e-dipmeter surveys

e1-general principles
Introduction
Since its introduction in the 1930s, the dipmeter tool has found steadily increasing
application in the petroleum industry. Used initially in exploration, the tool helped to
locate and identify the major features of geologic structure serving as oil traps. As
techniques became more refined and interpretation became more secure, the
dipmeters range of applications expanded, making it the principal logging tool for
describing internal lithologic features and the sedimentological processes responsible
for them.
The current emphasis on investigating sedimentary bedding conditions has further
enhanced the utility of the dipmeter log. The high sampling density of 120 readings
per foot of borehole depth makes the dipmeter tool virtually the only logging device
that can supply the petroleum geologist with detailed information on finestructured
sedimentary beds in the subsurface.
The dipmeter tool measures conductivity or resistivity changes, hole size, and sonde
orientation-nothing more, nothing less. It does not directly measure the dip of bed
boundaries or the dip of lithology changes. The conductivity changes are input into a
computer program that correlates the recorded wiggle traces and computes apparent
dip from the correlations. Computed dips are then corrected for sonde tilt and
converted into true dips. The true dips are plotted and used to make inferences of
structural dips, bed geometries, and depositional environments.
Dips displayed on the tadpole or arrow plot result from a combination of the original
depositional dips, differential compaction and structural rotation during subsidence,
and postdepositional deformation.
AS is true with other logs, information other than that contained on the dipmeter log
is required to make the best interpretation. The minimum required input from the
geologist is to describe missing sections and depositional environments. The more
information available, the better the dipmeter interpretation.
The dipmeter tool operates on the following principle. A bedding surface cutting
across a borehole at some angle causes microresistivity changes to be recorded at
different depths on the individual dipmeter curves, which are recorded from
electrodes on pads located at various circumferential positions around the borehole.
Figure 1 shows a borehole intersected by a steeply dipping, thin resistive bed.

Figure 1

Note that as the four pads ascend the hole, each measure electrode contacts the thin
bed at a different elevation, giving rise to displacements, or shifts, between curves.
The depth differences, or displacements between the curves, depend upon the dip
magnitude and direction, or azimuth, of the bedding surfaces. Mathematical
correlation methods are applied to measure these displacements, either individual
features or short intervals being matched together. The dip and azimuth of the
bedding can then be computed, and corrected for the effect of the deviation of the
borehole.
It should be noted that formation dip computations with the conventional 4-curve
tool require that a bedding plane be crossed by at least three of the four pads, since
three points are needed to define a plane. This creates the constraint that pad-topad correlation must be established between the resistivity curves recorded by at
least three of the four pad electrodes.
Generally, in well-bedded or laminated formations, the recorded data allow the
determination of formation dip and azimuth. Pad-to-pad correlations are limited for
many stratigraphic studies, however, because of the fine detail associated with
sedimentary features. Eight-curve and microelectric scanning tools incorporate a

number of major improvements over the 4-curve tool to overcome this limitation,
and are specifically applicable to sedimentary studies.
Although the newer tools are replacing the 4-curve tool, many hundreds of the 4curve logs have been run in the past and will continue to be used for geologic and
production studies. Therefore, for completeness, the 4-curve tool and field log will be
discussed first and the 8-curve dipmeter and formation imaging measurements will
be covered later in more detail.

Tools Available
A number of dipmeter tools are available. Three-arm dipmeter tools were used for
many years, but these have now been entirely superseded by four-arm and six-arm
tools. Figure 1 illustrates a commonly used four-arm dipmeter tool.

Figure 1

All currently used dipmeter tools have the following common characteristics:
the orientation section measures tool deviation from vertical, tool
azimuth with respect to north, and the orientation of the reference
electrode pad to either north or the low side of the hole

 the caliper section measures two or more hole diameters

the microelectrode array records the resistivity of the formation in
the very localized area where the pads contact the formation;
the gross correlation device, such as a moderately deep resistivity
curve or a gamma ray or SP curve
Until recently, orientation was measured using a pendulum to indicate deviation from
vertical and a magnetic compass to indicate tool rotation relative to magnetic north.
Recently introduced tools use flux gate magnetometers, gyroscopes, and/ or
accelerometers to deduce the tool position and orientation.
The microresistivity pads carry small "button" electrodes for water-base muds and
"knife-edge blade" electrodes for oil-base muds, although the latter are not always
very effective.
In the field the norm is to supply a 5-in. print of the orientation curves, the
correlation traces, and the caliper curves. All data are recorded on magnetic tape.
On the rare occasions when it may be desirable to compute dip results from the film
rather than from the digital data tape, a film on a very expanded scale (60 in. = 100
ft) is required. Figure 2 illustrates the far more detailed 60-in.

