18

Evidence-Based Therapies
for Enuresis and Encopresis
PATRICK C. FRIMAN

The alimentary process terminates with the elimination of waste, specifically urine and feces. Among the most common, persistent, and stressful
presenting complaints in primary medical care for children are two
disorders involving developmentally inappropriate elimination of waste
enuresis (urine) and encopresis (feces). Evidence is found for their commonality and persistence in prevalence and age-range estimates. Prevalence
estimates range as high as 2% of 5-year-old children for encopresis and
25% of 6-year-old children for enuresis and, although both are much less
prevalent by the teenage years, they are not rare. For example, as many as
8% of boys and 4% of girls are still enuretic at age 12 (Byrd et al., 1996;
Gross & Dornbusch, 1983; Foxman et al., 1986; Friman & Jones, 1998).
Evidence of their stress-inducing properties is found in their relationship
with child abuse; incontinence is one of its leading causes (Finn, 2005;
Helfer & Kempe, 1976). Evidence is also found in surveys of child-reported
stressors; it is exceeded only by divorce and parental fights (Van Tijen et al.,
1998). Nocturnal enuresis (NE) and encopresis usually occur independently but can co-occur. This chapter will briefly describe both disorders
in terms of their diagnosis, etiology, and evaluation and then more fully
describe evidence-based treatments used for them.

ENURESIS
Diagnosis
Enuresis is the technical term used for the regular passage of urine
into locations other than those specifically designed for that purpose. The
diagnostic criteria in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical
PATRICK C. FRIMAN Girls and Boys Town, The University of Nebraska School of Medicine
311

312

FRIMAN

Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association,

1994) include repeated voiding of urine into clothing or bed at least twice
a week for at least three months. If the frequency is smaller than that
but the voiding is a cause of significant distress or impairment to social,
academic, or occupational functioning, it satisfies diagnostic criteria. The
child must be at least 5 years of age or exhibit that level of developmental
ability if developmental delays are present. The condition cannot be
directly due to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., diuretics) or a
general medical condition. The DSM further classifies NE into primary (in
which the person has never achieved urinary continence) and secondary
(in which incontinence develops after a period of continence) cases.
Additionally, the DSM subdivides NE into three subtypesnocturnal,
diurnal, and combined nocturnal and diurnal. This chapter will focus
solely on nocturnal enuresis (NE) because it is, by a very wide margin, the
most frequently presenting type.

Etiology
Multiple variables have been identified as partial causes for NE, and these
will be only briefly described here. Fuller discussions are widely available
(e.g., Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman, 1986, 1995; Friman &
Jones, 1998, 2005; Houts, 1991; Levine, 1982). Perhaps the most salient
etiological variable is family history. The probability of NE increases as
function of closeness and number of blood relations with a positive history
(Kaffman & Elizur, 1977). Delayed physiological maturation, especially in
the areas of bone growth, secondary sexual characteristics, and stature,
is correlated with NE (Fergusson et al., 1986). A strong association
between functional bladder capacity and NE has been established (Troup
& Hodgson, 1971). Although the abundant research on sleep dynamics
and NE has been marred by design flaws (cf. Friman, 1986, 1995), a recent
study appears to support what parents have long suspected, specifically,
that deep sleep and slowness to arouse may increase the likelihood of NE
(Gellis, 1994). Although there is a long history of attributing NE to psychological (e.g., psychopathology) and/or characterological (e.g., laziness)
variables, there appears to be no relationship in the vast majority of cases
(Friman et al., 1998; Friman, 2002). There was initial enthusiasm for a
finding of reduced antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in a small sample of enuretic
children (Norgaard et al., 1985), but the findings have not been replicated
across large numbers of children, and treatments that increase ADH have
had limited success (Moffat et al., 1993; see also Houts, 1991; Houts et al.,
1994). Finally, there are numerous and well-known potential physiopathological (i.e., medical) causes (e.g., urinary tract infection, diabetes, bladder
instability).

Evaluation
The treatment of NE should not proceed until a medical examination
has been conducted, because medical causes need to be either ruled

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

313

out medically or diagnosed and treated (Christophersen & Friman, 2004;

Friman, 1986, 1995; Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005). The evaluation should
also include a history with questions derived from diagnostic criteria (e.g.,
primary vs. secondary) and the etiological factors mentioned above. Some
screening for mental health problems should be included (e.g., behavior
checklists, related inquiry); if clinically significant problems are detected,
they should be targeted in the ultimate treatment plan. In addition to
addressing medical and psychological complications, the evaluation should
address three other very important topics. First, all sources of punishment
for urinary accidents should be identified and eliminated. Second, the
motivational level and availability of social resources for the parents should
be assessed because these will influence the number of components
included in treatment. For example, if the parent is minimally motivated
and/or has few social resources (e.g., single working parent), the number
will be lower. Third, the motivational level and likely cooperation of the
child should be assessed. Optimal treatment plans involve multiple components and require compliance from the child for completion of most steps.
An unmotivated or noncompliant child would be difficult to treat with any
method known to cure NE. Fortunately, NE itself usually contributes to
the afflicted childs motivation. As the quantity of pleasant experiences
missed (e.g., sleepovers, camp) and unpleasant experiences encountered
(e.g., wetness, social detection, embarrassment) accumulates, motivation
naturally increases.

Treatment
The need for treatment of NE predates modern civilization, and the variety
of techniques used in antiquity appear to have been limited only by the
imagination of the ancient therapists and their tolerance for inflicting
unpleasantness on young children in order to possibly secure therapeutic
gain. Penile binding, buttock and sacrum burning, and forced urine-soaked
pajama wearing are among the many highly aversive treatments reported
in a review of ancient approaches to NE (Glicklich, 1951). In fairness to the
ancient therapists, the health-based consequences of prolonged NE during
their time were severe, due to the limited means for cleaning bedding and
the ineffective methods for managing infection. The evolution of treatment
for NE that began in earnest early in the 20th century abandoned the
physically harsh treatments in favor of approaches that were more humane
from a physical perspective but still problematic from a psychological one.
Specifically, with the rise of Freudian psychodynamics came psychopathological characterizations of common childhood problems such as NE
(Friman, 2002). Although more protected from harsh physical treatment
than their ancestral peers, early 20th-century enuretic children were
often subject to stigma, isolation, and other negative social consequences.
The advent of behavioral theory, and the conditioning type treatments derived from it, inaugurated a virtual paradigmatic shift in
treatment. Specifically, behavioral theory rendered psychopathological
interpretations obsolete and aversive physical treatments unnecessary

314

FRIMAN

(e.g., Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman, 1986, 1995; Friman &
Jones, 1998, 2005). The cardinal conditioning-type treatment for NE has
been the urine alarm; if not the first, certainly the foremost early user
of it was Herbert Mower (Mower & Mower, 1938). Since the mid-1970s,
psychological research on medically uncomplicated NE in children has
been dominated by either the development of alternative behavioral procedures based on operant conditioning or improving urine alarm treatments
(Houts, 2000; Mellon & McGrath, 2000). Controlled evaluations of the urine
alarm indicate that this relatively simple device is 6575% effective, with
a duration of treatment around 5 to 12 weeks and a 6-month relapse rate
of 1530% (e.g., Butler, 2004; Doleys, 1977; Houts et al., 1994; Mellon
& McGrath, 2000). Most of this research has been conducted using the
bed device and, less frequently, the pajama device. Treatment involving
the alarm used alone, or in strategic combinations with other treatment
components, has been established as effective treatments according to
the Chambless criteria (Mellon & McGrath, 2000). Thus, the urine alarm
is a core treatment component that can be augmented by a range of
other strategies. The sections below will describe alarm-based treatments
in terms of method, process, and outcome and will then describe the
augmentive components with the most empirical support because they
have been shown to be effective when used either in isolation or as part of
a treatment package.

