Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
Author(s): Jacques Le Goff
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Daedalus, Vol. 100, No. 1, Historical Studies Today (Winter, 1971), pp. 1-19
Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences
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LE GOFF
JACQUES
Is Politics
Still the Backbone
To a historian
of History?
or
has been called
rightly
wrongly,
in itself seem
of
this
school,"
essay may
on
was
the idea that
Annales
The
historian
up
strange.
brought
was obsolete
out of date. Marc Bloch
and
and
history
political
even in
Lucien
had said so over and over again. They
Febvre
in the
of modern
voked
the great precursors
history. Voltaire,
sur
les Moeurs
et Yesprit des nations, wrote:
Essai
"For the last
the only Gauls,
have been
fourteen
hundred
years,
apparently,
to Charles
wrote
ministers
and
Michelet
Jules
kings,
generals."1
in 1857: "If I had included
in
Sainte-Beuve
only political
history
no
account
if
I
had
the
various
other
ele
of
taken
narrative,
my
"the Annales
trained
in what,
the
title
of history
law, geography,
literature, art, and so
(religion,
forth ), my approach would have been quite different. But I needed
a great
because
all these different
elements
sweeping movement
to form one whole."2 Again,
to
his His
gravitated
together
referring
can
was
Michelet
said:
I
"Here
tory of France,
again
only say I
on my own.
was ever
but
Scarcely anything
political his
provided
a
acts
No one
of
few
words
institutions.
about
tory,
government,
ments
took any account of what accompanies,
explains, and is in part the
economic
and industrial con
of political history:
foundation
social,
state
literature
and
of
the
ditions,
thought."3
At the same time most historians
or
consciously
unconsciously
came under the influence of Marxism,
to
whether
follow it, more
or less
or to
it, more or less openly. But too hasty
rigidly,
challenge
a
reading of Marx could suggest that he ranged politics among the
of society,
an
and considered
superstructures
political
history
of
the
of
relations.
There
is
the
epiphenomenon
history
production
in the
to the Contribution
to a Critique
well-known
passage
preface
"The
con
Political
of
relations
of
Economy:
aggregate
production
1
DAEDALUS
stitutes
the economic structure of society, the concrete base on which
a
cer
and to which
legal and political
superstructure,
tain forms of social consciousness
The
of
mode
pro
correspond.
to material
duction
life determines
the pattern of social,
relating
and intellectual
life in general."4 Without
see
political
necessarily
in
to
Marx's
attitude
theoretical
and
ing
(le
politics,
practical
and la politique),
the fundamental
ascribed
politique
pessimism
to it by
one may still con
hostile?commentators,5
some?usually
a
that
clude
like the
away of the state"
conception
"withering
is not
to enhance the
to do with
of
likely
prestige
politics,
anything
included.
political history
a one-sided
This
view, to be found only in a
might be thought
a
historian misled
French
tradition
and an exag
by
specifically
idea
of
at
the
of
influence
Marxism.
Not
all.
Frenchmen
gerated
have been among
stoutest
history's
political
supporters.0 And Jo
nor
means a Marxist,
han Huizinga,
neither a Frenchman
in
by any
the course of his work gradually moved
from
his
away
political
tory. In The Task of Cultural History7 he accords it no more than a
based chiefly on the fact that it is both easy
ascendancy,
declining
and clear. Since Huizinga was not personally
attracted by economic
and social history, though he noted their "irresistible
rise,"8 he soon
turned his main efforts to the
of a scientific cultural his
establishing
there rises
tory.
seem to have
his
Economics,
society, and culture
monopolized
torians' attention
for the last half-century.
Political history,
the in
sulted and injured, even seems to have been drawn into the episte
uncertainties
from
the attempt
certain
arising
mological
by
to blur the distinction
between
schools of sociology
and
practical
two
in
theoretical politics. To mention
present
only
leading figures
the
has recently emphasized
day French
sociology, Alain Touraine
in
of political
the
social
"two-fold weakness"
sciences/*
analysis
Morin points out the "crisis" in politics owing to the in
and
Edgar
and sciences.10 Will
vasion of its field from all sides by the techniques
itself entail a corresponding
the atomization
of politics
disintegra
tion of
driven back on uncomfortable
posi
political history, already
its own
To understand
tions within
the setbacks suffered
discipline?
in the twentieth
the
century, we must analyze
history
by political
it flourish before.
factors that made
was doubtless
Its former ascendancy
linked to the predominat
cen
the
and twentieth
taken
between
fourteenth
form
on,
ing
and then by the
turies, first by the society of the Ancien R?gime
2
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
society which
the monarchical
from the French Revolution.
The rise of
emerged
of
Prince
the
to the
and his servants, brought
state,
a
the
forefront of
of courtly and gov
shadow-show
stage
political
ernment marionettes
which bedazzled
both historians
and people.
in various
Aristotelianism
and
after the
forms,
especially
shapes
a
thirteenth
and
and con
century
Aquinas,
provided
vocabulary
new realities could be
in
which
these
But the
cepts
represented.
was
of
and
not
of
immediate.
triumph
politics
political history
They
were
in Italy under the stimulus of the rise
adopted rapidly enough
a
in
of the
But in France,
"signorie."
spite of
step forward under
1369 and 1374 had
who
between
Charles V, the Aristotelian
king,
a
Oresme
Latin
Nicole
translate
Politics
(from
text) Aristotle's
and Ethics and a treatise on economics,
it was not until the seven
came into cur
teenth century
that the noun politique
(politics)
rent use,
that
of
the
which
had been
adjective,
consolidating
since
the
sixteenth
established
itself
century. The word politique
benefited
from
the
of
the
all
words
promotion
probably
belonging
to the
polis family. These,
together with those deriving from urbs?
urbain
urbanisme
(urban), urbanit?
(urbanity),
(town-planning)
?between
them cover a large part of the semantic field of civiliza
tion. It is
(which did not produce polic?
perhaps
through police
until
the
nineteenth
that we ar
civilized]
[organized,
century)
rive at politesse
in
which
the
seventeenth
appears
(politeness),
le
of
The
la
realm
les
and
century.
politique,
politiques
politique,
and politicians)
is thus the
(theoretical
politics, practical
politics,
realm of the elite, and it is from this that political history derived
It was part of the aristocratic
its nobility.
the revolu
style. Hence
aim
to
of
write
"instead
of
the
of
Voltaire,
tionary
history
kings and
courts the history of men."
