10.
Building Stone
&
Masonry
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Introduction
Natural stone: obtained from rocks that constitute the earths
crust.
Rock and stone are essentially the same materials, except that
after the rock has been quarried, it is called stone.
Dimension stone: stone fabricated to required dimensions,
texture, surface finish, and so on, and meets the requirements
for durability, strength water absorption and the like.
The term includes stone cladding panels, veneer stone, counterand table tops, wall copings, stair treads and rises. It specifically
excludes broken or crushed stone.
Stone is a natural material, so its characteristics (properties and
appearence) are inconsistent.
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Types of Natural Building Stones
Granite
Igneous rock.
strongest and densest.
takes an extremely good polish.
commonly used in the exterior cladding of significant buildings.
contains 25% to 40% quartz and 3% to 10% mica; the remainder (50% or more) is
feldspar.
Quartz is the strongest and more durable of the three minerals. It is more difficult
to process (sawing, profiling, grinding).
A granite low in quartz is generally darker in color.
Black granite (basalt) is commonly used as table or countertops.
It is not used where high strength or abrasion resistance is necessary, such as
floors and stair treads.
Quartzite is a stone that is almost 100% quartz. It is commonly used as an
aggregate to produce ultra-high-strength concretes.
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Limestone
a sedimentary rock,
consisting primarily of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, with
small amounts of clay, sand, and organic material such as seashells and
other fossils.
generally nongranular, with a relatively uniform surface appearence.
softer than both marble and granite hence easier to quarry, saw and
shape.
Color: white to gray.
Calcium carbonate reacts with acids. Most foods contain acids
therefore, limestone is not used for kitchens or tabletops.
Several historic buildings with limestone facades have performed quite
well in the absence of reactive atmosphere.
Used commonly for concrete aggregate (like in Cyprus).
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Marble
Geologically different from limestone because it is
metamorphic rock.
Chemically similar to limestone.
In fact marble is limestone, which under centuries of high
pressure and heat in the earths crust changed from a
sedimentary rock to metamorphic rock.
Because of pressure and heat, marble is stronger and denser
than the original limestone.
takes a good polish.
Color: white to black, pink, and so on.
Vulnerable to acid attack.
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Travertine
sedimentary rock obtained from the sediments of limestone dissolved in
spring-water.
Springwater (particularly hot springs) running over limestone deposits
dissolved the limestone, which subsequently sedimented (deposited) in a
nearby location.
Is a porous stone and slabs are pitted with voids.
They are softer.
They do not take polish.
Denser varieties are referred as travertine marble.
used is building exteriors as masonry walls.
When used as flooring material, surface can collect dirt which requires
greater maintenance.
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Sandstone
sedimentary rock
Formed by layers of sand (quartz) particles with oxides of
calcium, silicon and iron as cementing agents.
If cemented primarily of oxide of silicon, sandstone is light in
colour and strong.
If cemented by iron oxide sandstone is brown or red in
colour and softer.
Large amount of calcium oxide makes sandstone more
vulnerable to disintegration.
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Production of Finished Stone
Produced by stone fabricators from quarries in the form of
large blocks.
Blocks are of irregular sizes (see figure 1).
Blocks are converted into slabs and other cross-sectional
profiles in stone fabrication plants.
The conversion is done by sawing the blocks-a process
similar to sawing lumber, except that water is used
continuously during the sawing process to keep the saw
blades cool (see Figure 2)
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Figure 1 Natural building blocks of
irregular sizes.
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Figure 2 Sawing process of natural
building blocks.
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The saw uses a blade that can move in
horizonlar and vertical direction.
Complex ornamental work requires hand
tools (see figure 3).
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Figure 3 Ornamental works with
natural building stones.
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Finishes on Stone Slabs & Panels
The surface of stone slabs and panels can be
finished in several ways.
This finish also effects the durability of stone.
The following are some of the commonly used finishes
on stone slabs and panels:
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Sawn finish:
If stone is not finished after sawing, it is called sawn
finish.
Saw marks are visible.
Honed finish:
When a sawn finish is ground smooth with an
abrasive material, a honed finish is obtained.
It requires repeated honing (grinding) with
increasingly finer abrasives.
Water is used continiously during the process to
control dust (see Figure 4).
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Figure 4 Polishing of surfaces.
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Polished finish:
Polish finish is also honed but with a matt appearence.
It is obtained by grinding the stone surface beyond the honed finish with
finer abrasives and finally buffing it with felt until the surface develops a
sheen.
It brings out the colour of stone to its fullest extend by reflecting like a
mirror.
Flame-cut finish:
Also known as thermal finish.
It is a rough finish obtained by torching the stone surface with a natural
gas or oxyacetylene torch.
Before torching, the stone is wetted.
The heat from the torch expands the absorbed water into stream, which
breaks loose surface particles in the stone, leaving behind a rough
surface.
Ideal for floors subject to frequent wetting.
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Bush hammered finish:
It is also a rough finish and is obtained by
hammering off the surface of stone with picks.
Split-face (cleft) finish:
Stone is split through one of its faces.
Sandblasted finish:
This process yields a rough surface.
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Stone Selection
The selection of stone for a particular use is a function of
several factors.
Budget
Aesthetics (color, pattern and surface appearence) are the two most
important factors to be considered for stone used in building interiors.
For exterior use, the history of performance of a stone in the local
environment (durability) is obviously another important factor.
Generally the following properties are important:
Density
Water absorption
Compressive strength
Flexural strength (modulus of rupture)
Abrasion resistance
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Table 1 Common applications of selected stones.