Bed Devices
The urine alarm uses a moisture-sensitive switching system that, when
closed by contact with urine seeped into pajamas or bedding, completes
a small-voltage electrical circuit and activates a stimulus that is theoretically strong enough to cause waking (e.g., buzzer, bell, light, or vibrator).
The device is placed on the bed or sewn into the pajamas. The bed
device typically involves two aluminum foil pads, one of which is perforated, with a cloth pad between them. The bed pads are placed under the
sheets of the target enuretic childs bed with the perforated pad on top.
A urinary accident results in urine seeping through perforations in the
top pad, collecting in the cloth pad, and causing contact with the bottom
sufficient to complete an electrical circuit and activate a sound-based
alarm mechanism. In principle, the awakened child turns off the alarm
and completes a series of responsibility-training steps associated with
their accidents, such as completing urination in the bathroom, changing
pajamas and sheets, and returning to bed. In practice, the alarm often
alerts parents first, who then waken the child and guide him through the
training steps (Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005).

Pajama Devices
Pajama devices are similar in function, yet simpler in design. The alarm
itself is either placed into a pocket sewn into the childs pajamas or pinned
to them. Two wire leads extending from the alarm are attached (e.g., by

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

315

small alligator clamps) on or near the pajama bottoms. When the child
wets during the night, absorption of urine by the pajamas completes an
electrical circuit between the two wire leads and activates the alarm. A
range of stimuli is available for use with the pajama devices and includes
buzzing, ringing, vibrating, and lighting.

Child- and Parent-Focused Methods

Actual alarm use can be divided into different methods, depending on the
primary management role of the child and parent. In the child-focused
method, the alarm awakens the child, who independently completes
the responsibility-training procedure. The most recent example of childfocused methods involves the use of a vibrating (rather than soundproducing) urine alarm (Ruckstuhl & Friman, 2003). In the parent-focused
method, the alarm awakens or alerts the parent, who awakens the child and
guides her through the training procedure. The training procedures vary
across published accounts and guides but generally include full arousal,
going to the bathroom to complete (or attempt) urination, changing bedding
and pajamas, resetting the alarm, and going back to bed. Parent-focused
methods are obviously dependent on the saliency of the alarm stimulus
and, with the bed device wire leads, can be extended to the parents
auditory range (e.g., in the parents bedroom). For the pajama device, either
a very loud alarm or periodic checking is necessary to allow parents to
readily attend to accidents. Although it seems logical that no matter what
method or device is used, reduced latency between onset of urination and
awakening is best, but no data are available to support this position.

Underlying Process
The mechanism of action in alarm treatment was initially described as
classical conditioning, with the alarm as the unconditioned stimulus,
bladder distention as the conditioned stimulus, and waking as the conditioned response (Mowrer & Mowrer, 1938). More recent literature emphasizes a negative reinforcement or avoidance paradigm (Friman, 1995;
Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005; Ruckstuhl & Friman, 2003) in which the child
increases sensory awareness of urinary need and exercises anatomical
responses (e.g., contraction of the pelvic floor muscles) that effectively
avoid setting off the alarm (Mellon et al., 1997). Cures are obtained slowly,
however, and during the first few weeks of alarm use the child often
awakens only after voiding completely. The aversive properties of the alarm,
however, inexorably strengthen those responses necessary to avoid it.

Evidence of Effectiveness
Reports of controlled comparative trials show the alarm-based treatment is
superior to drug treatment and other nondrug methods such as retention
control training. In fact, numerous reviews of the literature show its

316

FRIMAN

success rate is higher and its relapse rate lower than any other method
ranging as high as 80% for success and as low as 17% for relapse (Butler,
2004; Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman & Jones, 1998; Doleys,
1977; Houts et al., 1994; Mellon & McGrath, 2000). One problem with interpreting the review literature on alarm treatment is that adjunctive components are often added to improve effectiveness, resulting in treatment
packages to be described below. Additionally, there is very little research
on child-based methods and apparently only one available study on the
vibrating urine alarm. In that study, the use of the alarm produced an
approximately 50% success rate (Ruckstuhl & Friman, 2003).

Treatment Packages
The oldest, best-known and empirically supported treatment package is
Dry Bed Training (DBT; Azrin et al., 1974). Initially evaluated for use with
a group of adults with profound mental retardation, it has been systematically replicated numerous times across child populations. In addition
to the bed alarm, its initial composition included overlearning, intensive
cleanliness (responsibility) training, intensive positive practice (of alternatives to wetting), hourly awakenings, close monitoring, and rewards for
success. In subsequent iterations, the stringency of the waking schedule
was reduced and retention control training was added (e.g., Bollard &
Nettlebeck, 1982). Other similar programs were also developed, the bestknown and empirically supported of which is Full Spectrum Home Training
(FSHT; Houts & Liebert, 1985; Houts et al., 1984a). It includes the alarm,
cleanliness training, retention control training, and overlearning. Multiple
variations are now available (e.g., Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman,
1986, 1995; Friman & Jones, 1998; 2005). Component analyses have been
conducted on both major programs, and the findings show that the alarm
is the critical element and that the probability of success increases as
the number of additional components are added (Bollard & Nettlebeck,
1982; Houts et al., 1986). Therefore, the following section will describe
a broad range of additional components, starting with those that either
have independent empirical support or have been part of programs that
have empirical support. The section will then describe a series of components that have yet to be evaluated alone or as part of a treatment
program but are frequently prescribed, and the logic of their inclusion is
consistent with the learning and physiological dynamics of learning and
urination.

Empirically Supported Components of Conventional

Programs
Retention Control Training (RCT)
The emergence of RCT followed the observation that many enuretic children
had reduced functional bladder capacity (Muellner, 1960, 1961; Starfield,
1967). RCT expands functional bladder capacity by requiring children to

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

317

drink extra fluids (e.g., 16 oz of water or juice) and delay urination as long
as possible and thus increase the volume of their diurnal urinations and
expand the interval between urges to urinate at night (Muellner, 1960,
1961; Starfield, 1967; Starfield & Mellits, 1968). Parents are instructed to
establish a regular time for RCT each day and conclude the training at least
a few hours before bedtime. Progress can be assessed by monitoring the
amount of time the child is able to delay urination and/or the volume of
urine he is able to produce in a single urination (Christophersen & Friman,
2004; Friman, 1986, 1995; Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005). Either or both
can be incorporated into a game context wherein children earn rewards
for progress. RCT is successful in as many as 50% of cases (Doleys, 1977;
Starfield & Mellits, 1968).

Kegel/Stream Interruption Exercises

Kegel exercises involve purposeful manipulation of the muscles necessary
to prematurely terminate urination or contraction of the muscles of
the pelvic floor (Kegel, 1951; Muellner, 1960). Originally developed for
stress incontinence in women (Kegel), a version of these exercisesstream
interruptionhas been used in NE treatment packages for years (Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman, 1986, 1995; Jones & Friman, 1998,
2005). For children, stream interruption requires initiating and terminating
urine flow at least once a day during a urinary episode. The use of stream
interruption exercises in the treatment of NE is logical from a physiological
perspective, because terminating an actual or impending urinary episode
involves the same muscle systems. A major study of Kegel exercises showed
that their regular practice eliminated accidents in 47 of 79 children with
diurnal enuresis. Stream interruption was used to train the appropriate
muscle contractions, but dry contraction composed the exercise and it
was held for 5 to 10 seconds, followed by a 5-second rest, 10 times, on 3
separate occasions a day (Schneider et al.,1994). Of the 52 children who
also wet at night, nocturnal episodes were eliminated in 18 and improved
in 9 children.