It looked as if philosophical
history
would drive out political history. But in fact it usually came to terms
can be seen in the abb?
it. One example
with
Raynal's Histoire
et politique
et
commerce
des
?tablissements
du
des
philosophique
dans les deux Indes.11
Europ?ens
The Revolution
of 1789, though it ultimately
led in the nine
to
teenth century
the transmission
to the bour
of political power
not
did
the
of
destroy
geoisie,
prerogatives
political
history. Ro
it totter but did not
manticism
made
it
down.
Chateaubriand,
bring
as well
as in
who
could recognize modernity
in history
politics
and ideology, though he did so only to reject it,was an isolated case.12
even more
than Augustin
led history
Guizot,
Fran?ois
Thierry,
further along the path toward history of civilization,13
but since
3
DAEDALUS
both were
the rise of the bour
showing
in
But the
geoisie,
political
history.
in
not
annexed
middle
classes"
political
history
only
"conquering
as much
as their
in
all its
also
took
delight
predecessors
glory?they
a historical model which was monarchical
a
and aristocratic:
typical
a
of the cultural time-lag which makes
class affect
parvenu
example
is a solitary
traditional tastes. Michelet
peak.
To take the case of France alone, not until the beginning
of the
twentieth
succumb
the new
concerned
primarily
remained
they
bogged
with
down
did political
first withdraw
and then
century
history
the blows of a new kind of history backed up by
before
and especially
economics
and
social sciences?geography,
la Blache, Fran?ois
and Emile Durk
Simiaud,
sociology. Vidal de
or not, the
it
heim were, whether
realized
of this
they
godparents
were Henri
new
Its
Berr
with
the
Revue
de
parents
history.
even
more
Marc
and
Bloch
decisively
(1901),
synth?se historique
d'histoire
et so
the Annales
and Lucien Febvre with
?conomique
ciale.
in his essay on Thucydides
how
Aron has shown
Raymond
An
is
to
narrative
The
linked
and
event.14
closely political history
nales school loathed the trio formed by political history, narrative
or
and chronicle
(?v?nementielle)
episodic
history,
history. All
on the
a
this, for them, was mere pseudohistory,
history
cheap,
to the substance.
which
affair
the
shadow
preferred
superficial
What had to be put in its place was history in depth?an
economic,
In
the
book
social, and mental
greatest
produced
by the
history.
et le monde
La M?diterran?e
Braudel's
Annales
school, Fernand
II (1959), political
? l'?poque de Philippe
m?diterran?en
history
to part III, which
is relegated
far from being
the culmination
of
is more like the bits and pieces
left over. Once the back
the work
bone of history, political history has sunk to being no more than an
the parson's nose of history.
atrophied appendix:
to return in force
But political history was gradually
by borrow
and
theoretical
of
the
the
methods,
very social
spirit,
approach
ing
it into the background.
I shall try to
sciences which
had pushed
as an ex
sketch this recent comeback
by taking medieval
history
first
and
to
and
chief
contribution
anthropology's
ample.15 Sociology
was to establish as its central
and
aim
the
concept
political history
to power. As Raymond
notion of "power" and the facts relating
to all so
and these facts apply
this. notion
Aron has observed,
is eternal,
"The problem
of Power
cieties
and all civilizations:
whether
the earth is worked with a pick or with a bulldozer."116
4
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
in this connection
that analyses made
by
in terms of "power" go beyond
those in terms of
political
studies or at
these are traditional
"state" and "nation," whether
a new
It is also
to
from
the
tempts
question
angle.17
approach
which has been accused
worth remembering
that Marxism-Leninism,
interest in political history and theory, has
of not showing enough
itself in this field at the level of
for a long time only concerned
the
state and nation.18
the word politics
while
suggested
Lastly,
center
evokes
the
word
the
and
idea of surface
power
superficial,
its charm, political
lost
and
Surface
history
history
having
depth.
This
in
the
of
becomes
power.
history
history
depth by becoming
a mental
to
foresha
evolution
verbal
rehabilitation
corresponds
It
should
be
noted
historians
his death: "There
dowed by Marc Bloch, who wrote
shortly before
should it always
is a lot to be said about this word
'political.' Why
is
not a history which
Is
be taken as synonymous with
superficial?
on
as
of
the
evolution
modes
it
be,
centered,
may quite legitimately
to try to
bound
and on the fate of the governed,
of government
from the inside the facts it has chosen as the subject of
understand
its study?"19
The history of political
started off, however,
from the
depths
as in the work of
the signs and symbols of power,
outside, with
P. E. Schramm.
In a number
of studies culminating
in the great
und
he
has shown
Staatssymbolik,20
synthesis Herrschaftzeichen
that the objects which were the characteristic
of
of
possessors
signs
in
the
Middle
main
de
throne,
orb,
power
scepter,
Ages?crown,
not to be studied just in themselves.
justice, and so forth?are
They
need to be restored to the context of attitudes
and ceremonies
of
seen
to
in
which
formed
and
all
above
be
the
the
of
part,
they
light
from which
they derive their true significance.21
political
symbolism
was
in a
This
rooted
deeply
symbolism
religious
semeiology
a
which made
the political
sphere
province of the religious. Among
lent itself to extensive
all the signs and insignia, one in particular
with regard both to politico-religious
and
symbolism
development,
em
to the institutions
in which
that symbolism was historically
bodied.
of medieval
The whole
linked on
panorama
politics,
one side with
on the
the hereditary
of
and
kingships
antiquity
other with the relics of monarchy which have survived into modern
times, radiated out from the crown. The symbolic field ranged from
rites to the
the material
itself through
the coronation
object
on
one
actual kingdom
hand and the abstract
idea of monarchy
on the other. A collection
at
of studies on this political
panorama
5
DAEDALUS
the
end
Studien
of
the Middle
?ber
die Krone
is to be found
Ages
als Symbol des Staates
in Corona
Regni:
in sp?ten Mittelal
ter.22
recalled the multiple
Quite recently Georges Duby
symbolism of
crown in connection with the crown of thorns which
the medieval
in Paris.23 The reference
in the Sainte-Chapelle
St. Louis placed
a
Is this appeal to "po
of
method.
presents
immediately
problem
litical" objects not perhaps due to the nature of the period in ques
are com
tion, and to the fact that in the early Middle
Ages texts
an
rather than a
ad hoc method
rare? Is this not, then,
paratively
new and
the prob
of approaching
really
generally
applicable way
lem?
in these as
interested
the historians most
Curiously
enough,
seem to accept such objec
medieval
of
symbolism
political
pects
of their own approach. Thus
the importance
tions and to minimize
of the insignia of power
P. E. Schramm writes:
"The investigation
the symbolism of power
of
must be supplemented
by investigation
first had to
in
This means
that historical
research, which
general.
