ANTAMINA Cu-Zn SKARN, PERU Late Miocene FES] Hydrothermal Breccia \ ZB woliastonite Exoskan | WB Garret Exoskarn BY Garnet Endoskan [2 Porphyritic Monzogranite Cretaceous “=5] Limestone and Marble, Ce: Celendin Fm., J: Jumasha Fm. I ~ 4 anticline ‘VF: Valley Fault VLR: Vallay Lateral Ramp5304 by Eenoie Cadogy Rochas) The Lithologie, Stratigraphic, and Structural Setting of the Giant Antamina Copper-Zinc Skarn Deposit, Ancash, Peru Davin A. Love,’ ALAN H. CLARK, Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6 AND J. Kerr GLover® Glover Consulting Ltd., 146 Simcoe St., Victoria, B.C., Canada VSV IK4 Abstract ‘Antamina, located at latitude 9° 32'S and longitude 77° 03' W in the Ancash Department of north-central Peru, is the largest known Cu-Zn skarn ore deposit. It incorporates a mineral reserve of 561 Mt, which has an average grade of 1.24 percent Cu, 1.08 percent Zn, 13.71 g/t Ag and 0.029 percent Mo, calculated at a 0.7 per- cent Cu equiv eutoff grade. The grandite-dominated calcie skarn formed in and around an upper Miocene por phyritie monzogranite stock emplaced into Upper Cretaceous carbonate strata that had experienced thi Skinned, northeast-verging thrusting and folding in the late Eocene Incaic orogeny: The exoskarn Cu-Zn ore is discordant to the strata of the Jumasha and overlying Celendin Formations, which comprise, respectively sive to thick-bedded, relatively pure limestones and thin-bedded, predominantly marly limestones. The J masha Formation, the upper contact of which is locally defined as the top of the uppermost thick-bedded lime- stone or marble unit, hosts approximately three-quarters of the known exoskarn, Approximately the same fraction of the contiguous endoskarn Cu ore occurs adjacent to this formation. ‘The overlying Celendin For- mation is less extensively mineralized but, because it is widely metamorphosed to homfels and locally con- verted to diopsidie skamoid, may have inhibited the upward and outward migration of hydrothermal fhuids, thereby promoting the development of the unusually lange endoskarn ore zone. Ore also occurs in late hi drothermal breccias emplaced during the formation of mineralized endoskarn. The preskarn thermal metamorphic aureole around the ore deposit is expressed differently in the two host formations. Jumasha Formation limestone is coarsened and bleached to banded gray marble and locally to white marble peripheral to the intrusion and skarn, Minor scapolite occurs in dark gray bands in marble, cor centrated in a discontinuous halo tens of meters wide and commonly separated from the skarn by tens of m ters. Three facies of calc-hornfels are recognized in the marl beds of the Celendin Formation adjacent to. the intrusion extending hundreds of meters beyond sulfide-bearing skar: a peripheral, very fine grained, light brown phlogopite facies; an intermediate, fine-grained, gray tremolitic faces; and a proximal, medium-grained, light green diopsidic facies. At an Xco, of 0.1 to 0.9 and P = 100 MPa, these zones reflect temperatures in- creasing to circa 495°C adjacent to the intrusion. In addition, in nodular’ beds of the Celendin Formation that have been metamorphosed to homfels, diagenetic calcite nodules are selectively replaced by diopside for dis- tances of tens of meters beyond the skarn front. Such cale-silicate formation through both metamorphism and ‘metasomatism, together with a 9 kin? cluster of Pb-Zn-Ag vein deposits, provides district-scale vectors to ore. ‘The Antamina deposit lies on a newly recognized cross-strike structural discontinuity in the segmented In- caic Maraiidn thrust and fold belt, the northeast-trending Querococha arch. Southeast of the arch, Incaic folds and thrust faults strike north-northwest, but northwest of the arch they strike northerly, The plunge of fold axes concomitantly changes from south-southeast to north. Stratigraphic relationships indicate that the arch was a paleohigh, at least in the Jurassic and possibly throughout the late Paleozoie-early Mesozoic interval. The mid- le Miocene Carhuish pluton is exposed on the arch 30 km southwest of Antamina, whereas coeval Calipuy Su- persone ‘volcanic units lie at similar altitudes to the north and south. Only scattered hydrothermal centers of late Miocene age are known in the Cordillera Negra, but an apparent swarm of intrusions, including the Anta- mina stock, occurs along the Querococha arch, ‘Antamina is situated where the locus of changes in the strike of folds and faults and the plunge of folds steps left along the arch. At Antamina, a pair of fault-bend folds above frontal thrust ramps show approximately 500 im of dextral apparent offset across the deposit and are inferred to have been separated by a northeast-strik- ing transfer fault or lateral ramp, itself localized by a left-stepping jog in the Valley fault, an underlying, sim- ilarly oriented transverse structure. The jog in the Valley fault is inferred to have also controlled intrusion and ska development. This local-seale jog in the Valley fault mimics the regional step along the arch. The arch ‘may reflect a transform segment of the originally jagged, rifted continental margin, which persisted as a trans- verse basement weakness. Northeast-striking, originally sinistral, basement structures affected regional-scale sedimentation and structural patterns, including articulation of the thrust and fold belt. At a local scale, they * Comresponding author: e-mail, [email protected]. ‘is Menoran, On Jul 1,200 Ket Clover ied wnexpect, but peice sep, medial after retwening from fieldwork. He had an ine feu pasion or rocks an eat patience in eaching about dhe, He was a sled trctural geologist ada profesional ore epost special with ate perception anda love for waking the rocks. Keith had been consulting internationally for 14 years and was respected for his intellet and breadth of geolog- fel understanding, He also managed admirably to balance his love for geology with that for his family. Keith was well hked for his generous spirit and hue rat, and he is greatly missed. 887888 LOVE ET AL. influenced lateral ramp formation and related fracture development in the overlying thrust sheets, In the pro- posed model, they also localized later upbft and the rapid transit of small volumes of productive melt into a shallow crustal seiting, conditions favorable for formation of a giant magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposit Introduction Despire their potential ore genetic and metallogenic impor- tance, the lithologic, stratigraphic, and strnctural settings of skarn mineralization have rarely been comprehensively docu- mented. It is therefore difficult to assess their influence on the localization of skarn-generating hydrothermal systems and, in particular, to envisage the specific environments in which exceptional deposits have developed. In this paper, we describe the host rocks and structural relationships of the An- tamina Cu-Zn(-Ag-Mo) deposit, north-central Peru, and pro- pose a model for the stratigraphic and tectonie environment in which this largest known Cu-Zn skam orebody formed. These aspeets are controversial, in part because of the poorly defined local stratigraphic succession and because of the de- formation, metamorphism, and metasomatism imposed on the ore-hosting strata. Following a brief summary of the geol- ogy of the deposit, we document the regional-scale (ca. 5,000 km?) geologic and geodynamnic setting of the mineralization before focusing on the district scale (ca. 120 km’). Copper mineralization was known at Antamina (anta: cop- per in Quechua) in pre-Colonial times, but only modest amounts of Pb and Ag are known to have been produced in the district prior to 2001 (Redwood, 1999). The skarn con- tains proven and probable reserves of 561 Mt with an average grade of 1.24 percent Cu, 1.03 percent Zn, 13.71 g/t Ag, and 0.029 percent Mo (calculated at a 0.7% Cu equiv cutoff grade). Compafifa Minera Antamina S.A., which operates the Antamina open-pit mine, is owned by BHP Billiton (33.7: Noranda (33.75%), Teck Cominco (22.5%), and Mitsubi (10%). Production of copper-silver and zine concentrates, as well as lead, molybdenum, and bismuth byproducts, began in July 2001 (Zaxzumaga, 2003). ‘The Antamina mine is located at approximately 9° 32! S and 77° 03' W, 270 km north of Lima and 130 km from the Paci coast, in Ancash Department in north-central Peru (Fig. 1). Tt lies in the eastern part of the Cordillera Occidental, east of the Cordillera Blanca and west of the Rio Maraiién valley, The skarn is exposed between approximately 4,200 and 4,800 mass. at the head of a southwest-draining glacial valley, but prior to mining much of the orebody was covered by Lago Antamina, a glacial tarn (Fig. 2). The history of exploration at Antamina and the general geology of the deposit are summa- rized by Redwood (1998, 1999). O'Connor (2000) reviewed the geologic and geophysical approaches that delineated the ore and outlined the development of the mine, metallurgical testing, and resource calculations. Both authors generally supported previous geologic descriptions and interpretations (eg., Petersen, 1965). The Antamina deposit formed at 9.86 to 10.18 Ma (“Ar/%Ar step-heating data of Love et al., 2003) around a small monzogranitic porphyry intrusion. It is hosted by Upper Cretaceous carbonate strata within the Maranén thrust and fold belt, formed by the late Eocene Incaic orogeny (Fig. 1; Noble et al., 1979; Mégard, 1984). The western Andes of Penn were the site of episodic are magmatism from the Late Triassie to the late Miocene (Cobbing et al., 1981). However, from latitudes 2° $ to 15° $ they are now underlain by a flat snbduction zone widely ascribed to underthrusting ‘of the Nazea Ridge (Barazangi and Isacks, 1976; Pilger, 1981; Ham- pel, 2002) and, in the northern part, the postulated Inca Plateau (Gutscher et al., 1999). This major flat-slab domain separates the Northern and Central Volcanic zones of the Andes and has been apparently amagmatic since emplace- ment of the last phase of the Cordillera Blanca batholith a 6.3 to 8.2 Ma (Mukasa, 1984; McNulty et al., 1998). Intrusion and mineralization at Antamina took place shortly before this terminal magmatism. Although the carbonate rocks that host the deposit have long been recognized as Upper Cretaceous, they have been assigned to various formations. The strati- graphic relationships in the mine area are herein clarified through examination of the carbonate rocks around the skam and their comparison with well-described measured sections elsewhere in north-central Peru. This analysis permits both elucidation of the structure of the area and characterization of the types of rocks replaced by the skarn. The Antamina deposit shares numerous common features with other large porphyry-related Cu skarns (Einaudi, 1982a, }), but it differs from most in the exceptional development of mineralized endoskam and the association of ore-grade Cu, ‘Zn, and Mo in contiguous zones. An additional unusual fea ture is the widespread development of chalcopyrite-rich hy- drothermal breccias, the extent and above-average Cu con- tent of which were unrecognized prior to our research. Many of the observations on the deposit- and district-seale geology recorded herein, and their interpretation, were introduced in unpublished reports prepared by the authors (D.A. Love and AH. Clark, 1998a, b, 2000, unpublished reports to Compania ‘era Antamina S.A., Lima; [K. Glover, 1998a, 199Sb, 1998c, unpublished reports to Compania Minera Antamina S.A., Lima) The Antamina deposit The Antamina deposit comprises endoskarn and exoskarn, with subordinate breccia bodies that cut both skarn and in- trusion within the perimeter of skarn. The mineralized skarn is dominated by grandite garnet, which grades from brown to green nearer the host limestone (Petersen, 1965). Thus the deposit conforms to the oxidized calcic clan of Einaudi et al. (1981). The geology of the deposit and its immediate sur- roundings is summarized in Figure 3a on three northwest- southeast drill-hole cross sections, spaced 50 m_ apart, through the middle of the orebody. The simplified surface ge- ‘ology map in Fignre 3b was constructed by projecting the lithologic boundaries defined on these and thirty other cross sections. The area delimited by the mineralized skarn front is approximately 1.18 kin? overall. The skarn zone straddles the original intrusive contact and surrounds a circa 0.24 km? core of porphyry that forms a crudely parallelogram-shaped prism with a vertical axis (Fig. 3b). The outer boundary of the min- eralized skarn is more elongated northeast-southwest than this core because it expands around faults and dikes extending to the east, northeast, and southwest. It is therefore roughlyLITHOSTRATIGRAPHY 4 yD STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, PERU 889 Plocere- Quatamary daste sediments Ecacoes poe icone Procnevelenirck (ongay Forlaca Fn) peor ntooane antes tnaions Lower thse Wocererataisinmsions (Catpoy Sopergoun) UsperCretaceove - Paleocene red beds (Csemsica Go) Craaceous-Peieegenonrusions ‘Abin - Upper Cretaceous carbonates achay Group ane auncien) Cracooue vlan rok Upper urs omne Cretaceous arian = Aptian) ‘Slsiest rocks (Gneara Gp & Goylaransage Go) Micispoan - Lowe dural noun Ao, Mi & Prana roves) _re-orsocan ieraon metemerphic comp) 2, 55 a Fic. 1. Location map of the Antamina deposit and