Application
Commonly used stones
Exterior wall cladding
Granite, marble, limestone
Interior wall cladding
Granite, marble, limestone
Interior flooring
Granite, marble, slate
Stair treads and risers
Granite
Kitchen counter top
Granite
Bathroom counter top
Granite, marble
Wall copings and balusters
Granite, marble, limestone
Roofing
Slate
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Bond Patterns in Stone Masonry
Walls
In contemporary buildings, natural stone is generally used as thin slabs.
For exterior or interior wall cladding, slabs vary in thickness from 20
mm to 50 mm.
For flooring, slab thickness can be as low as 9.5 mm.
The thinner the stone, the smaller the size of slab in which it is
available.
Stones used in exterior-wall veneers are generally 75 mm to 100 mm
thick. Those used in load bearing stone walls are thicker.
In some cases, stones are so large and thick that they can not be laid
by hand but require mechanical hoists.
Stone veneer and load-bearing stone walls are referred to as stone
masonry to distinguish them from thin stone cladding. These walls are
laid with mortar, stone by stone, in the same way as bricks.
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Bond Patterns in Stone Masonry
Walls
Because natural stone is not available in
uniform sizes as are bricks, the bond
patterns in stone masonry walls are
different from those used in bricks.
Two basic patterns used in stone masonry walls are
Rubble masonry
2. Ashlar masonry
1.
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Rubble masonry:
Made from stones whose sides are irregular (not at right angles to each
other).
Rubble masonry is further subdivided as random rubble and coursed
rubble.
Random rubble: The mortar joints are irregular.
A random rubble wall may consist either of stones obtained from the
quarries or rounded riverbed boulders.
Coursed rubble: The bed joints line up after every few pieces of stone
(see figure 5).
Therefore, the mason has to select the stones in the field (or shape them
using a pointed hammer) so that they fit in the available spaces.
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Figure 5. Random rubble (irregular joints) and coursed rubble (regular
joints) masonry walls.
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Ashlar masonry:
The sides of the stones are dressed square (at
right angles to each other). The front and back
faces of the stone may, however, be dressed or
undressed.
Like rubble masonry, ashlar masonry is also divided into 2:
1.
2.
random ashlar
coursed ashlar (see figure 6).
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Figure 6. Random ashlar and coursed ashlar masonry walls.
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Glass Masonr y Units (GMU)
Used as non-load bearing walls in virtually all types
of projects-commercial and residential-on the
exterior as well as in the interior of buildings.
By conbining the modularity of masonry units and
the transparency of glass, glass masonry units give
designers a means of expression that is not available
in other materials (see figure 7).
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Figure 7 A typical glass masonry unit.
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Glass Masonry Units (GMU)
manufactured in several sizes (typical 190 mm x 190 mm x 80 mm).
generally hollow with air trapped within, although solid units are also
available.
Glass blocks are generally translucent.
provides light similar to a frosted window glass.
Glass block wall gives greater privacy, more security and greater sound
insulation as compared with a glass window or a glass curtain wall.
Where greater transparency is needed, transparent units are used.
walls also have a higher fire-resistance rating than conventional glass
walls.
A 45-min rating is easily achievable, and a higher rating is available.
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Construction of a glass masonry
wall
similar to other masonry walls.
units are generally laid in stack bond with Portland cement-lime mortar.
joints are fully mortared as with clay bricks.
GMUs are non-structural.
Therefore, a glass masonry wall must be treated as a non-load bearing
wall.
Should not be designed to support any gravity load except its self-load.
However, it must resist lateral (wind and earthquake) loads and be able
to transfer them to the structural frame.
A large glass masonry panel is treated as a combination of panels held
between structural steel or reinforced-concrete framing members
(see figure 8).
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Figure 8. Staircase enclosure built with glass masonry units.
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Detailing of GMU walls
Figure 9 shows a detail commonly used for the construction af
a glass masonry panel.
Steel anchors are used at the top and the sides (jambs) to
transfer the lateral load from the panel to the supporting
members.
The long leg of an anchor is embedded in the mortar joint, and
the short leg is fastened to the jamb or the head of the
supporting frame.
Joint reinforcement is needed to stiffen the panel so that the
panel as a whole is able to transfer the lateral load to the
structure.
Generally, the joint reinforcement is placed in the same course as
the horizontal anchors.
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Figure 9 A typical detail used for the construction of a glass masonry panel.
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Fire Resistance of Masonry Walls
Fired clay, concrete and stone are noncombustible and inherently
fire enduring.
Therefore, the fire-resistance ratings of masonry assemblies is
generally high.
One of the important factors that affects the fire-reistance rating
of a masonry wall is the amount of solid content in them.
The greater the solid content, the greater the fire-resistance
rating of a wall.
Therefore, a grouted wall has a higher fire-resistance rating than
an ungrouted wall.
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Concrete masonry units are generally hollow, the fire resistance rating
of a concrete masonry units wall is given in terms of the walls
equivalent (solid) thickness.
Equivalent thickness is the thickness of the wall excluding the cells
(voids).
The equivalent thickness of a fully grouted wall is the thickness of the
wall itself.
Another factor that influences the fire resistance rating of a concrete
masonry unit wall is the type of aggregate used in the concrete
masonry units.
A wall made with concrete masonry units containing lightweight
aggregate gives a higher fire-resistance rating for the same equivalent
thickness than a wall with concrete masonry units containing normalweight aggregate.
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Figure 10. Approximate fire-resistance ratings of selected masonry assemblies.
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Travertine-Limestone
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Stone Quarry
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Cutting building stones
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DRY STONE WALLING
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The great pyramid, Egypt
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Famagusta Castle & walls, Cyprus
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Girne Castle, Cyprus
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Kantara Castle, Girne-Cyprus
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Bellapais Abbey, Cyprus
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Salamis, theater
Famagusta-Cyprus
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