use of
on chronicles,
became more precise
then
through the
rely
a
so
has
still
and
on,
letters, deeds,
documents,
very long way to go
are
more
There
in systematic
objects and evidence
development.
an
critical
has also
method
and
than expected,
available
adequate
out and
filled
be
the
been evolved. So
already existing picture may
more
his
tell
about
the
ruler
used
For the insignia
enriched.
by
more
it
than
other
avail
and
tell
and claims,
definitely,
expectations
to those centuries
This applies
able evidence.
for which
especially
are
sources
limited."24
written
very
Similarly Robert Folz,
ent kinds of documentation
who
thinks
different
he discerns
through differ
writes:
"Administra
realities,
tive documents,
rites, exter
representations,
liturgical
figurative
nal signs such as vestments
and emblems?all
these, together with
a few narrative texts, are our essential sources of information
for the
when
first part of the Middle
symbol clearly predominated
Ages,
as the
over
form. It is only from the
of political
expression
theory
twelfth century on, with the revival of legal studies, that argumen
an
start providing
tation and controversy
increasingly
large part of
our
documentation."25
But
the new
like
political history,
the old prejudice
that
it turn
of texts, must
to use all the evidence
must abandon
in the absence
History
6
has
of history,
that is,
de
mieux,
only faute
to nonwritten
documentation.
it can get, taking from every
all other branches
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
kind
its own
contribution
and establishing
particular
own
all in terms not of the historian's
hierarchy
among them
predilections
but of the system of values of the period concerned. This, needless
to say, does not prevent him from going on to treat data from the
to the standards of modern
the
science, and with
past according
a
of
all
its
has
ceremonial
help
Every period
equipment.
political
it is the historian's
to discern;
the significance
of which
and
job
one of the most
constitutes
this significance
aspects of
important
An
recent
of
result
of
the
orientation
political
history.
outstanding
a revalua
and
toward
ritual
has
been
history
symbolism
political
of kingship within
the political
tion of the significance
system of
as
the
that
feudalism.
Before,
monarchy
general opinion had been
an institution
were
and the feudal system
and that it
antithetical,
en
was out of the
that
of
feudalism
monarchical
power,
decay
arose at the end of the Middle
route to absolutism,
Ages. According
to this view
fiefs, which
by his policy of awarding
Charlemagne,
tended to become hereditary
estates, as rewards for public service,
into being the force which was to destroy the
brought
unconsciously
he
himself
had tried to recreate, and which was
public authority
to subdue the royal power that he, by adding to it the
dignity of
to have made
the imperial crown, thought
This ex
invulnerable.
as false in both its terms. It arose from
now
is
planation
recognized
an
the hollow prestige
of the state to the
inability to go beyond
new
in
But
of
itself.
the
context, with anachronistic
power
study
medieval
of the state abandoned,
concepts
particularly
kingship,
its full meaning,
that of the Carolingian
and the
regained
period,
feudal king was seen to derive his power not despite but within
the feudal
It was
system.26
of comparative
through the methods
history, borrowed
from anthropology
and the history of religion, that medieval
king
came to have this new
and that medieval
ship
significance
political
was transformed. Various
set the seal on
history
joint publications
this change. True,
the Middle
in
a
the
West
Ages
occupied
only
small part of the deliberations
of the Thirteenth
International
on the
Conference
in Rome in 1955, the central
of Religion
History
theme of which was
"The King-God
and the Sacred Nature
of
is
true
This
of
the
also
volume
after
Kingship."27
presented
shortly
to Raffaelle
wards
Pettazzoni:
The Sacral
Kingship?La
Regalit?
Sacra.28 But a few years later the Arbeitskreis
fur mittelalterliche
in Constance,
a volume
led by Theodor Mayer
devoted
Geschichte,
its
of
und Forschungen
to medieval
Vortrage
kingship. Meanwhile
7
DAEDALUS
was
to that
growing up parallel
after depicting
the greatest
Kantorowicz,
sovereign
of the Middle Ages, Frederick
wor
II,29 went on to study medieval
of
rulers
acclamation.30
His
cul
research
ship
through
liturgical
in the masterpiece
minated
The King's Two Bodies
1957
which
(
),
restored to its general historical background
the conception
of politi
cal theology which
is an essential key to the
of the
understanding
Middle Ages.31
Such were
the results, in medieval
history, of the trail blazed
Sir
into the
ori
whose
research
Frazer,
James
by
George
magical
own
the
of
historians'
stimulated
researches
gins
kingship32 probably
or not
were conscious
into medieval
of the
they
kingship, whether
to admit it. One historian
at least made no secret
fact or prepared
of his debt, though he did not always agree with Frazer and pur
to specifically historical methods?
sued his own studies according
Marc Bloch. His pioneer work, Les rois thaumaturges,
in
published
in
is
still
the
is
not
forefront
of
its
field.
content
Bloch
1924,
merely
with describing manifestations
of the healing power ascribed to the
or with
and England,
kings of France
tracing its history from its
to
its
and
the theories behind
emergence
explaining
disappearance
it. He also tries to go back to the springs of the collective
psychology
its "popularity"
studies
involved,
(book II, chapter
I), and at
in the royal miracle"
tempts to explain "how people believed
(pp.
In short, he draws up a study model
of "political mental
420-430).
attitudes," which he puts forward simply as a special case?unique
in terms of its subject?of
general forms of mental attitude and
only
as yet
in the
But
important
vitally
sensibility.
though
unexplored
as far as mental
area of the history of mental
attitudes
attitudes,
to politics are concerned
remains
to
still
almost
relating
everything
to the men
there can be no question of applying
be done. Naturally
can contribute
of the Middle Ages the opinion poll methods which
to the study of modern
But
for
the history of
attitudes.
political
a
as for other
in
Middle
the
questions,
Ages,
prob
public opinion
can
to
the
be
established.33
theoretical
lematic,
approach
problem
It may be noted at this point
that political
and the
history
some
sciences which
have
its recent evolution
influenced
have
the work
of Ernst H. Kantorowicz
of Schramm.
times alternated
in using one another as
we have seen, medieval
political history
riched
borrowed
by adopting methods
was
thrown on medieval
light
kingship
primitive
8
kingship.
Medieval
political
stones. Thus, as
stepping
was transformed
and en
new
from anthropology:
or
by studies in archaic
history
thus seemed
to leave
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
the surface
for the deep diachronic
history
ripples of episodic
strata of proto- or
societies.
para-historical
itself to historical
Meanwhile,
conversely,
anthropology
opened
and
and
researchers
turned to
scholars
approaches,
increasingly
in societies
This
method
recognized,
political
anthropology.34
"which have no history," structures of disequilibrium
and conflict,
the theoretical preliminaries
for
and established
necessary
providing
In so
out the fact
it
them with a political
history.
doing
brought
that dynamic
social history is not incompatible
with an anthropo
not
view of societies and civilizations.