gener geology of part of Ancash and La Libertad Departments, Peru. Compiled and modified after Egelor and De Booy (1956), Cossfo (1964), Wilson and Reyes (1964), Cossto and Jaén (1967), Wilson et al. (1967, 1995), Myers (1976, 1950), Reyes (1980) (1996), Sanchez et al. (1998), INGEMME ‘edge of the Crotacoous shelf (Myers, 1974, 19% toned in the text are shown, as are the arcas il elie in plan and ha a nortinwest southeast width of up to 1,000 m, and a northeast-southwest length of more than 2,500 n. The long axis parallels the Antamina valley and is penpen- dicular to the regional structural grain of the deformed car- bonate host rocks, As recognized by Petersen (1965) the ‘outer limit of skarn is generally subvertical. The skarn nar- rows with depth as the core of porphyry widens (Fig. 3a), but there is no significant change in the Cu and Zn grades to depths of at least 400 m below the original valley floor. Exeept at high clevations in the eastem part of the deposit, the ex- oskarn is almost everywhere mineralized. In detail, the individual skar facies and breccia bodies are complesly shaped and discontinuous, but the deposit can be simplified as comprising an inner shell of endoskarn, stock- work, breccia, and brown garnet exoskarn that contains the copper + molybdenum ore and an outer shell of green gamet (1999), and Strusieviez tal. (2000). The Tapacocha axis detine ). Other deposits (Pierina and Pasto Bueno) and prospects rated in Figs. Sand 6, MTFB = Maraién thrust and fold belt nchez (1995), Allende (1996), ing etal. (1996), Facay es the western Jagistral) men- exoskarn comprising the copper-zinc ore. Molybdenite is dis- semninated in irregular zones within and at the margin of the intrusion. Chalcopyrite is the dominant copper mineral ex- cept at shallow depths in the southwestern part of the deposit, where bornite predominates in wollastonitie exoskarn, which forms an enclave in green gamet Cu-Zn exoskarn. Hydrothermal breccia is common at or near the endoskam- exoskarn contacts along the northwest and southeast sides of the deposit. Breceia also cuts the porphyry core as anasto- mosing sheets and pipes that are commonly enveloped by fine-grained maroon garnet endoskarn (Fig, 3). The breecia zones contain minor chlorite and were originally described by Petersen (1965) as chlorite skarn. The breccias are generally poorly sorted and comprise angular to rounded fragments of the ska and metallic minerals supported in a sand-sized matrix of similir composition, As in skarn, sphalerite and890 LOVE ET AL. Fic. 2. Premine physiography 2, with place names re- ferred to in the text illustrating the clustering of Ag-bearing Pb-Zn vein posits around Lago Antamina documented by Bodenlos and Ericksen (1955). ‘Also indicated are the Contonga Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag mine 5 kan tothe north-north- ‘west of Lago Antamina and veins about 500 mv northeast of Contonga. B Barrén, C = Casualidad, Ce = Condoreoccha, F = Fortuna, JE = Julia Eloisa, oderosa, Pp = Putapuquio, R = Recorapenss, RdO = Rosita de Oro, SE an Francisco, SR = Santa Rosa, UP = Usu Pallaes. The viewpoints for photographs in Figures 7, §, 12, and 15 are shown as “eyes.” (Contour inter- val is 200 m,) molybdenite do not commonly oceur together in the breccias; aphalerite Found in breceias in or neat exoskan, but molb- lenite oceurs in breceias in endoskamn. The common metallic minerals in the breccias are pyrite, chaleopyrite, and mag- netite, which are mostly comminuted but also occur as veins massive bodies, and large fragments. This mineral assemblage is rare in exoskarn but forms widespread stockworks and sheeted vein swarms in fine-grained maroon gamet en- doskarn, in many places grading into crackle, mosaic, and ma- trix-dominated breccia. We estimate that approximately one- third of the ore at Antamina may have formed during this late breceiation, veining, and endoskarn-forming stage, Widely spaced, late calcite-tetrahedrite + sphalerite + galena veinlets are common and cut all skarn and breccia types, although they are also locally dismembered in breccia, probably because of settling. Searce realgar veinlets occur in cale-hornfels above and peripheral to the skarn, Regional Geologie Setting The Upper Cretaceous strata enclosing the Antamina de- posit are part of a metallogenically important Albian and Upper Gretaceous package of carbonate rocks, the Machay Group, that hosts many ore deposits in the polymetallie skarn and carbonate-replacement belt of central Peru (Soler et al., 1986). These rocks formed during the later of two Permian to Paleocene episodes of basin development that deposited a succession of alternating siliciclastic and carbonate facies in westem South America (Sempere et al., 2002). This Late Jurassic to Paleogene snbsidence formed the West Peruvian ‘trough, which separated the magmatic arcs to the west from the eastern geanticlne now represented by the Marafién metamorphic complex (Benavides, 1956; Wilson, 1963, Atherton et al., 1983; Mégard, 1987). The Cretaceous sedi- mentary rocks that crop out in the Antamina area accumu lated in the shallowavater portion of this trough, the Yauli shelf (Szekely, 1967). The Tapacocha axis, now a north-north- west-trending high strain zone, separates the westem, deeper-water portion of the trough from the shelf sedimen- tary rocks (Fig. 1; Myers, 1974, 1975). Stratigraphic relationships The host Machay Group (Figs. 1 and 4) includes all Albian to mid-Campanian carbonate rocks south of 9° $ and east of the Tapacocha axis in north-central Peru. Szekely (1967) in- troduced the Machay Group in central Peru and Samamé- Boggio (1980) applied it throughout Peru, These rocks also have been referred to informally as the “middle Cretaceous limestone series” (Harrison, 1940), the “upper Cretaceous and Albian carbonate series” (Mégard, 1984), and the “upper carbonate sequence” (Manrique, 1998). The group is under lain by a predominantly’ siliciclastic sequence comprising Upper Jurassic marine black shales of the Chicama Group and Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian to Aptian) continental to shelf sandstones, shales, and minor limestones of the Goyllar- isquisga Group (Fig. 4). It is widely overlain, conformably or slightly unconformably, by red beds (Wilson, 1963), which are mainly Campanian to Paleocene but as old as Santonian in central Peru (Jaillard, 1987). Not preserved in the immediate Antamina area, these nonmarine, coarse clastic rocks have been variously described as the Pocabamba Formation, 25 km southeast of Antamina at La Unién (Wilson, 1963, after McLaughlin, 1924), th hota Formation, 20 km north of An- tamina (Benavides, 1956: after Broggi, 1942), and the Cas- apalca Group, 25 km southwest of Antamina in the Cordillera Huayhuash (Coney, 1971, after McLaughlin, 1924). ‘The Machay Group contains two transgressive sequences separated by a disconformity ascribed to Tate-middle. Albian uplift and erosion related to the Mochica orogeny (Mégard, 1954). In the lower part of the group, the successive Par ahuanea, Chulec, and Pariatambo Forniations (Fig, 4) record a transition from nearshore, calcareous sandstone and mas- sive, shelly limestone, through thin-bedded limestone and marl, to deep-water, thin-bedded, bituminous, dark gray marl and limestone (Benavides, 1956, 1999; Wilson, 1963; Jaillard, 1987). Following the late-middle Albian hiatus, carbonate sedimentation on the platform resumed with the deposition of the shallow-water, upper Albian to upper Turonian Ju- masha Formation (Jaillard, 1987), originally defined by McLaughlin (1924) in central Peru, This formation is overlain by the muddier, deeper-water Celendin Formation (Bena- vides, 1956), largely Coniacian to Santonian in age (Jaillard, 1987) but attaining the mid-Campanian in northern Peru (Mourier et al., 1988). The upper part of the group, compris- ing the Jumasha and Celendin Formations (Fig, 4), thus rep- resents a second major transgressive sequence. The lower to middle Albian carbonate strata (the first transgressive sequence) are similar in lithology and thickness in both northern and |a LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, PERU Fic. 3. Simplified cross sections (a) and projected surface geology map (b) of the Antamina depo the crudely elliptical, vertical ones of endoskam and exoskarn developed between a core of largely skarnfree porphyry and the limestone host rocks. Simplified surface geology map is based on drill-hole geology projected to surface and on surface map ping by D.A.L. and J.K.G., combined with that by L. Hathaway (Inmet) and M. Wander (Noranda). Prominent northawest- striking Ineaic folds and the lef-stepping, transverse Valley indicated. The location ofthe proposed Valley lat= eal ramp (VER), inferred to be responsible for the apparent destral offset of the Antamina anticline (AA), is also shown& Antamina Mine Area Upper Sequence ‘Thin-beddod shaly limestone: dark gray to blac, weathers ‘medium to light era, thn- to thick-bedded, generally very fine ‘grained, dominated by biomicrte to microspart, ranges in Carbonate content fora mud calosito with 50-78 % Clete to calcareous sitstone with < 50 % calcte, varably ‘edular, 10-90% nodules 1-15 om dameter, nodules are Founded to muitiobate and have shar to indistinct contacts th the mate Lower Sequence Impure limestone interbedded near the top: ‘are, medium to thick beds (20-50 em), very dark gray to beck, sity mestone, weathers medium gray Predominantly thick-beded, rolativaly pure limostone: dark oray, mecium- to very thick-bedded, ranges in gran size from mudetone to wackestone, weathers ight to pale eray ‘Locally fossiliferous bioclastic wackestone: with oven peleeypods and gastropods, but no apparent siagnostic fauna Outline of Regional Stratigraphy M Eocene - Miocene Calpuy Supergroup ‘Campanian Paleocene Casapalca Group ‘Avian - U Cretaceous Coniacian - Santenian WAbian - Turonian| ‘a atoian Machay Group Celendin Formation Jumasha Formation anatambo Formation LOVE ET AL. UUchupata Typo-Sections Gelendin Formation 163 m, fom Section 19) S322 Mart ignt eray, nodular, sof, white weathering Sartanian Shale: calcareous, shit sly, yelowish, with a few interbeds of eark-2xown limestone ~ Mart ight gray, nodule, wie weather, with {spares intrbeds of imestone “| __\ Mart ight ory. nodular soft, white weathering 9-9 7 Mart ight graye tan, nadie, with few imer0edS. Conacien| ‘massive light-gray imoston ‘Jumasha Formation (620 m, Wom Section 20) Bs = Turonian Limestone: medium gray, thick badded, ‘weatherng cark dove ara, Forarinifera-bearing 200m Limestone: argilaceous Limestone: macium gray, massive, thick bedded, weathering dark-brownish ray Dolostone: hin becec, brown ‘Conomanian Leta aan CGhutee Formation arahuenca Formation Dotostone: ght gray to orange-brown, ieee ear on massive, thek-bedsed, kasi, weathering L Crotaceous Goyiavequisga Group dark orange-brown (Cemasian - Aptian) Unease, hicama Group UTiessic- Jurassic ——_—Pucaré Group Upwer Alban | Permian = Tessie ity Grou fe vee olostone: sity, mesium gray, somewhat nodular Mississippian ‘Amo Group Fic, 4 Inferred stratigraphic column in the mine area compared with that for the Jumasha and Celendlin Formations, compiled from observations (Benavide (of Antarnina. The contact between the jumasba and Cele fan and Goniacian stages and is indicated with a s indicated with dashed lines and ¢ an outline ofthe regional stratigraphic section, central Peru (Benavides, 1956; Jaillard, 1987). However, north of approximately 9° S, the overlying upper Albian to mid-Campanian carbonate rocks are much thicker, more fos- siliferous, and lithologically more variable than in central Peru, and the Jumasha Formation interval is divided into five formations (Benavides, 1956). Jaillard (1987) provides corre- lations between these stratigraphic sections in northern and central Peru, Tectonic relationships Published descriptions of the structural setting of the Anta mina deposit (Bodenlos and Ericksen, 1955; Terrones, 1958: Petersen, 1965; Redwood, 1999) have focused on the Maraiién thrust and fold belt, which developed circa 30 my. before mineralization, with scant consideration of the re- gional tectonic environment that existed in the mid-Miocene. We argue, however, that Antamina lies athwart a large-scale, cross-strike (northeast-southwest) structural discontinuity (Wheeler, 1978) that was tectonically active at the time of skarn formation and hence has metallogenic significance. 