Waking Schedule
This treatment component involves waking enuretic children and guiding
them to the bathroom for urination. Results obtained are attributed to a
change in arousal, increased access to the reinforcing properties of dry
nights (Bollard & Nettlebeck, 1982), and urinary urge in lighter stages
of sleep (Scharf & Jennings, 1988). In a representative study using a
staggered waking schedule, four of nine children reduced their accidents
to less than twice a week, suggesting a waking schedule may improve,
but is unlikely to cure, NE (Creer & Davis, 1975). The early use of
waking schedules typically required full awakening, often with sessions
that occurred in the middle of the night (e.g., Creer & Davis, 1975; Azrin
et al., 1974). But subsequent research showed partial awakening (e.g.,
Rolider & Van Houten, 1986; Rolider et al., 1984) or conducting waking

318

FRIMAN

sessions just before the parents normal bedtime (Bollard & Nettlebeck,
1982) was just as effective. Thus, these less stringent methods are now a
conventional component of multicomponent treatment plans (e.g., Friman,
1986, 1995; Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005; Houts & Liebert, 1985). In
fact, a component analysis of Dry Bed Training showed that a combination of the reduced effort waking schedule and the urine alarm produced
results that were close to those produced by the full program (Bollard &
Nettlebeck, 1982).

Overlearning
An adjunct related to RCT involves overlearning. Like the RCT procedure,
this method requires that children drink extra fluidsbut just prior to
bedtime. Overlearning is an adjunctive strategy only and is used primarily
to enhance the maintenance of treatment effects established by alarmbased means. Thus, it should not be initiated until a dryness criterion has
been reached (e.g., seven dry nights; Houts & Liebert, 1985).

Cleanliness Training
Some form of consequential effort directed toward returning soiled beds,
bed clothing, and pajamas to a presoiled state is a standard part of DBT
(Azrin et al., 1974), FSHT (Houts et al., 1984a, 1985; Houts & Liebert,
1985), and other variations (e.g., Luciano et al., 1993). It has not been
evaluated independently of other components and, thus, the extent of
its contribution to outcome is unknown. Its contribution to the logic
of treatment, however, suggests its status as a treatment component is
probably permanent.

Reward Systems
Contingent rewards alone are unlikely to cure NE but are a component of
Dry Bed Training (Azrin et al., 1974), have been included in many multiplecomponent treatment programs since then (e.g., Luciano et al., 1993), and
are routinely recommended in papers describing effective treatment (e.g.,
Chrisophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman, 1986, 1995; Friman & Jones,
1998, 2005). With the current state of the literature, it is impossible to
determine their independent role in treatment. A plausible possibility is
that they sustain the enuretic childs motivation to participate in treatment,
especially when the system reinforces success in small steps. If dry nights
are initially infrequent and motivation begins to wane, decreases in the
size of the urine stain can be used as the criteria for earning a reward.
In the initial report of this method, tracing paper was laid over the spot
and the number of 1-inch squares contained within the spot was counted
(Ruckstuhl & Friman, 2003).

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

319

Additional Components with Less Empirical Support

and/or Conventional Usage
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring provides data that can be used to evaluate progress and,
when used for that purpose, does not appear to involve treatment. One
simple method for monitoring NE merely requires the child to record on a
calendar whether the previous night was wet or dry. A more complex and
more sensitive method involves the size of spot measure described above
(Ruckstuhl & Friman, 2003). In addition to supplying data, however, the
literature on self-monitoring shows it has reactive properties and thus can
actually be considered a treatment component. The direction of the change
self-monitoring brings about is determined by the valence of the behaviors
that are monitored (e.g., Nelson, 1977). Because nocturnal wetting is view
negatively by afflicted children, their self-monitoring of it could produce
decreases.

Hypnotism
A major obstacle to appraising hypnotism from an evidence-based
perspective is the difficulty in operationally defining what it actually is.
Here it will be considered hyper-relaxation brought about by an arousal
reducing verbal interaction between child and therapist, the end result of
which is an increase in instructional control or susceptibility to suggestion.
Once the relaxed state is achieved, the therapist makes a number of suggestions pertaining to continence. In the best-known study using hypnosis for
treatment of enuresis, 31 of 40 subjects became fully continent (Olness,
1975). A subsequent independent study reported full continence in 20 of
28 bedwetting participants (Stanton, 1979). The results of the two studies,
although remarkable, were reported more than 25 years ago, and full
independent replications have not been reported. Additionally, studies
attempting to determine the additive role of hypnosis to treatment packages
have produced inconsistent results (e.g., Edwards & Van Der Spuy, 1985;
Banerjee et al., 1993). Therefore, the evidence-based picture of hypnosis
is unclear from two perspectives: clear operationalized descriptions of the
independent variable and outcome data.

Paired Associations
Paired association involves pairing Kegel exercises (stream interruption)
with the urine alarm in a reward-based program. In a typical scenario,
a tape recording of the urine alarm sounding at strategically placed
temporal intervals is taken into the bathroom by the child and played as
urination proceeds. At each sounding of the alarm on the tape, the child
stops urine flow. The number of starts and stops are then included in
part of a reward-based interaction between child and parent. The pairedassociation procedure has not yet been evaluated, but some basic literature
supports its potential effectiveness. For example, sleeping persons can

320

FRIMAN

make discriminations between stimuli on the basis of meaningfulness and

prior training (Oswald et al., 1960), and the probability of a correct discrimination is significantly improved through contingent reinforcement (Zung
& Wilson, 1961). Thus, reinforcing a relationship between stream interruption and the alarm while the child is awake may increase the probability
the child will interrupt urination in response to the alarm while asleep.

Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive therapy, a version of psychotherapy, competed favorably with
conditioning treatment in a comparative trial more than a decade ago
(Ronen et al., 1992). Although two other papers describing successful
cognitive therapy have been published by the same group (Ronen et al.,
1995; Ronen & Wozner, 1995), they essentially report the same findings.
From an evidence-based perspective, these findings should be viewed with
caution, for several reasons. After more than a decade, the findings still
have not been independently replicated, despite the ease of their application. Second, the findings are dramatically inconsistent, with over 50
years of research showing the routine success of behavioral approaches
and routine failure of purely psychological (e.g., cognitive) approaches to
treatment of NE (Friman, 1986, 1995; Friman & Jones, 1998; Houts, 1991,
2000; Mellon & McGrath, 2000). Third, the authors made no attempt to
explain how a purely cognitive approach could so powerfully influence a
problem that has such a fundamentally biological basis. Fourth and finally,
the original study is flawed methodologically in several ways (see Houts,
2000, for a thorough critique).

Medication
Although the primary purpose of this chapter is to survey evidence-based
psychological approaches to NE, the literature indicates that physicians
prescribe drug therapy for NE more frequently than they do any other
treatment (Blackwell & Currah, 1973; Cohen, 1975; Fergusson et al., 1986;
Rauber & Maroncelli, 1984; Vogel et al., 1996). Because of the necessity of
physician involvement in NE, the widespread use of drug therapy by physicians, and the dominating influence of the biobehavioral model of NE, it is
likely that medication will often be part of treatment (e.g., Christophersen
& Friman, 2004; Friman 1995; Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005; Houts, 1991;
Mellon & McGrath, 2000). Therefore, the two most commonly prescribed
types of medicationsantidepressants and antidiureticswill be briefly
discussed here.