Political
history did
logical
its
lose
toward
by turning
necessarily
dynamism
anthropology?it
even rediscover
in it the sch?mas, Marxist or otherwise,
of the
might
the vocabulary
and mental
class struggle.35 Moreover,
of
attitudes
to
lend
of
structures
the Middle
the
themselves
formulation
Ages
are
in terms which
The upper
and social behavior
partly political.
texts
strata of society are often designated
in medieval
by the term
or
in
contrast
to
the
the
pauperes
potentes,
powerful,
generally
are
as
as
to
sometimes
referred
the
poor;
superiores,
they
opposed
to inferiores.^
This
in various sectors of medieval
researches
corroborates
his
in the basic
have
a
identified
phenomena
political
in the sense of a
to power. The most
relationship
striking
is the theory
to which,
at various dates but
example
according
a.d. 1000, the
fonci?res, based on
usually around the year
seigneuries
on
dues
levied
land and its economic
gave place
exploitation,
more and more to seigneuries based on the lords' powers of leader
tory which
dimension,
as
and justice: these were
known
ship, organization,
seigneuries
name
for this kind of feudal power. Thus the
banales, from ban, the
to its foundations
whole
feudal structure right down
takes on a
is
which
This
of
feudalism,
coloring
ultimately political.37
conception
which
in terms of
does not exclude a final explanation
production
the importance
of political
relations, has the virtue of emphasizing
sense of the term, in the
of the
factors, in the widest
functioning
feudal system, and the weight
exerted by political
forms in the
dynamics of history.
The political aspect crops up again in cultural
history. Education
is a power and an instrument of power. The
litterati
gulf between
so
and illitterati which
between
and
clerics
lay
long
laymen,
or not, shows social
the latter were
whether
otherwise
powerful
cleavages
possession
between
and non
arising out of demarcations
possession
of different
forms of power, between
and
participation
9
DAEDALUS
in these forms. For example,
in the case of mem
nonparticipation
a dual
bers of the university
to
with
power begins
relationship
one
in
the
On
the
the
thirteenth
hand
of
world
emerge
century.
the university
tends to form itself into its own kind of supreme
the power of the church and the king?Studium,
alongside
sacerdotium
and regnum.38 All
the
those who
alongside
enjoy
same
its
of
in
Studium
At
the
time,
power.
participate
privileges
not the
the result?if
studies and distinctions
university
goal?of
or eccle
in
the attainment
becomes
of some post or function
lay
in the other kinds of
siastical society which
leads to participation
a
in spite of the difficulties
of
If,
involved,
power.39
prosopography
masters
in
students
and
the
could
Middle
be
university
Ages
to measure
be possible
the impact of the
worked
out,40 it would
of medieval
group on the organization
society, and there
university
in
and role of a
is no doubt that it would
the
character
emerge
power,
elite."
"power
also be shed on medieval
political
light could probably
in the Middle
of the
the
Ages,
history by studying
application,
societies.
We
tri
know
the
schema
for Indo-European
Dum?zil
was
use
and
the
ninth century,
in
from the end of
partite schema
it took on the
form of oratores,
that in the eleventh
stereotyped
If we knew how and why
these ideas re
laboratores.
bellatores,
in the Middle
and what was
intel
their
mental,
Ages,
appeared
we should
to
be
able
effectiveness,
lectual, and political
probably
of
trace more
different
medieval
their
the
power,
aspects
clearly
In my view, we should
and functioning.
structures,
relationships,
bases of royal
find that this schema was one of the ideological
as arbiter between
the
and
latter
the
power,
acting
subsuming
New
three
functions.41
the realm of art would be illuminated
by the application
of political analysis in the broad sense. It is not merely a question of
on the form, content,
and
of patronage
the influence
measuring
how the
of analyzing
of art.42 It is above all a matter
evolution
in relation to power in general.
It
power of works of art is ordered
took a first step in this direction
seems to me that Erwin Panofsky
the multivalent
the Gothic
he connected
when
style, through
and
with
scholastic method;
of "order" (and hierarchy),
notion
a
in
Ile
the
de
order embodied
then related both to
sociopolitical
France around a.d. 1200 by the Capetian monarchy.43
et soci?t?: naissance
et
in Peinture
all Pierre Francastel,
Above
au cubisme
de
la
Renaissance
dun
destruction
espace plastique,
Even
10
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
(1951), has shown
ence, the patriciate
images of space"
Venus
("Botticelli's
new
representation
mental
revolution,
and economic policy
not only that politicians?the
in Flor
Medicis
in Venice?understood
"the power of figurative
them instruments
and made
of their policy44
is a policy made
but
also that the
explicit"),
is linked to a
of space in terms of perspective
to a mythical
thought governed
by "the social
of giving."
In the realm of religious history one can cite as an example
the
movements
links between
and
heretical
underlying
political parties,
a
in a
research has scarcely begun.45 Similarly,
subject in which
context relating at once to geography,
and
culture, one
sociology,
in
to
urban sociology46 which
could point
studies
many modern
of the Middle
the towns, and especially
the town-planning,
a vehicle
as both an
and
of
urban
power and its
expression
Ages,
an
initial
this kind for
W.
has
made
of
Braunfels
possessors.
study
the cities of Tuscany.47
show
one can see coming into
it would be a
being?and
Finally,
good
even farther?a
were hierarchized
if
differential
it
political
thing
to what Fernand
at various
levels, according
functioning
history
Braudel has called "the times of history."48 In the short term there
is traditional political history: narrative, episodic, full of movement,
but anxious to pave the way for a deeper approach. Every so often
it initiates social
it
it proposes
evaluations;
quantitative
analyses;
a
In the
for
future study of mental
evidence
attitudes.
accumulates
to the model
to be established
for long-term
according
longer term,
movements
there
will
be a history
Simiand,
Fran?ois
by
proposed
no doubt, as
in
which
of the phases or trends of political
history,
sense will
in the broad
still pre
social history
Braudel
hopes,
a
In
with
between
emphasis.
sociological
dominate?political
history
be
there
would
these two types of history, as in economic
history,
an area of common
to
the
devoted
ground
studying
specially
trends on the one hand
between
secular political
relationships
and
and, on the other, short-term movements
highs and
episodic
are
structures and their dynamics
lows: a history of crises, in which
events. Lastly
in their nakedness
the
turmoil
there
of
revealed
by
comes a
be almost
if it
immobile
history which would
political
were not linked, as
it to be, to the
shown
has
political anthropology
structure of societies
conflictual
and therefore dynamic
essentially
?a
of
both
structures, comprising
really long-term
political history
on
of
and
also
based
the valid,
geopolitics
analysis
living part
one
of
models.