1936) on the measured sections in the Rio Puchea valley, approximately 20 km north Formations coincides with the idury between the Turon- Tine; unknown stage boundary locations have been approximated and estion marks. The stratigraphic interval interpreted to host the skamn is show, Inset shows Love et al. (2001) termed the structure the Querococha arch because its southwestern limit at the margin of the Callejon de Huaylas lies close to Laguna Querococha (Figs. 5 and 6). Its influence on the abundance of Neogene intrusions, the re- gional strikes in the Maraién thrust and fold belt, and the stratigraphic relationships of underlying Mississippian to Lower Jurassic strata (Fig. 4) is de The ‘overall strike of the Maraiién thrust and fold belt changes, and the common plunge directions reverse, across the proposed northeast-trending cross-strike structural dis- continuity (Fig. 5). These thin-skinned Eocene structures, at- tributed to the Incaic orogeny, are the dominant tectonic ele- ments in the region, although two regional unconformities in the Cretaceous succession in central Peru, one at the base of the Jumasha Formation and the other below the Casapalea Group and its equivalents, represent earlier emergence dur- ing, respectively, the Mochica and Peruvian tectonic phases (Noble et al., 1979; Mégard, 1984). The Marafién thrust and fold belt extends from 5° S to 12° 30’ S, generally striking north-northwest-south-southeast, parallel to the presentLITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, PERL EN Ps Wy AN HHA [1 Pliocene - Quatamary cast sediments EEE Midate Eocene - Upper MioceneCalipuy-equivelent and younger granitoid intrusions [Ex] Midae Eocene - Midle MioceneCalipuy Supergroup volcanic rocks EEE] Upper Cretaceous - Paleocene Casapalca Group & equivalent red beds [1 Abiian- Upper Cretaceous Machay Grou carbonate rocks FE] Uoper suassic - Lower Cretacoous (Boriasian - Aptian) Chicama & Goyllarsquisga Groups silciclastic rocks pre-Ordovician Marafién Metamorphic Complex —+— anticline —— syneline + plunge cirection + thrust fault vs 191 | 19) 1 normal fauit —S strike-stip fault 207 120} _ | ro.g = — = = approximate locus of change of plunge ars0W 7630W of folds and strike of folds and faults Fic. 5, Structural geology’ of the Maran thrust and fold belt inthe vicinity of Antamina, illustrating the marked change in the orientations of thrust faults and fold axes aeross a northeast-trending zone through Antamina (ater Egeler and de Boos, 1956; Wikon etal, 1967, 1995; Cobbing et al, 1996; Jay, 1996; and Strusievier et al, 2000). The northeast south- wwest-trnding loc! of theve changes in structural atte fs indicated by the heany dashed Ine, which i offset in a leltstep- ping sense in the vicinity of Antamina. This area isthe location ofthe proposed cross-stike structural discontinuity discussed in the tex. Inset shows the location of the map area relative to the Hvar (19), Singe (19), Requay (20) and La Union (204) quadrangles. No attempt has ben made to establish continuity between the map units of Wilson et al (1967, 1995) north of 9° 30'S and those of Cobbing etal, (1996) to the south, The undated volcanie rocks of Pampa Junia have been as- signed to the Calipay Supergronp (sw text fr discssion) 893LOVE ET Al, ‘Midole Eocene - Mote Miocene granitoid rocks ‘Mite Eocene, - Mie Mocene Catouy Supergroup subaerial volcanic & associated rocks ra Upper urassis - Cretaceous ~ Paleocene Chicama & Goylarsquisga Gps. sie eTocs, Machy Gp. carbonate ois, & Casapales Gp todas Hee Mississiopian - Lower Jurassic, including Ambo, Mitu & Pucara Groups [| pre-Oreovician Maran Metamorphic Complex Fic. 6, Simplified geology of approximately 8,000 kin ofthe Marafin thrst and fold belt in the region around Antam- as the dominantly upper Miocene Cordillera Blanca batholith is removed (ef Figs. | and 5), reflecting the geology at the ane of intrusion and mineralization in the late Miocene. The northeast-southwest trending cross-strike structural discont nuity that passes through Antamina is delimited by heavy dashed lines. Mississippian to Lower Jurassic sedimentary rocks are absent beneath the Cretaceous Goyllarisquisga Group northeast of Antamina along the eross-strike siractural discontic inty but are present north and southeast ofthe cross-strike structural discontinuity, except where cut ont by faulting, An ut usual abundance of igneous bodies intrudes the MaraiiGn Belt along the cross.strike structural discontinuity, compared to transects to the north and south. After Egeler and de Booy (1956), Wilson et al. (1967, 1995), Gobbing etal (1996), Jacay (1996), and Strusieviez etal. (2000)LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, plate boundary, and comprises structures that predomi- “nantly verge northeast (Mégard, 1984; Fig. 5). However, southeast of the cross-strike structural discontinuity, folds ind thrust faults. strike north-northwest, whereas to the northwest of it, they strike northerly (Figs. 1, 5, and 6). Moreover, fold plunges are reversed across this zone: to the southeast, most major anticlines and synclines plunge to the ‘oith-southeast, whereas to the northwest, they plunge north (Fig. 5). The locus of changes in strike and plunge ex- tends northeast from Laguna Querococha, but about 5 5 km southwest of Antamina it steps 8 km to the north before con- tinving northeastward (Fig. 5). Faults with the same overall northeast strike as the cross-strike structural discontinuity control some present-day drainages, such as the northeast- trending Rio Puchca valley, 20 km north of Antamina, which is discordant to the overall north to north-northwest grain of the terrain (Fig. 5) The deflection in the Antamina area is one of several that articulate the Maraiién thrust and fold belt. Northerly strikes continue to Llamallin, 50 km to the north of Antamina in the eastem part of the belt (Fig. 1). Still farther north, the ov all north-northwest regional strike of the Marafién thrust and fold belt resumes. A comparable sharp deflection to north- south strikes oceurs at the northern end of the Cordillera Blanca (Fig, 1), 175 km to the north-northwest of Antamina, sthere the Casma-Pasto Bueno fault zone intersects the re- ional north-northwest strikes (Rivera, 1996). Benavides 1999) identified many segments in the fabric of the Marafién thrust and fold belt, including the two described above, al- though he proffered a different mechanism for their forma- tion, as discussed below. Stratigraphic variations across the cross-strike structural discontinuity: The contact relationships of the upper Paleo- aie and Mesozoic strata (Fig. 4) to the lower Paleozoic Maraién metamorphic complex vary in accordance with the segmentation of the thrust and fold belt. Figure 6 shows the relationships along the western margin of the Marafién com- plex throughout an area more extensive than that shown in Figure 5. Mississippian to Lower Jurassic strata that normally separate the pre-Ordovician metamorphic rocks from the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are absent near the proposed ccoss-strike structural discontinuity. In the north-striking seg- ment of the fold belt immediately north of the Antamina area, the eastern limit of the Mississippian to Cretaceous succes- sion isa subhorizontal unconformity that strikes north overall but has an irregular surface trace owing to the incised topog- raphy (Figs, 5 and 6). In the north-northwest-stiking seg- ments of the belt, however, the eastern extent of the Meso- zie racks is generally delimited by north-northwest-striking faults (e.g., southeast of Antamina, and northwest of Llama lin; Fig. 6). Southeast of Antamina, the southwest margin of the Marafién metamorphic complex is largely defined by a se- ries of major northeast-verging reverse faults that involved basement, but the Mississippian to Lower Jurassic strata are preserved between the pre-Ordovieian_ metamorphic rocks and the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks (Fig. 6). However, in the north-northwest-striking scgment northwest of Llamal- lin, the Maraiién complex is backthrust over the rocks and the thickness of the Mississippian to Lower Juras- sic strata is only locally apparent (Fig, 6), ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT. PERU 805 Northeast of Antamina, Mississippian to Lower Jurassic strata (Fig, 4) are absent along the proposed cross-strike structural discontinuity, and the clastic rocks of the Lower Cretaceous Goyllarisquisga Group lie unconformably on the pre-Ordovician Marafén metamorphic complex (Figs. 5 and 6). In contrast, north and southeast of the cross-strike struc- tural discontinuity, a relatively thick sequence of Missis plan to Lower Jari strat separates these units (Fig. 6). Sandstones and shales of the Mississippian Ambo Group lo- ally unconformably overlie the Marafién complex near its wester limit, Similarly, continental sedimentary rocks and al- kaline to subalkaline volcanic rocks of the Lower Permian Mitu Group commonly overlie the Ambo Group and also lo- cally lie unconformably on the Maraiién complex along its western edge but are absent northeast of Antamina, Both north and south-southeast of the cross-strike structural dis- continuity, these siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are overlain by Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic carbonate rocks and shales (Pucaré Group). The absence of these three groups directly northeast of Antamina records either a sub-Cretaceous ero- sional unconformity or nondeposition from Mississippian to Late Jurassic times. The cross-strike structural discontinuity therefore also coincided with a topographic high or arch, at least in the Middle to Late Jurassic, but possibly persisting throughout the Mississippian to Jurassic interval ‘The cross-strike structural discontinuities probably also in- fluenced the distribution of the uppermost Cretaceous to Pa- leocene red beds that unconformably overlie the Cretaceous strata (Fig. 4), These are absent near the proposed cross- strike structural discontinuity through the Antamina area, and they also thin significantly near the more northerly Casma- Pasto Bueno deflection, but they attain a considerable thick- ness between these two transverse zones as well as to the south of the arch (Fig. 1). Tencous activity along the cross-strike structural disconti- nuity: Between the Cordillera Blanca and the Maraiién meta- memphis complex, the 1:100,000 quadrangle maps of Cobbing et al. (1996) and Wilson et al, (1967, 1995) record a greater abundance of Tertiary hypabyssal and extrusive rocks along the proposed cross-strike structural discontinuity than to the northwest or southeast (Fig, 6). In addition, west of the thrust and fold belt, volcanic rocks of the Calipuy Supergroup (Strusievier et al., 2000) are abundant northwest and south- east of this cross-strike structural discontinuity (c.g., in the Nevado Huantsdn area and the Cordillera Huayhuash; Fig. 6). These rocks are interpreted to be lower-middle Miocene because hypabyssal intrusions associated with similar volcanic rocks elsewhere in the region (Huaraz. Group of the Calipuy Supergroup; Fig, 5) have been shown by !A1/Ar step-heat- ing geochronology to have persisted to 14.2 Ma (Strusieviez et al., 2000; Love et al., 2001). However, the 115 km? middle Miocene granodioritic Cathuish pluton crops out on the axis of the proposed cross-strike structural discontinuity (Fig. 5), representing deeper-seated rocks of broadly equivalent age (13.7 Ma U/Pb zircon date on the main phase, Mukasa, 1984; 16.5 Ma K/Ar date on the marginal phase, Cobbing et al., 1981). ‘The volcanic rocks of Pampa Junin (Egeler and de Booy, 1956) northeast of the Carhuish pluton (Fig. 5) have not been dated, so their significance with regard to the trans- verse structure is uncertain. However, we propose that the896 LOVE ET AL. cross-strike structural discontinuity focused the distribution of igneous activity as it diminished through the mid-Miocene, prior to intrusion and mineralization at Antamina. In Figure 6 the arch is depicted with a width of approximately 20 km to incorporate the left-stepping locus of changes in Incaic strikes and plunges (Fig, 5), the absence of Mississippian to Lower Jurassic rocks beneath the sub-Cretaceous unconformity at the northeast end of the arch, the diameter of the Carhuish pluton at its southwestem margin, and the array of Miocene intrusions. Local Geologie Setting Sedimentary host rocks The contact of the Jumasha and Celendin Formations within the Machay Group has not previously been defined in the Antamina mine area, owing to the intense skarn and homn- fels development and to the paucity of biostratigraphic mark- ers, The eliff-forming strata surrounding the Antamina deposit were mapped initially by Bodenlos and Erieksen (1955) as ma- rine limestones of the Jumasha Formation. J.J. Wilson (un- published report to Gerro de Pasco Corp., Lima, 1959, in Pe- tersen, 1965) observed that the beds on the northwest slopes of Quebrada Antamina were stratigraphically higher than those at similar elevations on the southeast side, but he did not locate the interformational contact. Petersen (1965) de- scribed the carbonate units as the Machay Formation, and they were subsequently reassigned to the Jumasha Formation by Cobbing et al. (1996) ‘The skam-hosting limestone strata at Antamina are herei subdivided into two sequences, the upper markedly more shaly than the lower, and assigned to the Celendin masha Formations, respectively. These sequences are de- scribed and compared with a section of the relevant strat graphic interval construeted from two sections measured by Benavides (1956) at Uchupata in the Rio Puchca valley, 20 km north of Antamina (Fig. 4). A measured section has not been established for the Antamina minesite because of the struc- tural complexity of the area (described below) and the ab- sence of marker beds in the exposed host rocks. The inferred stratigraphic interval occupied by the skarn is also indicated in Figure 4. The upper sequence of thin-bedded rocks that prior to mining underlay the ridge crests flanking Quebrada Antamina (Fig, 2) is widely altered to hornfels adjacent to the Antamina intrusive center and grades into shaly limestone with increasing