Tricyclic Antidepressants
Historically, tricyclic antidepressants were the drugs of choice for
treatment of NE, and imipramine was the most frequently prescribed
drug treatment (Blackwell & Currah, 1973; Foxman et al., 1986; Rauber
& Maroncelli, 1984; Stephenson, 1979). The mechanism by which

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

321

imipramine reduces bed wetting is still, for the most part, unknown
(Stephenson, 1979). In doses between 25 and 75 mg given at bedtime,
imipramine has produced initial reductions in wetting in substantial
numbers of enuretic children, often within the first week of treatment
(Blackwell & Currah, 1973). Reviews of both short- and long-term studies
show NE usually recurs when tricyclic therapeutic agents are withdrawn
(Ambrosini, 1984). The permanent cure produced with imipramine is
reported to be 25% (ranging from 540%) (Blackwell & Currah, 1973; Houts
et al., 1994). There are some concerns with the use of imipramine for NE,
ranging from a potential detrimental effect on behavioral treatment (Houts
et al., 1984b) to a large number of unpleasant and sometimes unhealthful
side effects (e.g., Cohen, 1975; Friman, 1986; Herson et al., 1979).

Antidiuretics
As described in the section on etiology, Norgaard and colleagues reported
on a small number of enuretic children who had abnormal circadian
patterns of ADH (Norgaard et al., 1985; Rittig et al., 1989). As a result of
these reports, desmopressin (DDAVP), an analogue of ADH, has rapidly
became a popular treatment for NE, and it appears to have displaced
the tricyclics as the most prescribed treatment. DDAVP concentrates
urine, thereby decreasing urine volume and intravesical pressure, which
makes the physiological dynamics that precede urination less probable
and nocturnal continence more probable. DDAVP also has far fewer side
effects than imipramine (Dimson, 1986; Ferrie et al., 1984; Norgaard et al.,
1985; Novello & Novello, 1987; Pedersen et al., 1985; Post et al., 1983).
Recommended dosages are 10 to 20 ug taken at bedtime.
Research on DDAVP has yielded mixed results, with success in some
studies (Dimson, 1986; Pederson et al., 1985; Post et al., 1983) but not
in others (Ferrie et al., 1984; Scharf & Jennings, 1988). A recent review
indicated that fewer than 25% of children become dry on the drug (a much
larger percentage show some improvement) and, similar to tricyclics, its
effects appear to last only as long as the drug is taken and are less likely to
occur in younger children or children who have frequent accidents (Moffat
et al., 1993; see also Houts et al., 1994; Pederson et al., 1985; Post et al.,
1983). Additionally, DDAVP is very expensive. Nonetheless, its treatment
effects, when they occur, are as immediate as imipramine but with fewer
side effects. Thus, DDAVP may be preferable to imipramine as an adjunct
to treatment, and a review of the relevant literature suggested including
it with alarm-based treatment has the potential to boost the already high
success obtained by the alarm to 100% (Mellon & McGrath, 2000).

FUNCTIONAL ENCOPRESIS (FE)

Diagnosis
FE is a common, undertreated, and often overinterpreted form of fecal
incontinence. The definition of FE has remained relatively consistent across

322

FRIMAN

versions of the DSM, and the current version (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) lists four criteria: (1) repeated passage of feces into
inappropriate places whether involuntary or intentional; (2) at least one
such event a month for at least three months; (3) chronological age is at
least 4 years (or equivalent developmental level); and (4) the behavior is
not due exclusively to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a
general medical condition except through a mechanism involving constipation. The DSM also describes two types: primary, in which the child has
never had fecal continence, and secondary, in which incontinence returns
after at least six months of continence. Because research on treatment
typically does not distinguish between the two, they will be collapsed here.
Although all forms of incontinence require evaluation and treatment,
FE, when left untreated, is more likely than other forms (such as NE) to lead
to serious and potentially life-threatening medical sequelae and seriously
impaired social acceptance, relations, and development. The reasons for
the medical sequelae will be summarized briefly in the Etiology and Evaluation sections below. The primary reason for the social impairment is that
soiling evokes more revulsion from peers, parents, and important others
than other forms of incontinence (and most other behavioral problems).
As an example, severe corporal punishment for fecal accidents was still
recommended by professionals in the late 19th century (Henoch, 1889).

Etiology
Successful treatment for FE targets the processes that cause the condition,
and 9095% of cases occur as a function of, or in conjunction with,
reduced colonic motility, constipation, and fecal retention, and the various
behavioral/dietary factors contributing to these conditions. These factors
include (1) insufficient roughage or bulk in the diet; (2) irregular diet;
(3) insufficient oral intake of fluids; (4) medications that may have a
side effect of constipation; (5) unstructured, inconsistent, and/or punitive
approaches to toilet training; and (6) toileting avoidance by the child. Any
of these factors, singly or in combination, increases the risk of reduced
colonic motility, actual constipation, and corresponding uncomfortable or
painful bowel movements. Uncomfortable or painful bowel movements,
in turn, negatively reinforce fecal retention, and retention leads to a
regressive reciprocal cycle often resulting in regular fecal accidents. When
the constipation is severe or the cycle is chronic, fecal impaction, a large
blockage caused by the collection of hard, dry stool, may develop. Not infrequently, liquid fecal matter will seep around the fecal mass, producing
paradoxical diarrhea. Although the child is actually constipated, he or
she appears to have diarrhea. Some parents will attempt to treat this type of
diarrhea with over-the-counter antidiarrheal agents, which only worsen
the problem.
Of note is that a small minority of cases do not involve any problems
with colonic motility or constipation; they involve regular, well-formed, soft
bowel movements that occur somewhere other than the toilet. The process
underlying these cases is not well understood except that they tend to

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

323

be treatment-resistant (Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman & Jones,

1998; also see Landman & Rappaport, 1985).

Evaluation
As with NE, treatment for encopresis should not proceed until the afflicted
child has received a medical evaluation, for two fundamental reasons.
First, encopresis can be the result of organic diseases (e.g., Hirschsprungs
disease, hypothyroidism) and, although rare, these are real and need
to be ruled out or identified and treated before a behavioral approach
to treatment is pursued. The second reason involves the medical risk
posed by fecal matter inexorably accumulating in an organ with a limited
amount of space. An unfortunately all-too-frequent presenting problem in
medical clinics is an encopretic child who has been in extended therapy
with a nonmedical professional and whose initial evaluation did not
include referral for a medical evaluation and whose treatment did not
address the etiology of FE. As a result, the childrens colonic systems can
become painfully and dangerously distended, sometimes to the point of
being life-threatening (e.g., McGuire et al., 1983). The medical evaluation
will typically involve a thorough medical, dietary, and bowel history. In
addition, abdominal palpitation and rectal examination are used to check
for large amounts of fecal matter, very dry fecal matter in the rectal vault,
and poor sphincter tone. Approximately 70% of constipation can be determined on physical exam, and detection can be increased to above 90% with
a KUB (X-ray of kidneys, ureter, and bladder) (Barr et al., 1979).
Following the medical evaluation, a full fecal elimination history should
be obtained, including toilet training, dietary habits, parent and child
responses to accidents and successful bowel movements, parent-child
interactional style, level of instructional control, and emotional and psychological functioning. Regarding the latter, although the primary causes of
encopresis are biological and not psychological (see also Friman et al.,
1988), in some cases it is secondary to extraordinary emotional disturbance and thus resistant to behavioral/medical treatment focused only on
toileting (e.g., Landman & Rappaport, 1985). In such cases, the emotional
condition may be a treatment priority, especially when there is no evidence
of constipation or fecal retention.