Figure 2

dipmeter presentation.
The 4-Curve Dipmeter Tool
The 4-curve device uses four identical microresistivity electrodes mounted on four
pads. The four caliper arms are actuated hydraulically from the surface with a force
sufficient to maintain good pad contact with the borehole wall under most conditions.
The resistivity measurements are sampled 60 times per foot, or every 0.2 in. Such
detail is essential, because even 1 of structural dip may be significant in
determining the location of hydrocarbon traps. A 1 dip across an 8-in. borehole
causes a shift of 0.14 in. between curves.
The electrodes are small enough to resolve fine structure with linear dimensions
down to about 0.4 in. (1 cm). Because dipmeter correlations depend on variations in
resistivity, the circuitry for the electrode output is arranged so that the curve
deflections are proportional to the electrode current. Current varies widely according
to the contrast between the resistivity of the formation in front of the electrode and
the formation surrounding the sonde. The curves are recorded with a "floating zero"
on a nonlinear scale designed to accommodate large variations in local resistivity.

Figure 3 shows the four primary dip curves.

Figure 3

On this expanded depth scale, it is apparent that a consistent shift occurs between
any two curves. The shifts in this case result from bedding planes intersecting the
borehole at an angle of approximately 30. This angle is the dip with respect to a
plane normal to the instrument axis.
The cable speed at the surface is measured, but the velocity of the downhole tool
may be different and may alternately accelerate and decelerate with changes in
friction because of the elastic properties of the cable. It is important for purposes of
dip computation that the instantaneous velocity of the tool be known throughout the
logging run. A fifth electrode (known as the speed button) provides for this
correction. The curve recorded by this electrode should very closely correlate with
the curve recorded by the electrode mounted below it on the same pad, and thus
yield a displacement equal to the separation between them. However, if the
instantaneous tool velocity varies from the constant surface cable speed, this
apparent displacement also would vary, and velocity corrections must be made.

Without knowing the orientation of the tool in space, the computed dip would be the
slope of a geologic feature relative to the plane defined by the four resistivity pads.
To convert this angle to true dip, three continuously measured angles are required:
deviation of the tool from the vertical (inclination)
hole-drift azimuth
azimuth of Electrode No. 1 from magnetic north
The deviation and the first of the two azimuths are measured directly. A relativebearing measurement is also made (the angular rotation about the axis of the tool of
Electrode No. 1 from the upper generatrix of the hole), and it is from this angle and
the azimuth of Electrode No. 1 that the hole-drift azimuth is computed. The
relationship is:
hole-drift azimuth = azimuth pad 1 - relative bearing
Deviation and relative bearing are measured with pendulum systems, and the
azimuth of Pad 1 with a magnetic compass.
True north is the reference for the orientation of the tool. True north and magnetic
north are frequently different; this difference is referred to as magnetic declination.
Maps showing current values of magnetic declination are available. At point A on
such maps, magnetic north is 20 east of true north; therefore, 20 must be added
to the magnetic-north bearing to obtain the orientation of the tool with respect to
true north.
East declination refers to conditions in which magnetic north is east of true north.
East declination requires that the declination value be added to the magnetic-north
azimuth measurement to obtain orientation with respect to true north.
West declination refers to conditions in which magnetic north is west of true north
and requires that the declination value be subtracted from the magnetic-north
azimuth measurement.
True dip magnitude and the downdip direction with respect to true north is calculated
from all of the previously mentioned acquired data-i.e., dip curve shifts, caliper
measurements, deviation, deviation azimuth, and azimuth of Pad 1.
The 4-Curve Dipmeter Field Log
At the wellsite, a field monitor log is recorded for each run of the tool. By carefully
monitoring the four dip correlation curves on this log, the field engineer can ensure
the reliability of the final computation.
The log heading provides a review of definitions of the various angles measured and
calculated for the tool. The choice of low-angle or high-angle unit affects those
definitions and calculations. The low-angle unit is for holes as much as 36 from
vertical, the high-angle for holes up to 72 from vertical.