distanee from it (Fig. 7). The lower sequence Fic.7. The two distinct host rock types ofthe Antamina skarn system: an upper sequence of thin-bedded, silty imestones, here largely converted to cale-homfelses, assigned to the Celendin Formation (Ce), and a lower sequence of thiek- bedded, relatively pure limestones that form marbles, interpreted as the Jumasha Formation (J). Locations from whiel the pho- tographs were taken are indicated in Fig. 2. Photographs taken in 1997 through 1999; this ridge has now been largely re moved by mine development. (a) The southeast side of Quebrada Antamina, look! dashes) between the Jumasha and Celendin Formations is placed at the top of the uppermost massive thick-bedded lim stone (pale gray band) deformed by the Antamina anticline, Note the iegular upper, southeastem contact ofthe skam (lo ‘white dashes), here largely confined to the Jumasha Formation. (b) Looking northeast at the head of Quebrada Antamina endlin Formation on skarn development, showing the distinet control of bedding in the ig southeast. The contaet (long black nd Jue | itil eka leilaLITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER, ZING DEPOSIT, PERU 897 afcaleitie marble contains only subordinate intercalated diop- bioclastie limestones that range in grain size from mudstone Sie-ich units and grades outward into predominantly thick- 0 wackestone. This sequence is generally thick-bedded and bedded, relatively pure limestone (Fig, 7) massive and displays karstic weathering (Fig. 8b), Toward the The lower sequence (Figs. 4, 7a, and 84) generally contains top of this sequence, medium to thick beds (20-50 cm) of im- more than 75 percent calcite and comprises calcitic, variably pure, silty limestone are interbedded with the pure limestone Fic. 8. The Jumasha and Gelendln Formations, (a) Cflforming thick beds of massive limestone on the southeast flank of Quebrada Gillapo (see Fig. 2 for location). (b) Massive limestone ofthe Junasha Formation, showing luted weathering (south of Yanacancha area, Fig. 2), fc) Upper: masse (ie. anlaminated and with no preferred arientation of fos) pele eypod carbonate wackestone of the Jumasha Formation (DDH CMAI39, 155 m). Lower: sheared fossiliferous carbamate ‘wackestone, equivalent to upper piece, nat ynarmorized, Dut with a strong preferred orientation (DDH CMA:039, 160 i) (d) More recessive weathering, vegetated, thin-bedded limestones and maris of the Gelendin Formation cropping out onthe southeast slopes of Quebrada Ayash. near ts intersection with Quebrada Tucush (see Fig. 2 for location), Photograph taken the lower half of this area is now obscured by construction of the tilings dam: (e) Nodular kmestone of the Ce- lend Formation, consisting of light gray, coalescing, carbonate-rieh nodules separated by wisps af dark gray caleareous silt stone (Fortuna Mine area, see Fig, 2 hammer for scale). () Upper: Celendin Formation nodular limestone (DDH CMA- C3, 281 m). Lower: lenticular heeding interpreted as sheared nodular Kmestone of the Celendin Formation (DDE MACS, S75 m om898, (Figs. 4 and 7a). This sequence hosts ore at the surface and at se in the southwest part of the deposit, but only in the subsurface in the northeast. Few whole fossils are preserved (Fig. Sc) and no ammonites were observed in the mine area, precluding biostratigraphic correlations, However, we assign this sequence to the Jumasha Formation on lithologic grounds. Sheared fossiliferous carbonate wackestone occurs locally in this sequence (Fig, 8c). In north-central Peru, Be- navides (1956) described the Jumasha Formation as. domi- nated by massive, thick-bedded, light orange-brown to yel- lowish-brown and gray, fossil-poor dolostones and limestones that weather dark yellowish-brown to brownish-gray. The for- mation has been further described as comprising topographi- cally prominent, cliff-forming, light-gray limestones and yel- lowish dolostones that are characteristically bioclastic (Wilson, 1963), In the Uchupata section (Fig. 4), the upper 437 m is limestone, and the lower 353 m is dolostone. Unlike the overlying Celendin Formation, this formation only rarely contains calcareous siltstones, although it incorporates marly limestone beds near its top (Jaillard, 1987), The upper limit of the Jumasha Formation was defined lithostratigraphically where medium- or thick-bedded limestones pass upward into thin-bedded marls and limestones (Wilson, 1963). The upper sequence in the mine area (Figs. 4, 7, and Sd) comprises thin- to thick-bedded impure limestone-marl that varies in carbonate/silicate ratio from relatively calcite-rich muddy limestone (generally 50-75% carbonate) to calcareous siltstone (less than 50% carbonate). Many units contain light- say, calcitic nodules, composing 10 to 90 percent of the enclosed by dark, silty calcareous mudstone (Fig. 8e, £). No limestone beds with siliceous nodules have been observed The nodular texture is interpreted to be diagenetic. Sheared limestone with lenticular bedding exposed at the northeast head of Quebrada Antamina represents deformed nodular limestone in which the nodules have been flattened into lenses during folding and faulting (Fig, Sf). The upper se- quence lacks identifiable fossils but is assigned to the Ge- Jendin Formation on lithologic grounds. In the Uchupata see- tion, 20 km north of the mine, the Gelendin Formation comprises very soft, friable, fossil-poor, light greenish-gray, noclalar, moderately silty marls and calearcous shales (Fig, 4; Benavides, 1956). This formation is generally. medium-bed- ded (03-08 m) and variably dolomitic, and it ranges from fine-grained to pelletal (Wilson, 1963). The contact between the Jumasha and Celendin Forma- tions in the mine area is conformable and generally grada- tional throughout several meters and is marked by upward-in- creasing siltiness and decreasing bed thickness. This contact is interpreted tobe the top of the uppermost thik bedded limestone or marble unit on the basis of lithology and bedding characteristics. This stratigraphic position is illustrated in Fig- ure 7a for outerops on the southeast wall of the Antamina val- ley. The contact is folded by the anticlines exposed on the val- alls adjacent to the southwestern part of the deposit, and it dips northeast in the subsurface in the northeast part of the deposit, as do the overlying strata exposed in that area. The thin-bedded cale-hornfelses that predominate on the ridge crests flanking Quebrada Antamina grade laterally away from skam into the marly, variably nodular sequence assigned to the Gelendin Formation, but they do not contain the shales LOVE ETAL. characteristic of its upper part, The relatively pure eet marble of the Jumasha Formation that hosts ore at surface ia the southwest part of the deposit and at depth in the north: east sector does not contain the thick dolostones characteris: tic of the lower part of that formation, and no- magnesian skam has been found. On this basis, we conclude that the skarn developed in the upper part of the Jumasha Formation and the lower part of the Celendin Formation (Fig. 4). How: ever, we estimate that approximately three-quarters of the mineralized exoskam, and all of the wollastonite exoskam, de- veloped in the Jumasha Formation, and that a similar propor- tion of the contiguous and genetically related endoskarn was formed in the stock adjacent to that formation. It is not known whether magnesian skam developed in dolostone below the limit of exploration and development drilling. Alteration of sedimentary rocks adjacent to the skarn The outer contact of coarse-grained mineralized exoskam is abrupt, convoluted, and uninfluenced by bedding in the mar- bles formed from the limestones of the Jumasha Formation (Fig. 7a), but itis more gradational and stratigraphically con- trolled in the fine-grained cale-silicate rocks developed in the interbedded limestones and marls of the overlying Celendin Formation (Fig. 7b). In the Jumasha Formation, the mineral- ized skarn is juxtaposed with marbles containing local hor zons rich in cale-silicate minerals that may be ascribed to thermal metamorphism. In contrast, the cale-silicate-bearing rocks developed in the marly Celendm Formation include rock types that are interpreted as the produets of either meta- morphism or metasom ‘The latter do not host sulfide minerals and differ rad texture and mineralogy from the exoskarn ore. Their wide distribution around the upper part of the orebody constitutes a significant exploration tar- et. : Jumasha Formation: On approaching skar, dark gray Ju- ‘masha limestone is converted to coarsely crystalline, gray to white calcitic marble (Table 1, Fig. 9), forming an aureole ranging from tens to hundreds of meters wide. Within the au- reole, local development of sparse diopside, wollastonite, or scapolte porphyroblasts (Fig. 9a) or slight differential erosion and color variation (Fig, 9b) in caleite marble record minor compositional variations in the limestone. Rare, fine-grained, light green, diopsidic layers in calcite marble (Fig. 9c), the jorcellanite of Terrones (1958), are interpreted as cale-horn- Ee voc, Gell) mean pole © thick beds of dolomitic, muddy, fine-grained limestone near the top of the formation. Within the marble aureole, medium-grained, mottled, or marble predominates, locally grading inward to ‘0 coarse-grained, pure white marble, reflecting ei- ther degraphitization or metamorphism of organic matter to clear vitrinite. Rare, medium- to coarse-grained, thin, buff garnet layers in both white and mottled facies of marble mimic the forms of folded silicate-rich laminae (Fig. 9d} and appear to have replaced them. This type of garnet develop- ‘ment is interpreted as a bimetasomatic reaction skarn. In gray marble, seapolite is locally developed in some darker-gray bands (Fig. 9e) but does not persist into white marble or skarn (Table 1). Seapolite therefore forms a discontinuous halo up to tens of meters wide and commonly separated fromLITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA CORPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, PERU 899 ‘TABLE 1. Minesal Assemblages in Cale-Homnfels in the Celendin Formation, lin Marbles of the: Jumasha Foriation, Adjieent to Ore-Bearing C Formation, rock ype, Facies ad minenlogy Distal Titerinediate Pravinal (Gelendin Formation? Calohornfels Brow, very Fine grained (Common ineras Calcite, anorthite, calcite, quartz, phlogopite Minor minerals += Diopside Gray, fine grained Caleite, quart, tremolite = Diopside, : = vollastonite, = phlogopite, Green, fine to medinam grained Diopside,caeite, quit, ricrocline anit, + grossuar = hedenbergite = orthoclase, + ferrosilite Jumnasha Formation Marble ‘Grays fine to-medinm geined branded Common minerals Calite Minor minerals Viteinite or other onganie matter Gray; medi grained, banded Calcite = Scapolite, = vitsinite, graphite br other organic matter Gray: medium to coane grained, massive Calcite + Colorless vitrinite, + wollastonite, + diopside (Determined by X-ray powler diffiaction using a Philips PANalytical XPert PRO diffraction system with X'Pert Plus and NPert HighSeore software for peck matching andl phase identification "Distal, intermediate, ane proximal fackes zones are broader in the Celendin Formation than in the fumasha Formation the skam front by tens of meters. White marble develops in patches (Fig, Qd and £) and is concentrated along stylolites and fractures (Fig. 9). The latter probably represent fluid pathways, suggesting that development of white marble ine \olved the local channeling of fluids. Such pathways were not consistently used by later skam-related fluids and are locally cat by fractures with wollastonite-rich selvages (Fig. 99) Immediately southwest of the skarn, the Jumasha Forma- tion has a distinet planar banded fabric, locally:a spaced cleay- age, that dips northeast at a high angle to bedding (Fig, 9a) To the northeast, this fabric steepens and becomes vertical adjacent to the skarn and along the strike of a major fold axis ‘The consistent strike, systematically changing dip, and rela tionship to folds visible in the adjacent limestones indicate that this is an upward-fanning cleavage associated with local folding. In the adjacent skam, alternating andradite-rich and sphalerite-rich bands, generally 5 to 50 crn wide, are subpar allel to this fabric, suggesting that at least some preexisting structures influenced mineralization. This banding may cor respond with the coarse-grained amet-defined fabric ob- served by Terrones (1958). Celendin Formation: In the Gelendin Formation, on the ridges around Lago Antamina, the skarn has a halo of miner- alogically diverse fine-grained cale-silicate rocks with subcon- choidal ‘to conchoidal fractures. With increasing distance fiom the skam, these rocks grade into interbedded limestone and marl that reacted differentially to thermal metamorphism around the porphyry intrusion and orebody, thus highlighting the bedding (Fig. 7b) Dark gray massive units change in color, mineralogy, and grain size proximal to monzogranitie dikes. Although we have nat mapped the various facies of these rocks in detail, we ree- ognize the development of three distinct zones: a distal very fine grained, light-brown phlogopitic facies; an intermediate fine-grained, light-gray, tmemolitic facies; and a proximal medium-grained, light-green diopsidic facies (Table 1, Fig 