Treatment-Retentive FE
There are multiple parallels between evidence-supported treatment for
NE and FE. For example, as with NE, the best-supported treatments
for encopresis include multiple components and are typically delivered
in a package-type format. Additionally, there are core components,
which can be augmented by additional approaches to treatment. Distinct
from NE, the core components of treatment for FE are primarily medical
and include full bowel evacuation, facilitating medication, dietary recommendations, and scheduled toilet sitting. Early research on the medical
approach to treatment produced successful outcomes (e.g., Davidson,

324

FRIMAN

1958; Davidson et al., 1963; Levine, 1982), but more recent research
has achieved somewhat lower levels of success. As a result, the primarily
medical approach for encopresis does not meet the Chambless criteria
for any category of efficacy (e.g., McGrath et al., 2000). However, there
is mounting evidence showing that augmenting medical treatment with
biofeedback and/or behavioral components improves success rates sufficiently well for various combinations to earn efficacious or probably efficacious ratings (Cox et al., 1998, 2003; Christophersen & Friman, 2004;
McGrath et al., 2000; Stark et al., 1990, 1997). The greater success
of augmented approaches notwithstanding, the medical approach to FE
remains the dominant method of treatment prescribed in the medical
community (the primary source of treatment for the vast majority of cases),
has its own rather extensive supportive literature, is closely linked to
causal mechanisms, and represents a significant departure from the failed
psychodynamic approach to FE (e.g., Christophersen & Friman, 2004;
Friman, 2002, 2003; Friman & Jones, 1998, 2005; Levine, 1982). For these
reasons, the primary components of the medical approach will be described
below and will be followed by a description of some of the biofeedback and
behavioral approaches to treatment of FE.

Medical Treatment
Bowel Evacuation
The primary goal of FE treatment is the establishment of regular bowel
movements in the toilet, and the first step is to cleanse the bowel completely
of resident fecal matter (Christophersen & Friman, 2004; Friman, 2003;
Levine, 1982). A variety of methods are used, the most common of which
involve enemas and/or laxatives. Although any properly trained professional can assist with the recommendations of these (e.g., with suggestions
about timing, interactional style, behavioral management, etc.), the evacuation procedure must be prescribed and overseen by the childs physician.
Typically, evacuation procedures are conducted in the childs home, but
severe resistance can necessitate medical assistance, in which case they
must be completed in a medical setting. The ultimate goal, however, is
complete parent management of evacuation procedures because they are
to be used whenever the childs eliminational pattern suggests excessive
fecal retention.

Facilitating Medication
Successful treatment for FE will almost always require inclusion of medications that soften fecal matter, ease its migration through the colon, and/or
aid its expulsion from the rectum. The discovery of the therapeutic benefits
of facilitating medication represents the advent of the medical approach
to FE and the departure from the historically psychodynamic approach
(Davidson, 1958; Davidson et al., 1963; Levine, 1982). The decision to use
medication as well as the type of medication is the consulting physicians

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

325

to make but, as with bowel evacuation, any trained professional can

inform the decision and educate the parent about its use. Generally, it is
best to avoid interfering with the sensitive biochemistry of the alimentary
system (the colonic portion of it in particular) and, thus, inert or only
mildly noninert substances are preferred. Formerly, the most frequently
used substance was mineral oil, used either alone or in combination with
other ingredients such as magnesium. As indicated, prescription of the
substance is the physicians prerogative, but ensuring compliance with
the prescription is typically a psychological task. Children will often resist
ingesting substances with odd tastes and textures. Therefore, to gain their
cooperation, it is often necessary to mix the substances with a preferred
liquid (e.g., orange juice) and follow ingestion with praise and appreciation.
A recent development, however, makes this task even easier while also
improving outcomes for children with FE. Polyethylene glycol (trade name,
Miralax) is an odorless, tasteless powdered laxative that can be mixed with
food or liquid with limited possibility of child detection, it has produced
excellent results in treatment of childhood constipation and FE, and it is
increasingly becoming the preferred medical treatment option (e.g., Tucker,
2003).

Dietary Changes
As indicated in the section on etiology, diet often plays a causal role in FE,
and dietary changes are often part of treatment. Increased dietary fiber
increases colonic motility and the moisture in colonic contents and facilitates easier and more regular bowel movements. Although some evaluative
trials have not included fiber-based recommendations in the treatment
protocol, there is no medical reason for this nor did the research yield
results that would contribute substantively to established etiological theory
(e.g., Houts & Peterson, 1986; see also McGrath et al., 2000).
Dietary changes can also be enhanced with over-the-counter preparations with dense fiber content (e.g., Metamucil, Perdiem). In addition to
recommendations about increases in fiber, some investigators have also
included recommendations about increased fluid intake. The reason for
this is ensuring that a child with FE is sufficiently hydrated to maintain
soft stools.

Scheduling Toilet Sits

Regularity is the goal of treatment; therefore, regular toilet sits are an
important part of it. The time should not be during school hours because
unpleasant social responses to bowel movements in the school setting
can cause regressive responses to treatment (e.g., stool retention; see
Levine, 1982). Choosing among the times that remain (morning, afternoon,
or evening) is guided by the childs typical habits and child-parent time
constraints. Establishing a time shortly after food intake can increase
chances of success through the influence of the gastrocolonic reflex. In
the early stages of treatment, or in difficult cases, two scheduled attempts

326

FRIMAN

a day (e.g., after breakfast and dinner) are often necessary. The time the
child is required to sit on the toilet should be limited to 10 or fewer minutes
in order to avoid unnecessarily increasing the aversive properties of the
toileting experience. The childs feet should be supported by a flat surface
(e.g., floor or a small stool) to increase comfort, maintain circulation in
the extremities, and facilitate the abdominal push necessary to expel fecal
matter from the body. The time should also be unhurried and free from
distraction or observation by anyone other than the managing parent.
Allowing children to listen to music, read, or talk with the parent may
improve child attitude toward toileting requirements. Generally, toileting
should be a relaxed, pleasant, and ultimately private affair.