The angle called azimuth is:

the clockwise angle between magnetic north and the horizontal
projection of the arm carrying the reference electrode (No. 1) for a
low-angle unit.
the clockwise angle from north to the horizontal projection of the axis
of the tool-called DHD on the log-for a high-angle unit.
The relative-bearing angle is measured clockwise from the high side of the tool to
the reference electrode. Azimuth and relative-bearing traces should move roughly
parallel to each other in a low-angle unit.
The major part of the log, the right-hand side, contains the four correlation curves.
The log heading shows the relative position of each curve and indicates the direction
in which resistivity increases.
On the far right-hand side of the log are the two caliper curves, showing the hole
diameter between Pads 1 and 3 as a dashed line and that between Pads 2 and 4 as a
solid line.
The depth scale appears in the center column of the field log.
Definitions of Formation Dip
The dipmeter survey records ways in which subsurface layers of rock have been
deposited and subsequently moved. The raw data consists of orientation information,
showing where the downhole tool is located with respect to vertical and geographic
coordinates; and correlation information, used to determine the attitude of bedding
planes with respect to the tool. The field log does not indicate formation dip.
Computer processing of the raw data is required before any geological information
can be extracted. The two important computer-processed parameters, bed-dip
magnitude and dip azimuth, yield a great deal of valuable information when studied
with regard to how these parameters vary with depth.
Dip angle is the angle formed between vertical and a normal taken from a bedding
plane. Thus, a horizontal bed has a dip of 0 and a vertical bed has a dip of 90 (see
Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

The dip azimuth is the angle formed between geographic north and the direction of
greatest slope on a bedding plane. Dip azimuth is conventionally measured clockwise
from north, so that a plane dipping to east has a dip azimuth of 90, and one to west
270 ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2

Dipmeter surveys have a variety of applications. At the lowest level, the raw data
may be used to compute (1) a deviation survey, (2) true vertical depth, (3) the
integrated hole volume (as an aid to fracture detection) and (4) thin-bed definition.
At the intermediate level, computed dipmeter results may be used to determine the
gross geologic structural features crossed by the wellbore, sedimentary details within
sand bodies, the depositional environment, and true stratigraphic and vertical
thicknesses.
At the highest level, computed dipmeter results from many wells may be combined
to produce structural cross sections and trend surface maps.
The most important applications of the dipmeter survey are in exploration drilling, to
help identify local structure and stratigraphy, and in development drilling, to help
map the productive horizons and indicate direction to follow for further field
development.
Introduction
The primary, and sometimes the only, use of a dipmeter is for determining structural
dip. Structural dip is the attitude of the formations resulting from tectonic

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movements. Structural dip information might be used by the geologist for possible
whipstocking or deviating the present well or to locate a future well updip or
downdip.
Structural dip determination from logs is not always obvious. It is possible to have
two equally plausible trends; when this occurs, additional information is necessary to
determine the most probable trend.
In tensional areas, such as the U.S. Gulf Coast, offshore West Africa, and portions of
the North Sea, structural dip consists of a dip trend extending at least a thousand
feet. The trend would remain constant or change gradually, unless a fault or
unconformity is crossed.
Thrust provinces tend to exhibit more stages of local structural deformation than
tensional areas. This increased structural deformation is due to tectonic or major
erosional events, and it negates the thousand-foot structural dip rule.
As a general rule, structural dip extends horizontally no farther than it does
vertically. When determining structural dip, use the trends with the greatest vertical
extent.
In addition to green groups, which indicate structural dip, red and blue groups are
also useful for determining the direction of structural dip. Red and blue groups are
particularly helpful when dip magnitude is low (about 1 or 2). At low angles there
is often a choice of trends; the most probable trend matches the majority of red and
blue dip groups.
Low-energy environments allow deposition of horizontal sediment layers. The dip of
layers that have undergone only structural uplift indicates the structural dip.
Determining Structural Dip
To determine structural dip from an arrow plot, examine the reduced scale tadpole
plot for zones of low dip scatter. Use either the 1-in. or the 2-in. scale. The zones of
least scatter are derived from sediment layers deposited in low-energy
environments, and they produce dips indicating the structural dip.
From the zones of least scatter, pick a dip trend extending as far vertically as
possible; this is the approximate structural trend. Next, use the 5-in. scale to
determine the exact dip magnitude and azimuth of the trend ( Figure 3 ). Dips
plotted on the reduced scales are pooled; therefore, any trend determined from the
1-in. or 2-in. plots would be slightly in error.