10a, b). The boundaries between these facies are commonly sharp and smooth but are locally irregular where controlled by stockwork fractures (Fig. 10a, b). The outer limit of the distal brown facies is typically hundreds of meters from. the boundary of sulfide-bearing skarn, and the progression from brown through gray to green facies occurs over distances ranging from tens of meters adjacent to the main intrusion to tens of centimeters (Fig 10b) adjacent to dikes extending be- yond the main intrusion, Although local fluid channeling and probably metasoma- tism occurred at the bonndaries of the facies, the systematic mineralogic zonation (Table 1) most likely reflects increasing temperature, The first appearance of light brown cale-horn- fels corresponds with the phlogopite-in reaction, Dol + Kf Phi + Cal, which occurs in the range 350 to 465°C under ge- ologically reasonable conditions (i.e, P = 1,000 bars and Xeo, = 0.1 to 0.9: Tracy and Frost, 1991). The gray cale-hornfels contains tremolite with or without phlogopite, whereas brown calc-hornfels is tremolite free (Table 1). The transition from brown to gray cale-hornfels therefore is interpreted to repre- sent a phlogopite-out reaction that coincides with the forma- tion of tremolite, probably through the reaction Phi + Cal + Qtz = Tr + Kfs (Tracy and Frost, 1991: Table 1), The light- green cale-hornfels records the first appearance of massive diopside (Table 1), although veinlets and small blebs of this mineral locally oceur farther from the intrusive contacts. This zone probably formed through the reaction Tr + Qtz + Ca Di, which under similar pressure and Xca, occurs at temper- atures of between 405° and 495°C (Tracy and Frost, 1991). The local narrowness of the gray cale-hornfels facies and theLOVE ET AL: Fic. 9, Marmorized Jamssha Formation. (a Subile bedding, defined by porphyroblast abundance (outlined) in caletic marble, dips moderately southwest and is overprinted by a northeast-dipping planar fabric ooking northwest, portal of bulk sample ad, 450 mn southwest of west shore of Lago Antamina: hammer for seale}, (b} Subtle bedcling, defined by sight color difference and differential erosion (outlined), rellecting enptie difference in porphyroblast abundance in calcite marble {looking northivest,350-m southwest of west shore of Lago Antamina: 20 em notebook in foreground for scale) (c) Med bedded liver of ight green, fine-grained, diopsidic eale-homnfels defines bedding within coarse-grained caletie marble near the top of the formation ooking northeast, 300 m southwest of the western shore of Lago Antanas 15 em ruler for scale). () Upper: mottled gray calcitic jumasha Formation maxble with tightly folded, boucinaged, dark-gray sity laminae. Lower. ‘mottled white and gray marble with tightly folded bu garnet-rich layer, similar in shape tothe sil layer in the upper core (DDI CMA-086, 218 m),(¢) Banded gray Jumashe Formation marble showing development of approximately 10 perc Diack seapolite enstals within darker layers (DDH CMA-136, 232 m), () Upper white marble 3 gray Jumasha. marble both as patches thronghout and locally sround veinlets and styloltes (DDH CMA-136, 228 mn), Lower. trolled white marble in gray Jumasha Formation marble eut by iregular veinlets with chalycwhite wollistonitic selvages DDH CMA-936, 441 m), Seale bars in centimeters.LITHOSTRATIGRAPIY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-AINC DEPOSIT. PERU Fic. 10. Homfls, skamoid, and vrigulite developed in the Gelendin Formation (a) megular stockwork of sealed frnc- sures controlling development of light-gray tremoliticcalechornfels in light-brown philogopitieeale-hornfls (on the southeast ridge crest, center of Fig. 12e, 15 em pend for scale}. (b) Calechorofels facies with distal, light-brown, very fine grained phi- ‘gopiticcale-hornfels at upper left, light-gray tremolic in the center, and proximal, lightgreen medium-grained diopsidic cailechomfels at lower tight. These Tacies are unusually closely spaced becane they are on the margin ofa narrow dike, ap- [proximatel’350 mi southeast of the main intrusion (same location as (al; 38 min lens cap for scale on the far left. () Sparse, large, medium-green diopsidie nodules in pale gray eale-homfels (base of elif, northeast of Lago Antamina: 10 om knife for scale). (@? Very abundant coalescing diopsiic nodles with caeite-bearing cale-hornfels matrix (base of cli, east of Lago Antamina; 15 cm peneil for scale), (e) Imegular concentric banding, interpreted by Bodenlos and Ericksen (1955) to be of algal origin, bot reinterpreted as wrigaite texture of metasomatic replacement origin (hase of iff, cast of Lago Ant 15.em pene for scale}, (#) Banding developed in eale-horafels and apparently controlled by northeast striking fractures (om the ridge crest southeast of Antamina valley, just east of the east end of Fig. 12e: 55 mm leis cap for scale) 901902 absence of tremolite in the phlogopite facies suggest that the metamorphism took place at high Xco,, Under such condi- tions the diopside-in and phlogopite-in reactions are sepa- rated by only circa 10°C. Also, the development of tremolite throngh the elimination of phlogopite is promoted under these conditions, but its formation within the field of phlogo- pite stability through the reaction Dol + Qtz = Tr + Cal is in- hibited, In contrast to these calchornfelses that formed under es- sentially thermal metamorphic conditions, cale-silicate devel ‘apment through metasomatism is revealed by development of skarnoid in some beds of the Celendin Formation, extending tens of meters beyond the mineralized ska front, Skarnoid is a descriptive term for cale-silicate rocks that are relatively fine grained, caleium rich, and iron poor, and that reflect, at least in part, an aluminosilicate component in the protolith (Zharikov, 1970). It is genetically intermediate between a purely metamorphic hornfels and a purely. metasomatic, Mluid-controlled skarn, which is typically’ coarser grained and does not as closely reflect the composition or texture of the immediately surrounding rocks (Binaudi, 2000). In some beds in the Celendin Formation, diopsidic nodules stand out in relief against the calcite-bearing cale-siicate matrix (Fig. 10¢, @). The nodules, locally concentrically banded, range from =10 em to <1 cm in diameter and from sparse to abun- dant, independent of their size (Fig. 100, d). They are inter- preted as products of the preferential metasomatism af cal- Citic nodules (ef. Fig, Se, ). Both close to the skam front and tens to hundreds of me- ters from it, sulfide-free concentrically layered structures oceur in some massive (nonnodular) beds of altered Celendlin limestone (Fig. 10e). These were interpreted as algal strac- tures by Bodenlos and Erickson (1955). However, they do not have the requisite three-cimensional geometry, and no un- ambiguous algal structures have been seen in unaltered lime- stones in the area, Also, at the transition from brown to gray facies in cale-homnfels, rhythmic banding is developed adja- cent to through-going, northeast-striking fractures (Fig. 10f) Similar laminated features occur in ore-bearing wollastonite skarn, Because of their similarity to banded features de- scribed in other skarns (e.g., Knopf, 1908; Eskola, 1951), we interpret the layering as metasomatic wrigglite (Kwak and Askins. 1981). From these relationships, we conclude that minor metasomatism occurred beyond the extent of metallic mineralization in the Celendin Formation. Structural geology of the mine area The Upper Cretaceous strata of the Machay Group that host the skarn were intensely deformed in the Maraién thrust and fold belt, Southwest of the mine, the Jumasha For- mation is thrust over the younger Celendin Formation, and the Lower Cretaceous formations of the Coyllarisquisga Group are thrust both over the Celendin Formation and over each other in reverse stratigraphic order (Fig. 11) Local folds and faults: The Antarnina deposit is hosted by a relatively flat-lying section of the Jumasha and Celendin For- mations, is deformed by open folds, and is cut by numerous small thrust-fault ramps and bedding-parallel thrust faults (Fig, 11), all interpreted to have developed during the late Eocene Incaic orogeny. Prior to open-pit development, the LOVE EP AL. steep slopes around the Antamina valley provided clear three-dimensional images of the local structural relationships (Fig, 12), summarized in an isometric block diagram in Fig- ure 15, The vergence of the thrust faults are interpreted from cutoff angles, and it is assumed that the strata are all upright, | unless obviously overturned. The local thrusting and related | folding are described below in sequence from southwest to northeast, Southwest of Antamina, a northeast-verging thrust, herein named the Yaquirsh-Buque Punta thrust (YBPT in Figs. 11, | 12, and 13), has caused structural repetition of the Jurasha | Formation. A few hundred meters to the east of this fault, the Jumasha Formation is thrust over the younger Celendin For- mation on the northeast-verging Antamina thrust fault (mine terminology; AT in Figs. 11, 12. and 13), The imbricate thrust stack is developed in massive limestones of the Jumasha For- mation (Fig. Sa) in the next transcurrent valley to the north- ‘west of Antamina (Quebrada Callapo in Fig. 2). This is part of a duplex in which the Antamina thrust is the sole and one of the unnamed thrusts west of the Yaguirsh-Buque Punta thrust is the roof, although the latter has been extensively eroded. These imbricate slices do not all contin south from Quebrada Callapo into Quebrada Antamina because some fault surfaces merge. On the northwest slope of the Antannina valley, only the Ju- masha Formation occurs between the Antamina thrust and the Yaquirsh-Buque Punta thrust, whereas the Jumasha and Celendin Formations in conformable stratigraphic sequence separate these two thrusts on the opposing southeast slo} (Figs. 11, 12, and 13). The immediately underlying thrust slice, carried on the nostheast-verging Fortuna thrust (mine ee slope of the valley, east of and helow the Antamina thrust, In this area, the Fortuna thrust repeats the Gelendin Formation and has a small recumbent anticline in its hanging wall (Figs. 11, 12a, and 13). However, neither this thrust nor its hanging-wall an- ticline can be traced. across the valley to its southeast side (Fig, 12b, c), either beeause the thrust surfaces merged or be- cause the branch line of the two thrusts plunges north and therefore clitnbs above the erosion level to the south, The An- tamina thrust cuts the shallowly dipping Fortuna thrust (Figs. 11, La, 13) aswell as other minor, bedding-parallel thrusts in the Celendin Formation. Most of the folds and thrust faults at Antamina are north- east verging, as is characteristic of the Marafén thrust and fold belt (Mégard, 1984), but two southwest-verging thrusts occur southeast of Lago Antamina (Figs. 11, 12c, and 13), ‘These thrusts are interpreted as backthrusts related to the un- derlying northeast-verging Oscarina thrust (mine terminol- ow OT), which is the lowest in the immediate mine area, This thrust can be traced along the crest of the southwest slope of the Tucush valley (Fig. 2), east of Antamina. It also repeats the Celendin Formation and deforms it into a hang- ing-wall anticline (Figs. 11; 12a, b, d; and 13), Many other minor thrust faults are recorded by ramps with bedding cut- offs for distances of tens of meters, especially in the Celendin Formation, but are not illustrated here. Prominent northwest-striking, open, upright anticlines are exposed above the deposit on the northwest and southeast walls of the valley (Figs. 7a; 12a, ¢; and 13), They becomeLITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, PERU Antamina planned pit outing HEI vce svesionsortrcn rite cone age TW st outs Mackay es ee [cabin ie tntcoeaces hare nemone csc dad beding races BI urasna Fm. thick-bedded timestone) ® past-producing mine or prospect Lower Cmte pute ee at ida Shin rnine 8 BRREOAL crc rr neces, lp gay Saeortan,cloroos sate & calcareous sancstne) Poi urce Pn Prdiameto Mid bedsedlineatore Scares mani) Gayiarisquizga Group PEpEigh eathae Pm, (hn: to acum bedded sandstone, sitstone § shel) 4 3 hs 22222221 Santa Fm. (hin- to mecium-Dedeed imestane, shale & sandstone) Kilometers Fic. 11. Local geology of the Antamina area (modified after Cobling et al,1996: Glover, 1997, unpublished report to mina S.A, Lin Compania Minera Love and Clark, 199%, unpublished report to Gompania Minera Antamina $.A., Lima). The physiegraphy of this area is shown in Fig, 2 The areas depicted in Fig, 18 are indicated by the three diagonal rectangles, AT'= Antamina thrust, FT = Fortuna thrust, VE'= let-stepping Valle fault, YBPT = Yagurinh-Buque Punts Uirust. Palomino, 1997, unpublished report to Compan Minera Antamina 8.4, Lima: and 903LOVE ET AL, a (Cerro Yaquirsh My Cerro Jatunounia YEPT, Pa Fic. 12, Photomosaics illustrating the stractre and stratigraphy’ ofthe Antamina mine area. Locations fiom which the photographs were taken are indicated in Fig. 2. The views in fa) and (b) look nomhwest, whereas those in (c) and (@) look south. Photographs taken in 1997 throngh 1009; much of a), (b), and (e) has naw been removed by mine develop the skotine of (fl as been modified. (a) The northwest side ofthe Antamina valley; the ireegulay upper or northwest tact of the