Supplements to Medical Treatment: Biofeedback

and Behavioral Treatments
Biofeedback
The best-known and most specific supplemental approach to treatment of
FE is biofeedback. Briefly, biofeedback uses sensors attached to strategic
parts of the body to amplify physiological responses (e.g., heart rate, skin
temperature, muscle tension), allowing the person to perceive them more
vividly than would otherwise be possible. Typically, the responses are fed
back to the subject using enhanced auditory, tactile, or visual display
(Friman, in press). The earliest biofeedback study on FE showed that
afflicted children often do not detect a full bowel until their intracolonic
pressure exceeds extraordinary levels, sometimes more than 10 times the
pressure needed to establish detection in nonencopretic children (Meunier
et al., 1976). As a result, these children often fail to detect peristalsis, have
grossly delayed urges to defecate, exhibit infrequent and very large bowel
movements, and have chronic fecal accidents. There is also a subsample of
children with FE who paradoxically contract their external anal sphincter
as they bear down for a bowel movement, thus attempting and preventing
a successful movement with the same action (e.g., Loening-Baucke, 1990).
Generally, biofeedback treatment for FE involves training the voluntary
contraction of the external anal sphincter and functionally related muscle
systems in response to rectal filling. The training improves rectal sensory
perception, strength, coordination, or some combination of these three
components. The sensory training is achieved by inducing intrarectal
pressure using a balloon feedback device inserted into the rectum. The
balloon is then filled with air to produce a sensation of rectal filling.
The children are subsequently trained to detect the stimulation resulting
from the distension and to respond either with contraction of the external
sphincter if they are not on the toilet or with relaxation if they are. The
overarching purpose of the training (typical of all biofeedback programs;
Friman, in press) is to increase awareness of a subtle sensation (fecal
material in the rectum) and train appropriate responses. Biofeedback can
be used in isolation, but it is often combined with other components.
There was initial evidence of its success (e.g., Loening-Baucke, 1990);

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

327

however, several large studies, one by the author of the first major study
to recommend biofeedback, have provided data that call into question the
additive value of biofeedback for medical treatment (e.g., Loening-Baucke,
1995; Nolan et al., 2001; van der Plas et al., 1996) and for medical plus
behavioral treatment (Cox et al., 1996).

Behavioral Treatment
A broad range of components loosely grouped under the term behavioral treatments have been combined with medical treatments as well as
medical plus biofeedback treatments. The primary component includes two
types of consequential events. The first involves requiring that children
participate in their own cleaning, including wiping and caring for soiled
clothing. Although this component has not been independently evaluated,
it is a routine component in most treatment programs, and there is
no apparent logical basis to exclude it. The second consequential event
involves rewards for efforts or success. These have been included in
multiple evaluations involving successful treatment of single subjects (e.g.,
Houts & Peterson, 1986; OBrien et al., 1986) and groups of subjects (see
McGrath et al., 2000). Additional behavioral components include stimulus
control procedures, enhanced scheduling, enhanced health education,
relaxation techniques, and various types of monitoring. Behavioral components have been included in almost all empirically supported approaches
to treatment of FE.

Evidence of Effectiveness
Over the past 20 years, several descriptive and controlled experimental
studies have supplemented variations on the medical treatments described
above with behavioral approaches, which has led to several comprehensive biobehavioral treatment packages for FE (e.g., Christophersen &
Friman, 2004; Friman 2003; Friman & Jones, 1998; McGrath et al., 2000).
The research suggests that effective treatment for FE, as with effective
treatment for NE, depends upon core treatment components (i.e., medical
treatment), and the probability of success mounts with the inclusion of
other components, especially those composing the behavioral approach to
treatment.
The literature on this comprehensive approach includes multiple
single-subject evaluations (e.g., OBrien et al., 1986) and group trials (e.g.,
Lowery et al., 1985). For example, in a study of 58 children with encopresis,
60% were completely continent after five months, and those who did not
achieve full continence averaged a 90% decrease in accidents (Lowery
et al., 1985). A more recent study reported on a comparison of three
treatment conditions: (1) medical care (including enemas for disimpaction
and laxatives to promote frequent bowel movements); (2) Enhanced Toilet
Traininga comprehensive approach very similar to the one described
above (using reinforcement and scheduling to promote response to
defecation urges and instruction and modeling to promote appropriate

328

FRIMAN

straining, along with laxatives and enemas); and (3) biofeedback (directed
at relaxing the external anal sphincter during attempted defection,
along with toilet training, laxatives, and enemas). At three months after
treatment, the Enhanced Toilet Training group significantly benefited more
children than the other two treatments, with fewer treatment sessions and
lower costs (Cox et al., 1998).
The multiple successes of the single-subject and group evaluations of
the comprehensive approach to treatment have led to evaluation of group
treatment. In the initial evaluation, 18 encopretic children between the
ages of 4 and 11 years and their parents were seen in groups of three to five
families for six sessions. Noteworthy is that all of these children had previously failed a medical regimen. The sessions in this trial focused on a muchexpanded regimen very similar to that described above. Soiling accidents
decreased by 84% across the groups, and these results were maintained
or improved at six months follow-up (Stark et al., 1990). Additionally, the
results were subsequently replicated in a much larger group (Stark et al.,
1997). The successes of the comprehensive approach to treatment in small
N and large N studies (focused on treating individuals) and large N studies
treating groups have led treatment to be supplied entirely by an interactive
Internet-based program that has shown to be highly effective (Ritterbrand
et al., 2003).

FE (Without Constipation)
Treatment of nonretentive FE has been the focus of far less research
than treatment of the retentive type; therefore, it would be premature to
argue that any known approach is empirically supported. From the small
available literature, it appears that treatment of these children should be
preceded by a comprehensive psychological evaluation. Virtually all investigators who have described this subsample of children report emotional
and behavioral problems and treatment resistance (e.g., Landman &
Rappaport, 1985), and it is possible that some of these childrens soiling
is related to modifiable aspects of their social ecology. Some investigators
have employed versions of the approach outlined above and included
supportive verbal therapy (Landman & Rappaport, 1985), or they have
specifically taught parents how to manage their childrens misbehavior
(Stark et al., 1990). Thus, it appears that effective treatment of this
subsample would involve only some components of the comprehensive
approach to treatment (e.g., facilitating medication may not be needed)
combined with some form of treatment for psychological and behavioral
problems.

CONCLUSION
NE and FE have been misunderstood, misinterpreted, and mistreated for
centuries. During the last half of the 20th century, however, and particularly toward its end, a fuller, biobehavioral understanding of their causal

329

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

conditions and an empirically supported approach to their treatment

emerged. The biobehavioral understanding and approach to NE and FE are
dramatically different than the psychogenic understanding and approach
of history. The biobehavioral approach addresses the physiology of elimination primarily and addresses the psychology of the child as a set
of variables that are not causal but can be critical to active participation in treatment. The psychogenic approach, however, addressed the
psychology of the child primarily, especially insofar as causal variables
were of interest, and gave minimal attention to the physiology of elimination. Although evaluation and treatment of NE and FE absolutely
require the direct involvement of a physician, ideal management involves
a partnership among the physician, therapist, and family. This united,
empirically supported, biobehavioral approach can alleviate incontinence
and eliminate or at least minimize the possibility of the damaging overinterpretation and dangerous forms of treatment that blemished the approach
to NE and FE from antiquity throughout large portions of the 20th century.