At
all
these
levels, particular
every
anthropological
11
DAEDALUS
attention
be paid to the study of the various
semeiological
to the science of
rites, be
systems belonging
politics:
vocabulary,
attitudes.
havior, mental
one may, as I did at the
of this essay, speak
Although
beginning
in
of a certain crisis at present
it is also true that
history,
political
are
and
in
of
aspects
political
increasing
importance
approaches
new science of
the human sciences. Not
the
does
only
politicology
now contribute
its concepts,
and methods,
but geo
vocabulary,
would
still alive
and kicking
somewhat
discredited,
though
as we have seen,
and,
political
sociology,
political
anthropology,
all give political history nourishment
and support.
I have described
it as a new political history, different
from the
to structures,
old?dedicated
social analysis,
and the
semeiology
an
is true
This
is
of
It
power.
picture.
study
certainly
overoptimistic
to be
I have every so often recalled that much or all still remained
But the fact is that the new
done in certain directions.
political
is as yet a dream
I have
tried to sketch
rather than a
history
politics
too,
reality.
the old political
is still a corpse that has to be
Worse,
history
to lie down. True, a grammar of
made
is and will
political
history
not only useful but necessary. We
remain
cannot
do with
always
out a chronology
events or the
men.
of political
of
great
biographies
In spite of the progress of
will
democracy,
political history
always
be, not only but also, the history of great men. And now, thanks
to
and sociology, we know better than before
precisely
politicology
what an event is, and what constitutes
the conditioning
of a great
man.
is still a danger that political history in the
vulgarized
it appears
in countless
and
books
popularizing
once
invade
real
science
the
of
There
may
magazines
again
history.
is a danger
that historians
of economics
and culture may be satis
a
or culture,
of economics
fied with
political
history
producing
or
a
reason for
economic
cultural
The
of
that is,
history
politics.
as
same
was
it
this is still the
when Lucien Febvre first inveighed
as a kind of
"makes few
against
history which
pseudohistory
few.
Too
And
few."49
demands.
still seems
Very
pseudohistory
to
with
it
to lift
half-measures.
While
be
agrees
ready
happy
one
itself up from the level of events and great men
(from which
can
in again
to
the
sneak
back
door
by
political history ) to
always
and environments,
it will still stick if it can
the level of institutions
or state. It
a poor
of government
with outmoded
conceptions
puts up
But
form
12
there
in which
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
strict juridical conceptions:
law, the hope of man
against
to
It
likes
dabble in the history of
kind, is the historian's nightmare.
often both ideas and politics are
ideas and political
thought?but
in the world
the most
it remains
the best will
superficial. With
one most
to succumb
to all
the
and
of
form
likely
history,
fragile
the old temptations.
I conclude with a fact perhaps worth restating. However much
and regenerated
by the other
history may be renewed
political
it cannot aspire to autonomy. To divide a single
human sciences,
is more inadmissible
branch of learning into separate compartments
The comment of Lucien
than ever in the age of pluridisciplinarity.
et So
of the Annales ^Histoire
cofounder
Febvre,
Economique
as
now
ever:
no
is
economic
truer
"There
such
than
is
ciale,
thing
or social
is just history."50 But it is still true that the
history. There
of
of the new general history must accord the dimension
models
as
same
in society
is occupied
by the phenomenon
place
politics the
is the epistemological
incarnation of politics in the
of power, which
to that of the atom,
present. To pass from the age of anatomy
no
nu
is
the
of
backbone
longer
history
history but its
political
show
cleus.
This
article
was
the French
from
translated
by Barbara
Bray.
References
1. Cited
ed.
2.
Bloch,
Apologie
by Marc
(Paris: Colin,
1961),
p. 90.
Ibid.,
3. Cited
4.
p.
by
ou m?tier
l'histoire,
pour
4th
d'historien,
78.
P. Wolff,
in C.
statistique,"
de la Pl?iade,
11
For
on
ed.,
4 of
page
example,
a
f?odalisme,
special
no.
lumi?re
du marxisme,
studies
into
the
the
et
1961),
p.
of
the
1963),
(June
economic
with
dealing
of
the
Recherches
37
field
des
institutional
avant
soci?t?s
ses m?thodes,
847.
to
introduction
number
et
?conomies
L'histoire
Gallimard,
(Paris:
Le
included
primarily
a few excursions
des
"L'?tude
Samaran,
volume
interesting
?
internationales
editors
and
l'?re
Encyclop?die
write
social
or cultural
"We
relations,
on
la
have
with
superstructures."
5. For
account
in L'es
the particularly
hostile
given
example,
by J. Freund
du
Editions
to
645ff.
(Paris:
1965),
pp.
Sirey,
politique
According
is alienation
for Marx
alienation
and
Freund,
absolute,
supreme,
political
irretrievable.
sence
6. Charles
Seignobos
wrote
in 1924,
in the
preface
to his Histoire
politique
13
DALUS
de
that we
contemporaine,
l'Europe
the
must
superficial
phenomena
political
of economic,
intellectual,
phenomena
"L etude
des ?conomies,"
p. 850).
7.
to which
the degree
"recognize
the
life dominate
fundamental
of
"The
of
problems
Johan
The
Huizinga,
in 1929 and in English
in Dutch
York:
history
of Cultural
political
Task
Meridian
Books,
1959),
and
as
are
life"
social
rule
written
History,
published
and Ideas
"The
Again:
obvious."
immediately
in 1926,
translation in Men
27.
p.
by Wolff,
(cited
(New
of
forms
historical
political life are already to be found in life itself. Political history brings its
own
forms:
state
state
itself.
In
this
institution,
which
peace
treaty,
is
fact,
forms
inseparable
lies
the
themselves,
a certain
to
It continues
history.
enjoy
political
of society
much
the morphology
par excellence."
of
portance
8. For
those
in "The
example,
the Late
in
Ages,"
35
(1921),
diplomatique,
and
Ideas.
and Military
Political
Middle
first
the
"The
196-197):
of
58-59.
pp.
of Chivalric
in Revue
Ideas
d'histoire
in Men
126-138, and translated into English
writes
im
it is so
because
primacy
Ibid.,
the
dynasty,
paramount
character
fundamental
Significance
in French
published
a war,
from
of
medievalists
our
day
Huizinga
(pp.
in which
to
favorable
the records,
hardly
chivalry.
chivalry
Combing
a
in
little mentioned,
succeeded
indeed,
presenting
they have
picture
are so
in which
economic
the Middle
and social points
of view
Ages
are
is,
of
that
dominant
was
the
of
another
one
tends
at
the
ideas
of
strongest
times
that
to
that,
forget
the minds
filled
next
and
to
religion,
chivalry
of those men
hearts
age."