skam (long white dashes) cuts off the stratigraphic contact (long black dashes) ofthe Jumasha (J) and Celenelin (Ce) Formations, (b) The southeast flank of the rie extending northeast of Gerro Bugue Punta (i. the opposite side of the ridge illustrated in [e]), viewed from the Yanacancha area, (c) The southeast sce of the Antamina valley: the irregular upper Southeastem. contact ofthe ska (long white dashes) cuts off the stratigraphic contact (long black dashes) of the Ju tds () ad Celendin (Gn) Boman, df The noe hank of the Hdge eendng norton of Cera Yap oe the opposite side ofthe rege ustrated in fl). Faults and fold axes are shown by solid black lines, the stratigraphic contact between the Jumnasha()) and Celendlin (Ce) Formations by long blake dashes, the contact ofthe skarm by long white dashes, intrusive contaets by solid white lines, intrusions by crosses, AT = Antamina thrust, Ce = Celendin Formation, FT = Fortuna thnist, J = Jumasha Formation, OT = Oscarina thrust, VF » surface expression of the northeastern segment of the Valley fault, YBPT = Yaquirsh-Buque Punta thrustEIPROSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, PERU 905, Fic. 19, Scben izing the major foration of the snd the step in the Valley fault (VE). The loc netric block diagram of the pre-Miacene goology of the Antamina area, looking north, summa dc folding ar thru Fating nthe hor Grtareous rata nthe late Miocene, intresion snd mina deposit occurred in the central block on this diag ‘of the three blocks are indo ized by the Valley lateral ramp (VLR) ed by rectangles in Fig, 1. The Jumasha (fp) and Celendln (Ce) Formations are inckated, Faults and fold axes are shown by solid black les, bedding by black dashes, Other features abbreviated as in Figares LI and 12, broader and more open upward but the intervening synelines are tight. Such concentric folds are common elsewhere in the Marafién thrust and fold belt (e.g., Coney, 1971). The largest of the parallel folds visible on the flanks of the Antamina vale ley has been widely referred to as the Antamina anticline, the axial plane of whieh has an apparent dextral offset of approx- Saal (500'tn tn a nariveat souibwesk ditoston acre tie valley. This offset has been variously ascribed to local bends in the strike of the folds (Bodenlos and Ericksen, 1955), de tral offset on a postulated northeast-striking Valley fault (Te rones, 1958), transverse normal faulting (Petersen, 1965,} and cross-folding (McKee et al., 1979}. However, in this study we show that the offset is best explained by a lateral ramp model. In this model (Fig. 14), the anticlines represent fault-bend folds related to jing-wall cutoffs folded over the top of northwest-striking frontal ramps that are offset because a northeast-striking, 500-m-long transfer fault or lateral ramp separates the frontal ramps in an apparent dextral sense. This postulated structure, the Valley lateral ramp, would account for the absence of corresponding offsets of other structures to the southwest and northeast (Fig. 11) Minor diking and skam alteration extend beyond the main intrusion and orebody to the southwest down Quebrada An- tamina and to the northeast and east at the head of the valley. The vertical dikes that extend east from the main porphyry mass to the Rosita de Oro area (Figs. L1 and 12c) offset two minor forethrusts and backthrusts, indicating that there was minor, apparently vertical, faulting between the time of thrust, faulting and folding and that of intrusion and mineralization, The orientation of these dik ilong and cut strata (Fig 1 ridge crest they become sills and follow either strata or bed- ding-parallel thrust flats, strike south, and dip moderately to the west Fp 12b). The dikes become progressively more al- tered to endoskar toward the main intrusion, and althou, they transect zoned exo: lo not appear to have i truded it. A similarly variable orientation is shown by a dike that extends northeast from the northern shore of Lago Anta- mina; it locally erosses strata at a steep angle but also follows flat and moderately dipping strata (Fig. 12a), The parallel fea- tures at opposite ends of the main intrusion and orebody sug- gest an offset, leftestepping, northeast-southwest_ fracture zone that is longer than the 500 m lateral ramp, the postu- lated Valley fault (Figs, 3b and 11). ‘A well developed northeast-striking, widely spaced, nearly acture set oceurs in the sedimentary host rocks on the southwest flank of Cerro and we interpret it as regional a-c joi ‘A similarly oriented fracture set i tensely developed near the deposit, especially along the southeast side of the Antamina valley (Fig. 15b, c). In many places, cale-hornfels is more intensely developed and wide- spread where these fractures are closely spaced. All of the northeast-striking fractures may have been related to Eocene folding and thrust faulting, but they were better developed in906 LOVE ETAL, Future Hanging-wal Block Foot-wall Block oe ere Future Foot-wall eck [rave of Future Fault Aaticine Fault bond fold Anticine Hangingwall Cutott Anticine Fic. 14 Schematic diagram illustrating the lateral ramp model for the structural setting of the Antamina de it. Look- ing south so that the face of the lateral ramp is exposed, showing offset antielines produced in the hanging wall of a thrust fei by two frontal asap separated by a lateral ramp, (a ‘comebry ofthe fault prior to movement. (b) Geometry of the footwal (hanging.wall block removed), showing the soathuest-dipping frontal ramps linked bya northeast-strking lateral ramp or transfer fault. (¢) After minor thrust movement, offset ramp-cutoffantilines produced in the hanging wall of the thnist fault with more Intense northeast-striking fracturing above the lateral ramp, represented by dashed lines. (d) Hange ing-wall cutoff anticlines separated from fault-bend anticlinesb in the thrast sheet where it flexed over the Lateral ramp, the mine area becanse of flexnre and tearing of strata above a transfer fault or lateral ramp (discussed below). Following intrusion, they provided access for fluids to the hornfels- bearing strata’ In the Antamina district, therefore, the Jumasha and Ce- lendin Formations have been thrust-faulted, folded, and jux- taposed into a thick, complex thrust stack. The total thickness of rock that overlay the site of mineralization in the late Miocene cannot he estimated beeause the local thickness of overlying uppermost Cretaceous and Paleocene red beds is unknown and because it is unclear if the subaerial volcanic rocks and associated sedimentary rocks of the Eocene ta mid- dle Mincene Calipuy Supergroup (Strusievier et al., 2000) ex- tended into this area Struetural control of mineralization: As in most intrusion- related skar deposits, the most obvious feature controlling mineralization at Antamina is the contact between the mai stock and the host limestones (Terrones, 1958; Petersen, 1965; Redwood, 1999), However the southeast and northwest intrusive contacts are themselves parallel to, and along strike from, the two segments of the proposed northeast by additional thrust movetnent, Extensive fracturing developed Valley fault. The hydrothermal breccia sheets that are com= mon at or near the endoskarn-exoskarn contact also have this orientation. The irregular zones of breccia and endoskarn within the intrusion are interpreted to strike predominantly: north-south (Fig, 3b) and may have been controlled by cross- cutting structures. The western end of the main body of the intrusion also generally strikes north-south, as does the skarn front in that area (Fig, 3b). The parallelogram shape, in plan, of the main body of the intrusion and the surrounding skarn is complicated by the network of anastomosing dikes with en- yelopes of fine-grained gamet skam extending to higher ele- vations to the east of Lago Antamina (Fig. 12c). At least one of these dikes intrudes a normal fault on which movement oc- curred between the time of thrust faulting and folding and that of intrusion and mineralization (Fig. 12c), Several other dikes with skarn envelopes also extend beyond the main mass of porphyry and most are controlled by Incaie structures. Bie ied ee pe- ripheral shyodacitic dikes and sills and their ska envelopes locally follow beelding and thrust faults. Several minor Pb-Zn- Ag veins (Fig. 2), some of which have been mined on a smallLITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, scale, occur at or near the contacts between these dikes and the host limestone, describing a circa 3 x 3 km area of dis- persed hydrothermal activity centered on the Antamina skarn (Bodenlos and Ericksen, 195 Discussion Regional stratigraphic and tectonic relationships The postulated Valley lateral ramp at Antamina may have been controlled by underlying, northeast-striking basement ce Fractures: steep, 7 one ANTAMINA COPI (ZINC DEPOSIT, PERU 907 faults. Lateral ramps are thought to be largely the result of the interaction of thrust sheets and old basement fracture sy tems (Pohn, 2000). Both Mégard (1987) and Benavides (1999) proposed that the segmentation and articulation of the Marafion thrust and fold belt probably reflect control by base- ment structures, although they differ in their interpretations ‘of the mechanism. Benavides (1999) attributed the segmen- tation of the Marafin thrust and fold belt to major northeast- striking, dextral basement faults, without specifying when the faults were active. Further, Bussell and Pitcher (1985) sug- gested that a well developed set of northeast-striking, en ech- clon, dextral faults in the Cretaceous-Paleogene Coastal batholith may have controlled some of the contacts of early Paleocene intrusive ring complexes (Fig. 16). However, no significant tear faulting parallel to the northeast-trending de- flections is apparent in the deformed Mesozoic cover strata, suggesting that the basement faults have not been active since the Jurassic, and that any dextral offsets are apparent, not real. Mégard (1987), in contrast, proposed that en echelon sinistral growth faults in the basement were the common boundary of the miogeosyneline and Yauli shelf in the eastern part of the West Peruvian trough, and controlled the attitude of the present thrust and fold belt. The effects of the cross-strike structural discontinuities on sedimentation have varied through time and with rock type. A compilation of documented stratigraphic columns ( 16b) shows that from Huancayo in the south to 50 km north of Antamina the Cretaceous strata vary in aggregate thickness from approximately 500 to 1,500 m and thicken overall to the north. Generally, only the easternmost sections have been used in this compilation, minimizing the effect of thickness variations perpendicular to the margin, and thus emphasizing along-strike variations that may be related to segmentation of the margin. It is evident that the Cretaceous strata exhibit no clear relationship between thickness and proximity to a cross- strike structural discontinuity. A madel for the geologic history of the Antamina region The geologic history of the Antamina region from the for- mation of the West Peruvian trough in the Jurassic to the Fic. 15. Northeaststriking, nearly vertical fracturing in the eastern and southeastern part of the Antamina mine area. Locations from which the pho: graphis were taken are indicated in Fig, 2. Photographs taken in 198; much of tb) and (c) has now been removed by mine development. (a) Looking east Sttiesst a the ‘seotloneed lak of Corin Racoe whee al bedding Oke southwest. toward the point of stew. Widely spaced norteast-striking frac tures are expressed as lineaments that converge in the distance and are per pendicular to the strike of the Celenein (Ce) and upper Jumasha (J) Forma tions on the lower slope, but are more obviaus as vertical fractures in the lower Jumasha Formation on the steep upper slope. Long black dashes inc cate the stratigraphic contact between the Celendfa and Jumasha Forma tions. (b) Looking north-northeast along the ridge erest on the southeast side of the Antamina valley in the immediate vicinity of the mine, The more in tensely developed northeaststriking fracture set in the Celendin Forms can be seen as closely spaced vertical fractures in the cliff face. () Laoki northeast along the ridge hounding the southeast side of the Antamina valley near its head, in the immediate mine area. The closely spaced northeast. striking fractures in the Celendin Formation strike away from the point of view across the steep slope in the lower-ight foreground. The fractures are less strongly developed along stake to the northeast on Cerro Aparina (upper right)LOVE ET AL. ee ae [Sl oemrn cn, Cement wah) [)_ Peter Rahs ams Sore i et cn temarm.ces EB | mew oom | an eee care epee [Peas Fr.oe-he Nee commnintn yer = Lact 108) wate Peart GE conureanas On 9-04 Onrenas Oo 1-05 Se pentation and artilation of th {a) Simplified gootogy of the westem Andes of ce segment boundaries batholith and Conlile major producing mi of the Cretaceous stratigraphic section of central tions Bold, B tion D from Manrique Miocene intrusion and formation of the orebody is summa- rized schematically in Figure 17. In this model, the margin- parallel West Peruvian trough formed during the Middle or Late Jurassic by extension on en echelon, northwest-striking normal faults separated by northeast-striking transform fault (Fig. 17a, b: Mégare, 1987). The normal faults on the western margin of the basement are thus right-stepping, but the seg- ments experienced no relative displacement and each north- east-striking transform fault experienced only sinistral move- ment, Thi rribution of growth faults in the Jurassic would result in promontories and reentrants in the margin of the West Peruvian trough, similar to those of the larger-scale early Paleozoic eastern margin of North America (Thomas, 1977), nthe Maran thrust and fold belt (Be Blanca batholith (Pitcher etal, 1985), and s, Yanacocha, Pietina, Antamina and Cerro de Pasco are also shown. (b) Longituclinal fence dagrarn 1d north-cent B-16, and B-19 from Benavides (1936), sections 6, 9, 11, 14, 17, 20, and 22 from Wilson (1965), and seo 1968). Antamina is located between sections Marafia thrust and fold belt and its effect on Cretaceous sedimentation ral and north-central Per, shonsng the major an Final aes, faults andl mick, 1999), the major plutonic eenters of the Coastal ‘numbered locations ofthe sections ws in (b), The Peru along the easter ugin of the Marat belt: See- ‘and B-18, The Querococha arch coincided with an intermittent topo- graphic high that developed at least in the Middle Jurassic, or even throughout the Mississippian to Middle Jurassic inter- val and which alo influenced the distribution of Cretaceous carbonate rocks, Paleocene red beds, and Miocene igneous rocks. It is apparent that the development of the northe striking basement structures predated Jurass sedimentation. The Querococha arch apparently influenced the distribution of Mississippian to. Lower Ju northeast of Antamina, resulting in either local no: in the Mississippian to Early Jurassic or a Middle to Late Jurassic erosional unconformity (Fig. 17b). Additional minor extension at any angle discordant to the northeast-trending wilts could have resulted in reactivation of the originallyLITHOSTAATIGRATHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT, ‘Fic iF, Reglabile rcbemate gree looking ert hstrtiag the pooped ocean] evi of the Antamina Anca (a) ln the Ml or etl Late jure, te West Peruano fred ewop through formation of tne ech sion pater of left dated growth als on the weiter eg of the Alani metamorple eozaplex ‘The Mssouppan to Lower Jurusie sedimentary roca that overlay the metamorphic complex are removed froen the dlagram for clarity (ater M&- gard, 1987), (b) Also in the Middle of Late Jurassic, minor extension at ant angle to the transform faults segmented the con fl hs. ring the ponte rca pret th ga oes sch eae arch, along which the Mississippian to Laner Jurassic sedimentary rocks were eroded. In the Late Jurasdc the Chicana ‘Group. was depostted in the western, deepercvater part of the basi, not strated, (¢) Cretaceous elastic nnd carbonate {Gevharaqagu and Macay Group) aed nepeton on the Yul sel ps ot song contra by the sentation facet faces ray lane eoaios farts pranl egeene to proaniasee (dl Lines Creacere Pueccons dpoiton of ed beds (checerboard patterned) was cently the sentation wth depocener inthe reat) In the Eocene Incale orogeny, inajoesttke deflections and en echelon Fol patterns that conforms to the segmentation ofthe basement developed in the Marafién thrust anc fold belt. Reentrants became stractural salients. and promotitories became structural recesses. (© In the Miocene, additional uplift of the Querococha arch reactivated basement structures, which al- lowed intrusions to extend farther inland along the arch andl to reach shallow levels. A « Antamina mine, CPB = Cacmae Pasto Bueno ning, © » Querooocha arch, sinistral faulty as north-side-down normal faults and hence In the Cretaceous, the Querococha arch and other trans- erosion of preexisting sedimentary rocks from the transverse verse structures that segment the Marafién thrust and fold highs (Fig. 17b). The effect of the Querococha arch in the belt had little apparent effect on the thickness of clastic Late Jurassic cannot be deduced because the Upper Jurassic (Goyllarisquisga Group) and carbonate (Machay Group) sed- Chicama Group is not exposed in the eastern part of the imentary rocks on the Yauli shelf (Figs, 16b and 17¢), but it Marai6n thrust and fold belt, appears to have affected the distribution of the carbonate910 rocks. The Machay Group does not extend as far west to the north of the arch as it does on the arch and to the south of it. From the arch north the westernmost limit of outcrop of the Machay Group therefore crosses the belt in a nottheast- southwest direction (Fig. 1). Thomas (1977) noted a similar relationship between the extent of carbonate facies and the locations of structural salients and recesses in the Appalachi- ans. The distribution of latest Cretaceous and Paleocene red beds has also been influenced by the transverse structures (Fig. 17d). The red beds pinch out toward both the Quero- cocha arch and the Casma-Pasto Bueno zone, and they at- tain their greatest thickness between these arches in a struc- tural salient, which would have been a reentrant and depocenter in the margin of the West Peruvian trough at the time of sedimentation. Shortening and variations in the regional attitudes of folds and thrust faults generated in the Eocene Incaic orogeny are represented in Figure I7¢. The folds and thrusts in the An- tamina region constitute an articulated structural recess in the margin of the craton, which probably formed through de- formation around a basement promontory, the northwestern edge of which is now delineated by the Querococha arch. Because the orientation of folds and thrust faults in thin- skinned tectonic belts generally reflects the underlying ramps rather than the translation direction of deformation (Pols th 2000}, the strike and articulation of the Maranon t and fold belt mimic the geometry of the basement, de- ite variations in the Cenozoie plate convergence direction and rate (Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987; Somoza, 1995; Norabuena et al., 1999). Old transform faults in the margin of the West Peruvian trough did not experience extensive later strike-slip movement because the maximum shortening direction was not parallel to the orientation of movement during rifting. We propose that the sinuous configuration of the mountain belt generally reproduces the original zig-2ag margin, although the articulation is pronounced on the east- em side of the belt, and shortening in the interior of the belt had a smoothing effect on the segmentation. Thus, the re- gional strike at the western extent of the Cretaceous carbon= ate strata gradually changes throughont a distance of approx- imately 175 km along strike, from northerly near Antamina tonorth-northwesterly at the northwest end of the Cordillera Blanca (Fig. 1). As Thomas (1977) concluded in the context of eastern North America, the Maranén thrust and fold belt has formed a best-fit curve around old promontories and reentrants. ‘The persistence of Miocene igneous rocks farther from the main axis of the magmatic are into the foreland thrust and fold belt along a proposed basement transverse structure (Fig. 174) is consistent with observations in other belts. Ig- neous intrusions have been documented directly over, and elongated parallel to, three of the four lateral ramps in the Appalachians analyzed in detail by Pohn (2000). Further- more, the difference in exposure level of the Miocene ig- neous rocks on and adjacent to the southwest end of the arch implies that post-Eocene uplift enhanced the plunge rever- sals of the Eocene folds across the arch (Love et al., 2001), ‘Thus, faults parallel to the arch may have accommodated its uplift and furnished the structural anisotropies that provided conduits for snagma ascent in the late Mi LOVE EF AL. Regional effects on local stractiare and mineralization At Antamina, the northeast-trending fracture set. the fault and the Valley lateral ramp are parallel to the crosc-strike structural discontinuity, the Querococha arch, and may have been controlled by similarly oriented underly: ing Basement structures: At the local scale, the: Valley lateral ramp and the Antanina ints fe bon lnealed by the stepping jog in the Valley fault. Regionally, about 5 kin Sabo ce Montes A cee ieee changes in strike and plunge in the Maran thrust and fold belt steps left by approximately $ km (Fig, 5). Thus the step fete Walley lk develope sae el clk a ria, larger-scale. left-stepping jou within the Querococha arch. The local-scale structural evolution of the Antamina area, «ling intrusion and formation of the in the late iovene, ed schematically in Figure 18, Whereas other models, such as en echelon folding, could explain the apparent dextral offset of the A the lateral mp model is preferred here because it provides a locus for jortheast-elongated intrusion and hydrothermal activ ity. The northeast-striking fracture set in the host rocks pe- ripheral to the ore at Antu igs. 15 and 1Sa) was, we contend, formed by deformation associated with thrust trans lation along the underlying and similarly oriented transfer fault or lateral ramp (Fig, L4). The overall form of a thrust sheet does not record its passage over a lateral ramp beyond the mit ofthat ramp bts in very thras sheets, ong dinal fractures would form in the lateral anticline over the ramp. These fractures would have sheared verticall north-side-down sense or opened owing to flexure al lateral ramp or transfer fault and would persist beyond it (Fig. 15d), providing evidence that a thrust sheet had traversed such a ramp, At Antamina, the inferred Valley lateral ramp ex- tends only 500 m from one offset anticlinal axis to the other, but strong, northeast.striking, nearly vertical fracturing, in- texpreted herein as evidence of tearing in the overriding thrust sheet, extends farther northeast (Figs. 15 and 18a) and is interpreted as trace evidence of the Valley lateral ramp, The upward-fanning axial planar cleavage related to the An= tamina anticline also formed at this time (Fig. 18a). In this model, the left-stepping jog in the transcurrent Val ley fault localized the Eocene development of the lateral ramp that resulted in formation of the offset anticlines and also focused the Miocene igneous activity responsible for the Antamina stock and skam. Prior to intrusion of the main por- phyry mass, the early cast-striking dikes east of the main in- trusion formed in association with east-west shortening local- ized at the northeast end of the southwestem segment of the Valley fault (Fig. 18b), Many of the peripheral dikes and 1 eralized veins beyond the main porphyry body intrude, or branch from, the same transcurrent structures. The dike branches were controlled by other preexisting structures, pr dominantly bedding and Incaic thrusts, and th ha truded at this time. In the Jumasha Formation the develop- ment of white marble was localized by preexisting axial cleavages, stylolites, and fractures, providing early fluid path- sways. Also, in the Gelendin Formation cale-homfels forma- tion was localized in m places where the northes rik tical fracture set was strongly developed.LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-2INC DEPOSIT, PERU Strike and dip of cleavage Anticline Thrust fault Normal faut ae ~~ Fractures Toke ‘ 4 Intrusion Regional east-west shortening 4 Regional east-west extension Fic. 18. Schematic diagrams, looking eas, illustrating the proposed Jocal-scale structural evolution of the Antamina area. (a) Structural elements in the Antamina area prir to intrusion and mineralization: frontal thrust ramps offset by the Valley lateral ramp, which was localized by a jog in the transciarrent Valley ful; fault-bend-fold anticlines overlying the tops ofthe offset frontal ramps; strongly developed northeast-sriking fracturing parallel to and overlying the Lateral ramp: and upward- fanning axial cleavage inthe cverying anticlines, (b) East-west compression oblique to the Valley fault induced north-south extension and allowed intrusion of cies in wing cracs localized atthe end of one segment ofthe Valley fault, () Relation ‘of eastowest compression alowed eastovest extension manifested as north-south-striking normal faulting in the jog between the two segments ofthe Valley faut.) Monzogranitic magma intruded the parllelogram-shaped extensional regime be tween the two seyments ofthe Valley fault, and ultimately generated skarn ore. (e) Renewed east-west compression formed ‘eastwest-stiking veins in skam oul The primary control on the skarn and some of the breccia zones was the margin of the main intrusion, which we argue was itself localized by the postulated step in the Valley fault The northwest and southeast margins of the main intrision appear to be defined by the northeast-trending Valley fault, and the main mass of the intrusion occupies the left-stepping gap between the two offset segments of this structure (Figs. Sband 11), Insuch a system, any relaxation in east-west com- pression could allow sinistral movement on oblique north- east-trending structures such as the Valley fault and forma- tion of extensional north-south-oriented structures within the left-stepping jog (Fig. 18c), thereby providing a locus forgna intrasion (Fig. 18d). Development of northeast-striking bree- cia zones within skarn on the northwest and southeast mar- gins of the intrusion and north-striking breccia and endoskam zones within the intrusion