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Figure 3

Unless the logged section is short, there may be several structural dip trends on the
log. Structural dip changes indicate sections missing due to faulting or
unconformities, or indicate the end of periods of postdepositional uplift. It is
important to determine the exact location of dip changes. Sometimes the point of
change can be determined exactly; in other conditions it may be difficult or
impossible to determine.
One technique for locating points of change is to determine the obvious dip trends
above and below the point of change, then extend both trends toward each other as
far as possible using isolated dips for support ( Figure 4 ). The point of change is
located between the two extended trends. This technique does not locate the exact
point of change, but it does better define the zone in which the change occurs.

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Figure 4

Hole Deviation as a Dip Indicator

Hole deviation may be used in some instances as a dip indicator. The hole tends to
drift or walk when dip is present. The following general rules can help in identifying
structural dip.
Compacted Formations: Compacted formations cause the bit to walk or drift updip in
a hole drilled with mud. Updip drift occurs as the bit attempts to align perpendicular
with the dip of the bedding planes. When air or gas is used for drilling, the hole
usually drifts downdip.
Uncompacted Formations: Less compacted formations are more complex, but in
uncompacted formations the hole generally drifts downdip. In one offshore area the
hole drifts downdip to about 6000 ft, then clockwise along strike as the zones
become more consolidated. The clockwise drift results from bit rotation. Near 12,000
ft, the bit encounters more compacted beds, and the bit drifts updip. Unless
controlled, the hole follows a U-shaped path.
Prior knowledge of hole-drift tendencies can save rig time; the surface location can
be offset relative to the proposed bottomhole location, reducing the need to control
the parameters that affect drilling rate.

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Faults and Unconformities: Whenever a fault or unconformity is encountered, the bit

will create a dogleg. The Plio-Pleistocene example in Figure 5 illustrates the effect of
a change in formation compaction on direction of hole drift.

Figure 5

There is a down-to-the-south-southeast growth fault at 8200 ft. Structural dip is to

the north-northwest on both sides to the fault. On the downthrown side of the fault
the hole drifts east-northeast or 90 clockwise from the downdip direction. The
upthrown drift is south-southeast or updip. The hole-drift direction changes across
the fault because of an abrupt change in formation compaction.
Flat Structural Dip: When flat or almost-flat structural dip is encountered, the hole
slowly spirals through 360. A complete rotation may require up to 1000 ft of depth.
Low Structural Dip
Low structural dip is indicated by a tadpole cloud with its left edge at the zero dip
line. This is illustrated in column B in Figure 6 .

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Figure 6

If the dip trend is flat, some dips would have magnitudes of a few tenths of a degree
and very few actual zero dips would be computed. Five or six tadpoles per hundred
feet would be near zero (less than 1). Not every interval would contain these few
very low dips, since the beds were not deposited flat.
The directions of the red and blue dip groups also indicate the presence of very low
dip trends. An area that was flat during deposition would have red, blue, and green
dip groups lacking a common azimuth.
Do not overlook a low dip trend when a few, almost-flat dips are present. Column C
in Figure 6 contains a low (2) southeast trend. When an obvious trend is present,
honor it.
Difficult Environments
The most difficult environments for determining structural dips are from sediments
deposited in shallow water and on the continental slope. Both environments produce
a high degree of dip scatter.

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In the shallow water environment, the scatter results from the initial high-angle
depositions, reworking by waves, and bioturbation. The scatter from beds deposited
on the continental slope results from post-depositional deformation.
Fishing operations increase the difficulty of determining structural dip because of the
damage they cause to formations near the borehole. The dipmeter is a shallow
investigation tool, and its measurements are made from the zone that is damaged
during fishing jobs. Formation damage increases the scatter on the tadpole plot; the
greater the formation damage, the greater the dip scatter. Zones of least scatter
with a 2 or 3 magnitude variation may exhibit 10 or more after a fishing job.
Wells drilled with mud weights that were too heavy exhibit the same damage
pattern.
The 8-Curve Dipmeter Tool
The 8-curve tool emits a current from the entire lower section of the sonde into the
formation. A small portion flows from the electrodes to record the microresistivity dip
curves. The rest of the current serves to focus this small electrode current, providing
a measurement with very good vertical resolution. Comparison of the detail of the
microresistivity curves with cores shows the resolution to be on the order of 0.4 in.
(1 cm). All current is returned to the metal housing of the tool string above the
insulating sleeve.
The inclinometry cartridge fits inside the top of the sonde. Its axis is accurately
aligned with that of the sonde and includes a triaxial accelerometer and three singleaxis magnetometers.
The four arms that carry the measure electrodes have a maximum diameter of 21 in.
A simplified mechanical linkage is used so that the electrodes describe arcs of circles
as the caliper arms extend. The opposite arms are linked, making the sonde selfcentralizing in the hole. In an oval hole, however, each pair of arms opens to a
different diameter, and so the electrodes on them are noncoplanar. This noncoplanar
geometry is accounted for in the computation process for dip calculations. The 4curve tool design uses a more complex arm geometry to keep all electrodes
coplanar.
The bottom of the sonde, where the dipmeter pads are mounted, is decoupled from
the weight of the electronics and communications cartridges by means of a flex joint.
Using a cross-linked arm arrangement, it remains centralized in holes where the
deviation is less than or equal to 70 (with the pad pressure control at its
maximum). The centralization assures tangential contact between pads and the
borehole wall, ensuring that the electrodes on the pad maintain good formation
contact. The formation-imaging tool also uses this sonde design.
Figure 1 shows a comparison of the measuring electrodes on the 4-curve tool, the 8curve tool, and the 2-pad and 4-pad formation-imaging tools.