9. A.
de l'action
du Seuil,
Touraine,
(Paris: Editions
1965),
Sociologie
chap.
"The Political
consists
two-fold
VI,
p. 298. This
System,"
fragility
partly
in the danger
that the study of political
be absorbed
may
by
relationships
on the one hand
on the other;
in
structural
and history
analysis
partly
or to
to
the
fact
be
that political
either
may
theory
subject
politics
political philosophy,
10.
E.
11.
? une
Introduction
Morin,
Seuil,
itself only a part of the philosophy of history.
new
1965),
In English
fourteenth
ed.,
1969,
pp.
the
of
emergence
French
the
century
de
l'homme
(Paris:
politique
en miettes.
9-10: La politique
two
terms,
had
tried
du
Editions
and
(in the
"polity"
"policy"
out policie,
from
also
copied
the Greek, but it did not take), complicated the field of political science
and incidentally that of political history. While the French philosophes of
the
a
or
century
compromise
accepted,
sought,
it may
in
be that
political
history,
England
an oscillation
dilemma
caused
between
historical
once
by
linked
such
Ancient
Polity'
12. The
14
and
titles
Historical
the
between
eighteenth
and
sophical
radical
of
best
to each
opposed
as that
published
other.
This
anonymously
Peter
example
Modern
Paxton,"
Government.
Past
is the preface
and
and
philo
more
at
political,
seems
suggested
An
1706:
in
the Affinity or Resemblance
and Political Essay, Discussing
and
possibility
in London
even
an
See
Present,
to the Etudes
J. A. W.
40
(July
historiques
Gunn,
1968),
"The
56.
(1831).
of
'Civil
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
was
13. This
approach
en
civilisation
R?volution
briand
set out
Europe
in the Cours
de
and Guizot,
la
la
Romain
l'Empire
I. For
lecture
(1828),
long
see
and G. Palmade,
J. Ehrard
Fran?aise
de
jusqu'?
from Chateau
histoire
moderne:
d'histoire
chute
la
depuis
passages
L'histoire
Colin,
(Paris:
1969), pp. 189-193, 203-207.
14.
R.
Aron,
(1960),
et
"Thucydide
le r?cit
reprinted
1, no.
and History,
Theory
historique,"
de la conscience
(Paris:
historique
in Dimensions
Plon,
1961), pp. 147-197.
15. As
this article,
the works
as references
and examples,
only
in terms of merit.
throughout
quoted
not as a
meant
16. Aron,
et
"Thucydide
le r?cit
on
bibliography
in Dimensions,
historique,"
are
history
or selection
medieval
189.
p.
is F. M.
but all the same very pertinent
of a traditional
study
example
on the Medieval
Transactions
"Reflections
State,"
Powicke,
of the Royal
new
are:
ser. 4, XIX
Historical
( 1936 ). Among
approaches
Society,
vue
B. Guen?e,
? la fin du Moyen
"L'histoire
de l'?tat en France
Age
cent
Revue
232
les
historiens
ans,"
(1964),
fran?ais
par
historique,
depuis
en France
au
et nation
"Etat
ibid., 237
331-360;
(1967),
Moyen
Age,"
17. An
17-30;
?conomies,
the word
the
et
"Espace
soci?t?s,
title
au
of
Charles
to go beyond
attempts
Marc
noted
the
Bloch
the
the
of
18. The
Marxists
way
from
apparent
of
and
the
Property
senses
of "nation"
titles
to
of
State; V.
in Marx
from
128
the
seems
which
pp. 233-280,
to mental
(1884),
institutions
realities.
of the state and
history
to separate
to be difficult
the history
347.
idea
the
of
of nation,
(1918),
works:
I. Lenin,
and
occurs
in
adjective)
sur le
royal
pouvoir
"Etude
concentrate
their
Annales:
Moyen
Age,"
It will be noted
that
bas
Lavisse,
"It
state
the
historique,
tended
the
E.
or nations.
idea
Revue
patriotism."
du
(1968),
pp. 744-758.
an
it is true,
by
V," Revue
historique
the
of
description
connection
between
a nation
of
history
the history
or
la France
dans
(accompanied,
"power"
the pioneer
work
by
de
temps
?tat
civilisations
State
on
interest
their
for
the
F.
Engels,
example,
and Revolution.
On
is
state
Private
the
two
"a kind
(the modern
designating
sense
of rising
and
the
Latin
the more
of
capitalism,"
general
see A. Pelletier
ethnic
and J. J. Goblot,
Mat?rialisme
group)
historique
et histoire
des civilisations
Editions
(Paris:
sociales,
1969),
pp. 94ff.
19. Marc
d'histoire
Bloch,
M?langes
"L'histoire
de l'?tat en France,"
20.
Schriften
der
Hiersemann,
21.
P. E.
Mittelalters,"
vol.
1955),
Hellmann,
sociale
(1944),
p.
120,
cited
by Guen?e,
vols.
(Stuttgart:
p. 345.
Germaniae
Hist?rica,
XIII,
in the
r?sum?
1954-1956).
Schramm
tribution
22. M.
Monumenta
Engels
other
to
summed
Rome
the
himself
up the position
of
Conference
1955:
in X
VII,
Internazionale
Congresso
Riassunti
dette
communicazioni,
ed.
(Weimar:
B?hlau,
1961).
di
of his
"Die
Staatsymbolik
Scienze
storiche
pp.
Among
con
des
(Rome,
200-201.
many
studies
on
the
15
DAEDALUS
see pp. 336-383,
in the Middle
of the crown
Ages,
symbolism
as Fiction,"
in E. H. Kantorowicz,
Two
Bodies:
The King's
Political
Princeton
Medieval
(Princeton:
University
Theology
23.
is not
"It
in the
ship
24.
25.
Robert
Study
1957).
Press,
to Paris
and
that the relic St. Louis
brought
is a crown
of thorns,
doubly
palace
symbolic
Le Monde,
sacrifice."
29, 1970, p. 13.
April
des
Staatsymbolik
1953),
en
d'empire
Mittelalters,"
du
occident
of king
200-201.
pp.