REFERENCES
Ambrosini, P. J. (1984). A pharmacological paradigm for urinary continence and enuresis.
Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 4, 247253.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC.
Azrin, N. H., Sneed, T. J., & Foxx, R. M. (1974). Dry-bed training: Rapid elimination of
childhood enuresis. Behavior Research & Therapy, 12, 147156.
Banerjee, S., Srivastav, A., & Palan, B. (1993). Hypnosis and self-hypnosis in the management
of nocturnal enuresis: A comparative study with imipramine therapy. American Journal
of Clinical Hypnosis, 36, 113119.
Barr, R. G., Levine, M. D., Wilkinson, R. H., & Mulvihill, D. (1979). Chronic and occult stool
retention: A clinical tool for its evaluation in school aged children. Clinical Pediatrics, 18,
674686.
Blackwell, B., & Currah, J. (1973). The psychopharmacology of nocturnal enuresis. In
I. Kolvin, R. C. MacKeith, & S. R. Meadow (Eds.), Bladder Control and Enuresis
(pp. 231257). Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Bollard, J., & Nettlebeck, T. (1982). A component analysis of dry-bed training for treatment
of bed-wetting. Behavior Research & Therapy, 20, 383390.
Butler, R. J. (2004). Childhood nocturnal enuresis: Developing a conceptual framework.
Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 909931.
Byrd, R. S., Weitzman, M., Lanphear, N. E., & Auinger, P. (1996). Bed-wetting in US children:
Epidemiology and related behavior problems, Pediatrics, 98, 414419.
Christophersen, E. R., & Friman, P. C. (2004). Elimination disorders. In R. Brown (Ed.),
Handbook of Pediatric Psychology in School Settings (pp. 467488). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Cohen, M. W. (1975). Enuresis. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 22, 545560.
Cox, D. J., Sutphen, J., Borowitz, S., Kovatchev, B., & Ling, W. (1998). Contribution of
behavior therapy and biofeedback to laxative therapy in the treatment of pediatric
encopresis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20(2), 7076.
Cox, D. J., Sutphen, J., Ling, W., Quillian, W., & Borowitz, S. (1996). Additive benefits
of laxative, toilet training, and biofeedback therapies in the treatment of pediatric
encopresis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 21, 659670.
Creer, T. L., & Davis, M. H. (1975). Using a staggered waking procedure with enuretic children
in an institutional setting. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 6,
2325.

330

FRIMAN

Davidson, M. (1958). Constipation and fecal incontinence. Pediatric Clinics of North America,
5, 749757.
Davidson, M., Kugler, M. M., & Bauer, C. H. (1963). Diagnosis and management in children
with severe and protracted constipation and obstipation. Journal of Pediatrics, 62,
261275.
Dimson, S. B. (1977). Desmopressin as a treatment for enuresis. Lancet, 1, 1260.
Dimson, S. B. (1986). DDAVP and urine osmolality in refractory enuresis. Archives of Diseases
in Children, 61, 11041107.
Doleys, D. M. (1977). Behavioral treatments for nocturnal enuresis in children: A review of
the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 3054.
Edwards, S., & Van Der Spuy, H. (1985). Hypnotherapy as a treatment for enuresis. Journal
of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 161170.
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Sannon, F. T. (1986). Factors related to the age of
attainment of nocturnal bladder control: An 8-year longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 78,
884890.
Ferrie, B. G., MacFarlane, J., & Glen, E. S. (1984). DDAVP in young enuretic patients: A
double-blind trial. British Journal of Urology, 56, 376378.
Finn, R. (2005). Clinic rounds. Pediatric News, 39(11), 43.
Foxman, B., Valdez, R. B., & Brook, R. H. (1986). Childhood enuresis: Prevalence, perceived
impact, and prescribed treatments. Pediatrics, 77, 482487.
Friman, P. C. (in press). Behavior assessment. In D. Barlow, F. Andrasik, & M. Hersen. Single
Case Experimental Designs. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Friman, P. C. (1986). A preventive context for enuresis. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 33,
871886.
Friman, P. C. (1995). Nocturnal enuresis in the child. In R. Ferber & M. H. Kryger (Eds.),
Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine in the Child (pp. 107114). Philadelphia:
Saunders.
Friman, P.C. (2002). The Psychopathological Interpretation of Common Child Behavior
Problems: A Critique and Related Opportunity for Behavior Analysis. Invited address
at the 28th annual convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Toronto,
Canada.
Friman, P. C. (2003). A biobehavioral bowel and toilet training treatment for functional
encopresis. In W. ODonohue, S. Hayes, and J. Fisher. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy:
Empirically supported Techniques in Your Practice (pp.5158). New York: Wiley.
Friman, P. C., Handwerk, M. L., Swearer, S. M., McGinnis, C., & Warzak, W. J. (1998). Do
children with primary nocturnal enuresis have clinically significant behavior problems?
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 152, 537539.
Friman, P. C., & Jones, K. M. (1998). Elimination disorders in children. In S. Watson &
F. Gresham (Eds.), Handbook of Child Behavior Therapy (pp. 239260). New York: Plenum
Press.
Friman, P. C., & Jones, K. M. (2005). Behavioral treatment for nocturnal enuresis. Journal of
Early and Intensive Behavioral Intervention, 2, 259267.
Gellis, S. S. (1994). Are enuretics truly hard to arouse? Pediatric Notes, 18, 113.
Glicklich, L. B. (1951). An historical account of enuresis. Pediatrics, 8, 859876.
Gross, R. T., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1983). Enuresis. In M. D. Levine, W. B. Carey, A. C. Crocker,
& R. T. Gross (Eds.), Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics (pp. 575586). Philadelphia:
Saunders.
Helfer, R. & Kempe, C. H. (1976). Child Abuse and Neglect. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Henoch, E. H. (1889). Lectures on Childrens Diseases, Vol. 2. London: New Syndenham
Society.
Herson, V. C., Schmitt, B. D., & Rumack, B. H. (1979). Magical thinking and imipramine
poisoning in two school-aged children. Journal of the American Medical Association, 241,
19261927.
Houts, A. C. (1991). Nocturnal enuresis as a biobehavioral problem. Behavior Therapy, 22,
133151.
Houts, A. C. (2000). Commentary: Treatments for enuresis: Criteria, mechanisms, and health
care policy. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25, 219224.

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

331

Houts, A. C., Berman, J. S., & Abramson, H. (1994). Effectiveness of psychological and
pharmacological treatments for nocturnal enuresis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 62, 737745.
Houts, A. C., & Liebert, R. M. (1985). Bedwetting: A Guide for Parents. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
Houts, A. C., & Liebert, R. M., & Padawer, W. (1984a). A delivery system for the treatment of
primary enuresis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11, 513519.
Houts, A. C., & Peterson, J. K. (1986). Treatment of a retentive encopretic child using contingency management and diet modification with stimulus control. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 11, 375383.
Houts, A. C., Peterson, J. K., & Liebert, R. M. (1984b). The effects of prior imipramine
treatment on the results of conditioning therapy with NE. Journal of Pediatric Psychology,
9, 505508.
Houts, A. C., Peterson, J. K., & Whelan, J. P. (1986). Prevention of relapse in Full-Spectrum
Home Training for primary NE: A component analysis. Behavior Therapy, 17, 462469.
Jenson, W. R., & Sloane, H. N. (1979). Chart moves and grab bags: A simple contingency
management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 334.
Kaffman, M., & Elizur, E. (1977). Infants who become enuretics: A longitudinal study of
161 Kibbutz children. Monographs of the Society for Research on Child Development, 42,
212.
Kegel, A. H. (1951). Physiologic therapy for urinary stress incontinence. Journal of the
American Medical Association, 146, 915917.
Landman, G. B., & Rappaport, L. (1985). Pediatric management of severe treatment-resistant
encopresis. Development and Behavioral Pediatrics, 6, 349351.
Levine, M. D. (1982). Encopresis: Its potentiation, evaluation, and alleviation. Pediatric Clinics
of North America, 29, 315330.
Loening-Baucke, V. A. (1990). Modulation of abnormal defecation dynamics by biofeedback
treatment in chronically constipated children with encopresis. Journal of Pediatrics, 116,
214221.
Loening-Baucke, V. A. (1995). Biofeedback treatment for chronic constipation and encopresis
in childhood: Long term outcome. Pediatrics, 96, 105110.
Lowery, S., Srour, J., Whitehead, W. E., & Schuster, M. M. (1985). Habit training as treatment
of encopresis secondary to chronic constipation. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and
Nutrition, 4, 397401.
Luciano, M., Molina, F., Gomez, I., & Herruzo, J. (1993). Response prevention and contingency management in the treatment of nocturnal enuresis: A report of two cases. Child
and Family Behavior Therapy, 15, 613615.
McGrath, M. L., Mellon, M. W., & Murphy, L. (2000). Empirically supported treatments in
pediatric psychology: Constipation and encopresis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25,
225254.
McGuire, T., Rothenberg, M B., & Tyler, D. C. (1983). Profound shock following intervention
for chronic untreated stool retention. Clinical Pediatrics, 23, 459461.
Mellon, M. W., & McGrath, M. L. (2000). Empirically supported treatments in pediatric
psychology: Nocturnal enuresis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25, 193214.
Mellon, M. W., Scott, M. A., Haynes, K. B., Schmidt, D. F., & Houts, A. C. (1997). EMG
recording of pelvic floor conditioning in nocturnal enuresis during urine alarm treatment:
A preliminary study. Paper presentation at the Sixth Florida Conference on Child Health
Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
Meunier, P., Marechal, J. M., & De Beaujeu, M. J. (1979). Rectoanal pressures and rectal
sensitivity in chronic childhood constipation. Gastroenterology, 77, 330336.
Moffatt, M. E. K., Harlos, S., Kirshen, A. J., & Burd, L. (1993). Desmopressin acetate and
nocturnal enuresis: How much do we know? Pediatrics, 92, 420425.
Mowrer, O. H., & Mowrer, W. M. (1938). Enuresis: A method for its study and treatment.
AmericanJournal of Orthopsychiatry, 8, 436459.
Muellner, R. S. (1960). Development of urinary control in children. Journal of the American
Medical Association, 172, 12561261.
Muellner, R. S. (1961). Obstacles to the successful treatment of primary enuresis. Journal of
the American Medical Association, 178, 147148.