represent, in this model, structural reactivation of the major transcurrent faults and the minor north-south extensional faults, respectively Although the recrystallization of the host rocks during skam development obscured evidence of controls by preexisting fractures or bedding, we deduce that the intersecting strac- tures that locally control ore grades in skarn may have origi- nated at substantially different times. Terrones (1955) re- ported higher exoskam ore grades where a set of 100° mineralized sheeted veins intersects structures extending from a northwest-striking antielinal axis in marble, and which \ve interpret as upward-fanning axial planar cleavages. The in- tersecting sheeted vein set differs in orientation from the northeast striking fracture system related to the lateral ramp described above. We propose that these veins, which cut skarn and were therefore late, formed in tension fractures as- sociated with renewed eastavest shortening (Fig, Ie) after the brief episode of relaxation, Thus an Ineaic axial planar cleavage was intersected by Miocene tension veins and devel- oped a permeable path for hydrothermal fluids, LOVE FT AL, Implications for local exploration and ore genesis ‘The surrounding zones of marble in the Jumasha Forma tion, and particularly of hornfels and skamoid in the Celendin Formation, provide larger exploration targets than the ska itself. An isometric block diagram of the simplified geology of the deposit (Fig, 19) shows the structure and alteration in the adjacent host rocks. Gray marble in the Jumasha Formation generally extends tens of meters beyond skam, although lo- cally it extends beyond 100 m, but the outer limit of the dis- tal, brown, phlogopitic facies of cale-homfels in the Celendin Formation typically extends several hundreds of meters from the houndary of sulfide-bearing skam. The most extensive halo around the skam is represented by the swarm of Ag- bearing Pb-Zn vein deposits (Fig, 2), These occur within and beyond marble and cale-hornfels in a 9 km? area surrounding Antamina and up to a kilometer from the skarn front. The development of strong exoskarn mineralization may have been promoted by the relatively pure calcitic limestone of the Jumasha Formation, which experienced intense calcite destruction and Ca mobilization. In contrast, the overlying Celendin Formation, having been metamorphosed to horn- fels, may have acted as a cap on this hydrothermal system, <—D Former Lago Antamina 2. prunaina anticine Thrust fault = += Trace of Valley Fault Ey resion [eBay Seam wit interpreted postion of ‘original intrusive contact Approximate extent of macroscopically visite E222) homes and skarnoid developmentin # Colondn Fr [=] Approximate iit of macroscopically sible rmarmerization En Jumasha Fm, Fic, 19. Schematic, expladed isometric block diagram of the Antamina deposit, Laoking north, showing the major folds and theust faults, this penpective. he Valley fasl (VF), the extent of skarn development within and adjacent to the intrusion, the exten- sive ealeshornfels and skarnoid development in the Celendin Formation, and the restricted rarmio Formation. The offset Antamina anticline (AA) is indieated, but the inferred Valle on ofthe Jumasha teral rarmp is hidden from view inLITHOSTRATICRAPHY AND STRUCTURE, ANTAMINA COPPER-ZINC DEPOSIT. PERU suppressing the upward and outward escape of fuids and thereby fostering development of extensive endoskamn. The same lithologic succession of pure carbonate overlain by muddy carbonate to shale that could contain and concen- trate a developing hydrothermal system, also oceurs in the lower transgressive sequence of the Machay Group where the shelly Pariahuanca Formation limestone is overlain by the marl of the Chulee Formation (Figs. 4 and 16), In addition, in northern Peru, similar prospective successions may occur at other levels within the upper transgressive sequence of the Miche isin besa ales atedialientnes ed ais imestone sequences (Jullard, 1987) are recognized in the five formations correlative with the Jumasha Formation, ‘Metallogenic and geotectonic implications Several other ore deposits, in addition to Antamina, coin- cide with deflections in the strike of the Maraiién thrust and fold belt. At the northern extremity of the Cordillera Blanca (Fig. L), 175 km to the north-northwest of Antamina, signifi- cant middle to late Miocene intrusion-related mineral de- osits, such as the Magistral Cu-Mo skarn prospect and the jormerly productive Pasto Bueno W-Cu-Ag vein system (Fig. 1), are associated with the Casma-Pasto Bueno zone. Farther north, the Yanacocha Au district is localized in the northeast- trending trans-Andean Chicama-Yanacocha structural corri- dor (Teal et al., 2002). Such large-scale structural controls on the location of ore deposits in Peru have been suggested by Vidal and Noble (1994), Petersen and Vidal (1996), and Rivera (1996), but not at Antamina. Similarly, in the Ap- palachians, two of the four lateral ramps studied by Pobn (2000) are associated with an unusual abundance of mineral deposits, and many minor mineral occurrences are associated with another (Coleman, 1988a, b). The Machay Group has Jong been recognized as a metallo- genically important serallonahi interval in central Pern (Pe- tersen, 1965), It hosts many skam and carbonate replace- ment-type deposits such as, from northwest to southeast, Magistral, Antamina, Tuco-Chira, Pachapaqui, Raura, Uchue- chacua, Chungar, Santander, Yauricocha, and Purisima Con- cepcisn, Equivalent Albian to Turonian carbonate rocks of the Arcurquina and Ferrobamba Formations in south-central Peru host Oligocene skam deposits in the Andahuaylas-Yauri belt (Noble et al., 1984; Soler et al., 1986). The Eocene to Miocene Calipuy Supergroup resulted from suprasubduction zone magmatism (Noble et al., 1999). The terminal event of this Supergroup is represented by the middle Miocene Carhuish pluton, dated at 13.7 Ma (U/Pb zircon date, Mukasa, 1984), and coincided with the forma- tion of many hydrothermal centers in the Cordillera Negra such as the Pierina high-sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag de- posit (Figs. 1 and 16; Strusievicz et al., 2000), Subsequently, an approximately 3.5 m.y. hiatus in major igneous activity preceded the lafe Miocene intrusion of the main phase of the Cordillera Blanea batholith, the Cohup leucogranodior- ite, at 8.2 + 0.2 Ma (MeNulty et al., 1968), Du ng this pe- riod of relative magmatic quiesceniee, only minor volumes of attonalitic to dioritic marginal phase of the Cordillera Blanca batholith were intruded (Beckinsale et al., 1985), and only a few scattered hydrothermal centers developed in the Cordillera Negra (Strusieviez et al., 2000). However, along 913 the Querococha arch, an apparent swarm of intrusive bodies was emplaced during this interval, one of which generated the Antamina hydrothermal system (Love et al, 2001), Models for the genesis of giant porphyry Cu systems in the central Andean orogen (Zentili et al., 1955; Clark, 1995; Zen- tilliand Maksaev, 1995; Richards, 2000) postulate that rapid ascent of magma is an important contributing factor in ore formation because it would minimize modification through assimilation-fractional erystallization processes, which are en- visaged to decrease the Cu content of melts, Further, an un- restrictive structure may be necessary to allow small bodies of felsic magma access to the upper crust, because their low ef fective buoyancy would normally result in slow ascent, cool- ing, and hence deeper crystallization, ‘Thus, during the magmatic lull, the basement structures controlling the Que- rococha arch may have provided the conduit necessary for rapid emplacement of sinall volumes of fertile melt into the upper crust, allowing the Antamina porphyry to erystallize in a suitably shallow environment favorable for mineralization, Therefore, we conclude that the confluence of fertile Miocene magmatism and reactive carbonate strata, essential for ore genesis at Antamina, was afforded by the Querococha arch cross-strike structural discontinuity. Conclusions The world-class late Miocene Antamina ska deposit is hosted by deformed Upper Cretaceous carbonate strata of the Machay Group. The relatively pure marbles and minor in- tercalated calc-hornfels that host the ore deposit at surface in the southwest und at depth in its northeast sector represent the upper part of the Jumasha Formation, whereas the strata that form the ridges around Antamina and host the upper- northeast part of the deposit are assigned to the lower part of the overlying, originally muddier, Celendin Formation (Fig, 15), here uncharacteristically resistant to erosion owing to hornfels formation in proxiinity to the Antamina intrusive center. Marble is developed for tens of meters adjacent to the skarn in the Jumasha Formation, but distinctive cale-hom- felses and skarnoids persist for hundreds of meters from the skam front in the overlying Celendin Formation (Fig. 18), Around the Antamina deposit, both this and the 9 km? swarm. of Pb-Zn-Ag vein deposits provide much larger exploration targets than the skarn itself. Moreover, the systematic miner- alogic zonation from peripheral phlogopitic through tremolitic to proximal diopsidic facies in the cale-hornfelses provides a vector toward the intrusion and, by extension, the associated mineralization, The sedimentary suecession that hosts the Antamina de- posit was folded, thrust-fautted, and thickened into a complex thrust stack during the late Eocene Incaic orogeny, which generated the orogen-parallel Maraiién thrust and fold belt. Within this stack, a left-stepping jog in the transverse Valley fault apparently controlled the Eocene formation of the Vi ley lateral ramp, and together they localized the Miocene i ‘trusion and skarn. East-west diking east of the main intrusion and the northeast end of one segment of the Valley Fault i terpreted as early and associated with north-south extension related to east-west shortening. Relaxation of this compres- sion allowed east-west extension, which would have been fo- cused in the left-stepping jog in the Valley fault, forming thego locus for the main mass of intrusion and the associated skarn ore, Renewed eastavest shortening could have again indueed north-south extension and resulted in the late eastavest vein system, The original intrusive contact 1nambignously: con- trolled the location of the skamn, yet was itself controlled by larger-scale structures. The Antamina hydrothermal activity occurred in a regional- scale, northeast-trending, eross-strike structural discontinuity, the Querococha arch, which articulates the Mararién thrust and fold belt. About 5 km southwest of Antamina, the locus of this articulation steps left along strike. a feature mimicked on smaller scale by the Valley fault, The arch is inferred to have affected sedimentary and magmatic processes at least from the Jurassic to the Miocene and to have been controlled by a basement structure, peshaps a transform segment of the orig- inal margin of the West Peruvian trough. The arch was the northwestern edge of a promontory on which the Cretaceous Machay Group carbonate rocks were deposited farther west than elsewhere along the belt. It also allowed Miocene mag- matism to extend foward the foreland and intrude the Machuy Group. We envisage that the carbonate rocks of the Machay Group provided both chemical and physical taps for ore-forming iuids, Intense exoskam developed in relatively pure Jumasha Formation limestone, whereas the Celendin Formation horn- felses capped this system, promoting recirculation of hy- drothermal fluids and extensive endoskarn development. The Querococha arch provided a suitable structure for the intru- sion to reach the Machay Group at the hypabyssal depths re- quired for fertile fluid release Acknowledgments We thunk Inmet Mining Corporation and Rio Algom Ltd. and especially Frank Balint and Kelly O'Connor, for initial support of this project, a contribution to the Queen’ Uni- versity Central Andean Metallozenetic Project (QCAMP), and for repeatedly employing J.K.G. to examine varions structural aspects of Antamina during 1997 and 1998, A post- doctoral fellowship at Queen's University for the senior au thor was funded in 1997 and 1998 by Inmet Mining Corpo- ration and Rio Algom LtcL, and in 1998 through 2000 by Rio Algom, James Macdonald of BHP Billiton, Bill Mercer of Noranda, and Joh Thompson of Teck Gominco subse~ quently provided support and encouragement, This research vwas also funded by Natural Science and Engineering Re- search Council of Canada Discovery Grants to ELC. W also thank Cla. Minera Antamina S.A. for unstinting logis support and are grateful to the many geologists involved in the mine development, including Leo Hathaway, Stewart Redwood, Manuel Pacheco, Jose Sales, Richard Caté, Diane Nicolson, Matt Wunder, Rick Schwarz, Jeff Hussey, Scott Smith and, especially, Erie Lipten, for stimulating discus- sions of mine geology and ore genesis. We would also like to thank the Economic Geology reviewers Gerry Ray, Greg Dipple, Larry Meinert, and Andreas Mueller, associate edi- tors Dave Cooke and Steve Ganwin, and especially editor Mark Hannington for their large contributions to the prepa- ration of the final manuseript September 10, 2002: March. , 2004 LOVE EP AL. 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