- cle "Uniaxial Compression Testing” in Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Volume 8 of the ASM Handbook. Suess,12 / Atlas of Stress-Strain Curves Tangent Modulus Curves The tangent modulus, point on the curve. a ae ss the slope ofthe stress-strain curve at any & e445) Below the proportionality limit, has the same value as B, Figure 10 has a construction of E,= | atthe point where the stain was 2, The slope has the same units asthe stress ‘Many of the curves inthe Avas have the pot of the tangent modulus superimposed on the stress-strain curve, These curves have dual units along the x-axis, one set for strain and one set for B. Figure 16 is an ‘example, The modulus of elasticity canbe visually estimated on the in- ‘ear segment of the stress-strain curve as slightly more than 280 MPa/4 > 0,001 = 70,000 MPa or 70 GPa (40 ksi/4 X 0.001 = 10,000 ksi, o 10 X 10® psi). This corresponds tothe constant value (vertical line) on the tangent modulus curves up to the proportionality limit. At higher sires, the stress-strain curves flatten and the tangent modulus curves eerease in value. Torsional Testing Torsion tests can be cartied out on most materials to determine mechanical properties such as modulus of elasticity in shear, shear yield strength, ultimate shear strength, modulus of rapture in shear, and ‘ductility. The torsion tet can also be conducted on full-size parts (shafts, axes, and pipes) and structures (beams and frames) t0 deter- ‘mine ther response to torsional loading. Ia torsion testing, unlike ten- sile testing and compression testing, large strains can be applied before plastic instability occurs, and complications de to friction between the fest specimen and dies donot arise. ig, 21 wo. ype of hss ses sin logs ring fom Bachingr Fie 21 rec lnstantu alloy Torsion tests are most frequently carried out on prismatic bars of cit cular eross section by applying a torsional moment about the ongit- inal axis. The shear stress versus shear strain curve ean be determined from simultaneous measurements ofthe torque and angle of twist ofthe test specimen over a predetermined gage length ‘When converted from torque (in units of newton-meters or inch pounds) and angular displacement (in degrees or radians) torsional stress-strain has the same units as engineering sirest-strain, but the variance from “true” stress-strain i typically much less. On cylindi- cal specimen that does not buckle, the difference is 5% or less from engineering to “trac” stross-strain, even i the plastic (nonlinear) range. ‘There is evidence that torsion testing of hollow tubes is one of the better ways to determine the effects of strain, strain rate and tempers ture on the flow stress of materials over the range of these variables usually encountered inthe metal working process. Details on torsional ‘esting and analysis ean be found in the articles "Fundamental Aspects of Totsional Loading” and “Shear, Torsion, and Multiaxial Testing” in ‘Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Volune 8 of ASM Handbook. Mechanical Testing Details For credibility and repeatability, tests that are the basis ofthe stress strain curves are conducted in accordance with some industry, national, ‘or multinational standard. Inthe Alas, when the source documentation cites @ standard, iti so indicated in the caption. These standards pro- Vide insight to interpret the data, Details of testing methods are found in Mechanical Testing and valuation, Volume 8 of ASM Handbook. Pertinent articles include: ‘© “Testing Machines and Strain Sensors” ““Acereditation of Mechanical Testing Laboratories” ‘© “Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive Loads” “Stress Strain Behavior in Bending” “end Testing” Fundamental Aspects of Torsional Loading” “Uniaxial Tension Testing “Uniaxial Compression Testing” © “Hot Tension and Compression Testing” “Tension and Compression Testing at Low Temperatures’ © “Shear, Torsion, and Multiaxal Testing 22. swe stain loop fr constant cycingRepresentation of Stress-Strain Behavior / 13 carte ty ‘Steady sats hysteresis oops = = ete ose tn cane Fig. 23. Consrucion of eye tes-tran curve by jing ps of sbi ysere loops Test Variables “The condition of the test environment, composition, conditioning, size, shape, and history of the specimen are among the factors affect- ing the stres-srain data, These parameters are given tothe extent that they are available Test Temperature. Relative to room-temperature (RT) fests, most materials become stronger, but less ductile, at lower temperatures, and ‘more ductile, but Weaker, at higher temperatures. There are anomalous behaviors such as blue britleness. Carbon stels generally exhibit an increase in strength and a reduction of ductility and toughness at tem- peratures around 300 °C (570 °F). Because such temperatures produce ‘1 blush temper color on the suzface of the specimen, this problem has been called blue britleness. Typically, brittleness iS associated with ‘cold-temperature behavior Speed of Test. ASTM E 8 (Ref 31) ists five ways of defining the speed ofthe test: ‘© Rate of straining the specimen, deft (© Rate of stressing the specimen, dS/de Rate of the separation ofthe test machine heads during the test © Elapsed time for completing part or all ofthe test f¢ Free-nunning crosshead speed (speed of machine heads when un- loaded) Strain Rate. Average strain rates for most tension tests range between 10°? and 10° +", Greater strain rates (10! and 10? s-!) are considered dynamic tess. For a spocimen of initial gage length Lo and ‘deformed length L, the specific deformation rate is: Lae =I) ai a th) If the deformation occurs homogeneously throughout the specimen, then the specific deformation rate corresponds everywhere tothe strain rate. However, ifthe deformation is nonhomogeneous, then the strain {and strain rate) varies the specimen length, and the specific deforma- tion rate represents the spatial average strain rate. A well-known exan- ple of nonhomogeneous deformation is the propagation of deformation bands called Llders bands. Stress Rate, Figure 17 illastrates the differences in curves constructed from constant stress increments and constant srain increment. Slow Speeds. Under relatively slow straining, most materials arc assumed to transfer the heat generated by plastic deformation to their surroundings: that is, the straining is assumed to be isothermal (no change of temperature). The degree to which slow tension tests remain ‘wuly isothermal has been investigated (Ref 32). The flow stress, which is the uniaxial stress needed to continue plastic deformation of the material ata given stage of atest, is then assumed to depend only on strain and strain rte, “The strain-hardening parameter m has been defined. From Eq 26: io. ode aay In an analogous manne, the strain-rate sensitivity parameter m can be defined as: 448) Both n and m aro functions of strain and strain rate. m can be nega tive under some conditions. Hossever, average values frequently are selected for these parameters, which are then treted as constants. Values of m usually are between 0.1 and 0.5 for metals; they are ‘determined from, but not identical to, strain-hardening rates. Valoes of |