332

FRIMAN

Nelson, R. (1977). Methodological issues in assessment via self-monitoring. In J. D. Cone &

R. P. Hawkins (Eds.), Behavioral Assessment: New Directions in Clinical Psychology. New
York: Bruner/Mazel.
Nolan, T., Debelle, G., Oberklaid, F., & Coffey, C. (1991). Randomized controlled trial of
biofeedback training in persistent encopresis with anismus. Archives of Diseases in
Childhood, 79, 131135.
Norgaard, J. P., Pedersen, E. B., & Djurhuus, J. C. (1985). Diurnal antidiuretic hormone
levels in enuretics. Journal of Urology, 134, 10291031.
Novello, A. C., & Novello, R. (1987). Enuresis. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 34, 719733.
OBrien, S., Ross, L., & Christophersen, E. R. (1986). Primary encopresis: Evaluation and
treatment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19, 137145.
Olness, K. (1975). The use of self hypnosis in the treatment of childhood nocturnal enuresis.
Clinical Pediatrics, 14, 273279.
Oswald, K., Taylor, A. M., & Treisman, M. (1960). Discriminative responses to stimulation
during human sleep. Brain, 83, 440445.
Pedersen, P. S., Hejl, M., & Kjoller, S. S. (1985). Desamino-D-arginine vasopressin in
childhood nocturnal enuresis. Journal of Urology, 133, 6566.
Post, E. M., Richman, R. A., & Blackett, P. R. (1983). Desmopressin response of enuretic
children. American Journal of Diseases in Children, 137, 962963.
Rauber A., & Maroncelli, R. (1984). Prescribing practices and knowledge of tricyclic antidepressants among physicians caring for children. Pediatrics, 73, 107109.
Ritterband, L. M., Cox, D. J., Walker, L. S., Kovatchev, B., McKnight, L., Patel, K., et al.
(2003). An internet intervention as adjunctive therapy for pediatric encopresis. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 910917.
Rittig, S., Knudsen, U. B., Norgaard, J. P., Pedersen, E. B., & Djurhuus, J. C. (1989). Abnormal
diurnal rhythm of plasma vasopressin and urinary output in patients with enuresis.
American Journal of Physiology, 252, F664F671.
Rolider, A., & Van Houten, R. (1986). Effects of degree of awakening and the criterion
for advancing awakening on the treatment of bedwetting. Education and Treatment of
Children, 9, 135141.
Rolider, A., Van Houten, R., & Chlebowski, I. (1984). Effects of a stringent versus lenient
awakening procedure on the efficacy of the dry bed procedure. Child and Family Behavior
Therapy, 14, 114.
Ronen, T., Rahav, G., & Wozner, Y. (1995). Self-control and enuresis. Journal of Cognitive
Psychotherapy, 9, 249258.
Ronen, T., & Wozner, Y. (1995). A self-control intervention package for the treatment of
primary nocturnal enuresis. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 17, 117.
Ronen, T., Wozner, Y., & Rahav, G. (1992). Cognitive intervention in enuresis. Child and
Family Behavior Therapy, 14, 114.
Ruckstuhl, L. E., & Friman, P. C. (2003). Evaluating the effectiveness of the vibrating urine
alarm: A study of effectiveness and social validity. Paper presented at the 29th annual
convention of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Theraphy, San Francisco, CA.
Scharf, M. B., & Jennings, S. W. (1988). Childhood enuresis: Relationship to sleep, etiology,
evaluation, and treatment. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 113120.
Schmitt, B. D. (1984). Nocturnal enuresis. Primary Care, 11, 485495.
Schneider, M. S., King, L. R., & Surwitt, R. S. (1994). Kegel exercises and childhood incontinence: A new role for an old treatment. Journal of Pediatrics, 124, 9192.
Stanton, H. (1979). Short term treatment of enuresis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis,
22, 103107.
Starfield, B. (1967). Functional bladder capacity in enuretic and nonenuretic children. Journal
of Pediatrics, 70, 777782.
Starfield, B., & Mellits, E. D. (1968). Increases in functional bladder capacity and improvements in enuresis. Journal of Pediatrics, 72, 483487.
Stark, L. J., Opipari, L. C., Donaldson, D. L., Danovsky, M. R., Rasile, D. A., & DelSanto, A. F.
(1997). Evaluation of a standard protocol for rententive encopresis: A replication. Journal
of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 619633.
Stark, L., Owens-Stively, J., Spirito, A., Lewis, A., & Guevremont, D. (1990). Group behavioral
treatment of retentive encopresis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 659671.

ENURESIS AND ENCOPRESIS

333

Stephenson, J. D. (1979). Physiological and pharmacological basis for the chemotherapy of

enuresis. Psychological Medicine, 9, 249263.
Troup, C. W., & Hodgson, N. B. (1971). Nocturnal functional bladder capacity in enuretic
children. Journal of Urology, 105, 129132.
Tucker, N. T. (2003). Managing defecation disorders in children. Special supplement to
Pediatric News. New York: International Medical News Group.
van der Plas, R. N. Benninga, M. A., Buller, H. A., Bossuyt, P. M., Akkermans, I. M., Redekop,
W. K., et al. (1996). Biofeedback training in treatment of childhood constipation: A
randomised clinical trial. Lancet, 348(9030), 776780.
Van Tijen, N. M., Messer, A. P., & Namdar, Z. (1998). Perceived stress of nocturnal enuresis
in childhood. British Journal of Urology, 81 (Suppl 3), 9899.
Vogel, W., Young, M., & Primack W. (1996). A survey of physician use of treatment methods
for functional enuresis. Journal of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, 17, 9093.
Zung, W. W., & Wilson, W. P. (1961). Responses to auditory stimulation during sleep. Archives
of General Psychiatry, 4, 548552.