Ve
in
installed
of his
L'id?e
Folz,
chance
"Die
Schramm,
Aubier,
26.
by
chapel
and of
Crown
"The
au XIVe
si?cles
(Paris:
6.
p.
in the
see
M. Wallace-Hadrill,
Ages
J.
early Middle
especially
and F. Graus,
Volk,
(London:
Methuen,
1962),
Long-Haired
Kings
in Reich
der Merowinger
Herrscher
und Heiliger
For
the
1965).
(Prague,
see the recent
The Carolingian
Ullmann,
Carolingian
period,
study by W.
Renaissance
and
the Idea of Kingship
which
(London:
Methuen,
1969),
out
to and
in
well
"in conformity
then,
(p. 17) how
especially
brings
On
kingship
The
accordance
wholeness
with
and the
the basic
of the ecclesiological
theme
premisses
no
a Caro
there was
distinction
between
view,
conceptual
State
the im
and a Carolingian
stressed
Church."
Georges
Duby
at the international
of the royal model
within
the feudal
system
of
lingian
portance
Probl?mes
de
1966,
sociale,
stratification
by
symposium,
published
et Sciences
R. Mousnier,
des Lettres
Humaines
Publications
of the Facult?
See K. Gorski,
de Paris,
XLIII
'Recherches,"
(Paris,
1968).
Sorbonne,
Annales:
"Le roi-saint:
soci?t?s,
?conomies,
f?odale,"
d'id?ologie
probl?me
civilisations
(1969),
pp. 370-376.
27.
Atti
dell'
VIII
Internazionale
Congresso
di
Storia
d?lie
(Florence,
religioni
1956).
28.
in
Studies
the History
of
La Regalit?
Kingship:
Sacral
tributions,
only
M. Maccarrone,
are
four
Religions,
Sacra
devoted
sovrano
supplements
1959).
(Leyden,
to the Middle
to NVMEN
Out
Ages
medio
of
The
IV,
con
fifty-six
in the West:
Dei'
nell'alto
evo," pp. 581
"Le
L. Rougier,
595-608;
pp.
King,"
en France,"
and J. A. Bizet,
la royaut?
caract?re
pp. 609-619;
du XlVe
chez
les mystiques
int?rieur
du royaume
"La notion
germaniques
si?cle,"
pp. 620-626.
M.
594;
29.
E.
H.
"II
Murray,
sacr? de
30.
E.
and
31.
H.
Kantorowicz,
Ruler
Medieval
Laudes
Regiae:
Worship
Press,
E. H.
The King's
Princeton
(Princeton:
in
R. W.
Southern
(1957),
B.
Zweite
(Berlin:
Bondi,
1927),
1931).
A
(Berkeley
in
Study
Liturgical
and Los Angeles:
Acclamations
University
of
1946).
Kantorowicz,
and
der
(Berlin: Bondi,
California
Theology
views
by
16
Friedrich
Kaiser
Kantorowicz,
and Erg?nzungsband
'Vicarius
Divine
"The
Smalley
in Past
A
Political
in Medieval
Bodies:
Study
See also the re
1957).
Press,
University
10
the Journal
of Ecclesiastical
History,
no. 20
and Present,
1961).
(November
Two
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
32. Sir James George Frazer, The Golden Bough
I: "The
part
Art
Magic
the Evolution
and
(London: Macmillan,
of Kings."
the Early History of Kingship (London: Macmillan,
33.
Schneider, 1948), pp. 225-235.
(Heidelberg:
the
societies,
developing
1961.
History,"
Here
Freund,
is
there
again
L'essence
struggle
of view,
the class
is
an
only
(secoli XII-XIV)
by
makes
an
as
long
Marxist
apart.
approach
reservations
it
book,
in the
is
Societ?
of
class
the Marxist
point
derive
from
struggle
too
and
dogmatically
applied
truer
the
fruitful.
and more
Stato
veneziano
medievo
nel
shows the class struggle
of Venice,
usually
that the author
however,
the idea
a
in
kind
and
"the
political
1967),
history
political
this
of
is not
It may
be thought,
on
too much
based
of
according
view
of
point
to which
struggle,"
view
(Florence: Olschki,
normally
the
of
state.
thought
is limited
F.
C.
Lane
review
appreciative
generally
to
in
(1968), pp. 497-501.
Speculum
See
politique,
the political
all forms
the
the
between
538,
of
aspect
to which
in "Anthropology
Evans-Pritchard
incompatibility
stimulating
functioning
be a world
E.
of E.
p.
As
struggle.
I think
theme
an
du
according
inflexibly,
G. Cracco's
36.
Strayer, wrote
in the collection
R.
Joseph
is the title of an informative
essay
by Georges
"Anthropologie
politique"
sets out
1967. He
E. R. Leach
what
has observed
Balandier,
systematically
in
to be
and externally
relative"
conflictual,
approximate,
"contradictory,
and
35.
on
1905).
an essay on "The Historian's
Con
Com
edited
by M. Komarovsky,
Opinion"
mon
Sciences
Frontiers
111.: Free
Press,
1957).
(Glencoe,
of the Social
as Political
Marvin
B. Becker,
"Dante
and His
Contemporaries
Literary
n. 28, calls attention
to "the
(1966),
Men,"
p. 674,
Speculum
neglected
theme
of the language
of medieval
the
and imagery
and quotes
politics,"
in Synopsis:
E.
H.
article
Kantorowicz,
"Christus-Fiscus,"
Festgabe
by
A medievalist,
cept of Public
f?r Alfred Weber
34.
1890),
Lectures
Frazer,
K.
especially
Bosl,
"Potens
und
Pauper:
im
zur
Differenzierung
gesellschaftlichen
des Hochmittelalter,"
'Pauperismus'
f?r Otto Brunner
schaft: Festschrift
Begriff
fr?hen
in Alteuropa
und
und
Gesell
die moderne
and Ruprecht,
im mittel
Vandenhoeck
(G?ttingen:
Studien
zum
geschichtliche
Mittelalter
in Fr?hformen
der Gesellschaft
60-87,
1963),
pp.
reprinted
Also
alterlichen
(Munich-Vienna:
1964),
pp. 106-134.
Europa
Oldenbourg,
Saint
sociales
chez
"Le vocabulaire
des
Fran?ois
J. Le Goff,
cat?gories
or
et ses premiers
in the international
d'Assise
symposium
biographes,"
on the
Normale
of Saint-Cloud,
the Ecole
1967,
ganized
by
Sup?rieure
of social classes
( in press ).
vocabulary
37.
G.
of seigneurie
conception
et XIle
XIe
si?cles
dans
Duby's
aux
soci?t?
1953),
medieval
in L'?conomie
and
et
la r?gion
la vie des
vol.
(Paris:
Aubier,
1962),
et l'?conomie
In the
rurale."
seigneurie
de
la Soci?t?
(1965),
rurale
shows
Jean
a
Bodin,
the
preoccupation
volume
with
is
banale
II,
bk.
set
out
maconnaise
themes
of
La
thesis,
Colin,
(Paris:
dans
l'Occident
compagnes
"XI-XIIIe
III,
oriented
legally
Gouvernants
the
in his
series,
la
si?cles:
the Recueils
et Gouvern?s,
which
power
XXV
may
17
DAEDALUS
derive
Marc
from
bk.
II,
La
Bloch,
soci?t?
"Le
"
2,
gouvernement
ou
'Ordres'
J. Dhondt,
puissances':
Annales:
civilisations
soci?t?s,
?conomies,
38.
See H.
( 1958
his
), and
l'exemple
(1950),
:Der
"Litteratus-Illitteratus
Grundmann,
vom
Altertum
norm
zum
vol.
(Paris:
Michel,
1939),
occurs
in
The
theme
also
f?odale
hommes."
des
?tats
pp.
289-305.
f?r
: zur
an
for
"Sacerdotium-Regnum-Studium
attempt
to show
century,
which
members
teenth
position
of
possessors
40.
was
end
which
placed
This
revival
of
in
interest
social
to favor
and
the
four
socioprofessional
them
among
the
the
a method
the
the
late
method,
prosopographical
renewal
of political
history,
number
1970
of Annales:
is evident
?conomies,
on the tri-functional
studies
many
ideology
fascinating
one of the most
recent
is Id?es
romaines
(Paris:
Indo-Europeans,
western
in which
various
he poses
about
1969),
Gallimard,
questions
in the Middle
Two
in this
of
research
initial
Ages.
Europe
examples
are
aux
Fonctions'
'Trois
Annales:
field
"Des
'Trois
Etats'?"
J. Batany,
G. Dum?zil's
Among
of the
civilisations
soci?t?s,
?conomies,
(1936),
pp.
sur soci?t?
"Note
tripartie,
id?ologie
monarchique
au Xlle
dans
IXe
la chr?tient?
du
si?cle,"
eds.,
Gieysztor,
One
of
L'Europe
aux
the works
Art
esting
Oxford
44.
power.
history
likely
in various
sectors
(see
civilisations
soci?t?s,
).
43.
twelfth
from
Uni
to the International
subject
proposed
by the French
delegation
on
on
at the Thirteenth
Conference
International
versity Committee
History
I believe
Sciences
in Moscow,
Lawrence
1970.
Professor
Historical
August
in mind
has a similar project
Stone
for English
universities
in the modern
era.
42.
the
of
moved
The
of
41.
one
to
34 (1951).
(Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1957),
the
how, between
of the universities
corporative
Flandre,"
einer
Bildungs
40
Kulturgeschichte,
der Wissen
Wertung
schaft im 13. Jahrhundert," Archiv f?r Kulturgeschichte,
39. See my Les intellectuels au Moyen Age
de
Wandlung
Archiv
Mittelalter,"
des
inspired
by
in Medieval
France,
University
Press,
IX-XIe
si?cles
this
particular
A
987-2498:
J. Le
and
933-938,
et renouveau
in T.
(Warsaw,
1968),
is Joan
question
Study
Goff,
?conomique
Manteuffel
and A.
in
63-71.
pp.
Evans'
inter
(London:
Patronage
1948).
E.
Gothic
Architecture
Panofsky,
view
A more
traditional
1957).
in Gothic
Court
Architecture
Style
and
Scholasticism
is given
in R.
(London:
(New
York:
Branner,
St. Louis
Zwemmer,
1965).
Meridian,
and the
see P. Francastel,
Primavera
La realit?
of Botticelli's
significance
au
"La
f?te mythologique
(Paris:
Gonthier,
1965),
p. 241,
et social du Quattrocento."
and p. 272, "Un mythe
Quattrocentro,"
politique
See Ernst Gombrich,
A Study
Botticelli's
of the Neoplatonic
Mythologies:
in Journal
Insti
and Courtauld
of Its Circle,
of the Warburg
Symbolism
On
the
figurative
tutes
lieu:
45.
18
See
( 1945
l'ordre
R.
has
). P. Francastel
du Quattrocento
visuel
Manselli,
Veresia
del
developed
(Paris:
male
(Naples:
these
ideas
Gallimard,
Morano,
in La
figure
et
le
1967).
1963),
and
"Les
Is Politics Still the Backbone of History?
h?r?tiques
soci?t?s
dans
dans
italieene
soci?t?
la
l'Europe
du
symposium, presented by J. Le Goff
the
and
developed
sect and
46.
points
out
the
(Paris and The Hague,
1968), pp.
close
party.
political
1963);
centre
"Le
nationaux
urbain:
de
sociologique
414-443.
in Cahiers
de
recherche
projet
(1969),
pp.
sociologie
de la planification
urbaine,"
these
All
pp.
See
Royaumont
in
munity
48.
si?cles,
in Amster
to the international
to references
limit myself
symposium
Com
Inner City";
W.
Core
Nelson
"Urban
and
1967,
Polsby,
Power
and Political
Yale University
Press,
(New Haven:
Theory
which
works
of Manuel
include
and the "anti-historicist"
Castells,
I will
dam
47. W.
et
in H?r?sies
si?cle,"
link between
the Catharist
heresy
"very
to be
This
of the Ghibellines."
study needs
great
party
political
in the direction
between
of a sociological
comparison
religious
This
199-202.
XHIe
Xle-XVIIIe
pr?-industrielle,
with
deal
Stadtbaukunst
Mittelalterliche
Braunfels,
the
especially
sociologique,"
and
83-106,
in
Sociologie
the modern
period.
to F.
preface
Braudel,
der
une
"Vers
du
travail
Toskana
(Berlin,
et
La M?diterran?e
inter
th?orie
(1969),
1953).
le monde
m?diterran?en ? l'?poque de Philippe II (Paris: Colin, 1949), revised and
augmented
Flammarion,
49.
L.
Febvre,
2d
ed.,
1966;
the
1969),
pp.
11-13.
Combats
pour
idea
l'histoire
is
repeated
(Paris:
in Ecrits
Colin,
sur
1953),
l'histoire
p.
118
(Paris:
(written
in 1947).
50. Ibid., p. 20 (written in 1941).
19