16

Figure 1

For the 8-curve tool there are two measure electrodes on each of the four pads. The
short spacing (3 cm) between the side-by-side electrodes results in a better curve
likeness than that from the pad-to-pad configuration. This enables a larger number
of high-credibility correlations to be made, with the result that shorter correlation
intervals can be used to measure displacements between the side-by-side curves
while maintaining a sharp and unambiguous curve match. By using processing
methods that exploit the improved data-collection capabilities of the 8-curve tool, a
fine vertical resolution of dips is achieved.
The 2-pad formation-imaging pad has the two side-by-side electrodes, plus an array
of 27 resistivity buttons for detailed formation scanning. The 4-pad version has 16
electrodes per pad.
With previous pad-to-pad configurations of the 4-pad device, the lower limit for
meaningful interval correlations was on the order of one dip computation per foot.
Using the side-by-side correlation technique, this can be reduced to about 3 in.
under favorable conditions, thus enabling more information on sedimentological dips
to be derived.
The mechanical inclinometer in the 4-curve tool has been replaced in the newer tools
by a triaxial accelerometer and three magnetometers. The three-axis accelerometer

17

is housed in a single unit. The Al, A2, and A3 axes correspond to Pad 1, Pad 2, and
the tool axis direction, respectively. Accelerometer information is used to derive tool
axis deviation and make speed corrections to the recorded curves. The
magnetometer has a separate unit for each of the above axes. By measuring the
direction of the earths magnetic and gravity fields in relation to the tool axis,
azimuth information is obtained.
The inclinometer gives accurate tool-deviation (0.2) and tool-azimuth (2)
information. Also, since there are no moving parts, there are no problems caused by
friction or inertial delays as there were with earlier mechanical designs. The response
time of the system, therefore, is very fast, so that any sudden tool movement is
recorded and taken into account during the processing of dip results.
At the wellsite, the computation program uses the microresistivity information from
the two additional electrodes (or speed buttons) to perform the speed correction. At
the computing center, additional processing is performed and the speed correction is
further refined. The accelerometer data are first used to correct the eight dip curves
and the two speed curves for the effect of irregular tool movement. The
displacements with the speed curves are then used to remove any remaining minor
speed fluctuations. The original dip curves can than be corrected to their true
downhole depths.
The 8-curve tool has a sampling rate of 0.1 in., as compared with 0.2 in. for the 4curve tool.
The total current (called Emex) that is sent into the formation is automatically
controlled by the surface computer to allow for major changes in formation
resistivity. In this way the microresistivity curve activity is maintained in both highand low-resistivity zones so that good correlations can be made. In addition, the
microresistivity curves may be played back and re-scaled at the wellsite or
computing center to remove the visual effect of variation in Emex current. This
ensures that information about grain-size or textural change in the formation is not
obscured, as might be the case on the original raw data curves.
The 8-Curve Dipmeter Field Log
A real-time field log is recorded during the logging runs. After listing details
concerning the tool and recording system, the log heading also identifies the various
curves and scales. The following curves are presented:
Hole Deviation. This is computed from sonde deviation using values of sonde length
and cartridge standoff. Either the hole or sonde deviation can be presented (default
is the tool deviation calculated with zero standoff).
Hole Azimuth. Displayed on a -40 to 360 scale.
Pad 1 Azimuth. Displayed on a -40 to 360 scale, this curve shows the azimuth of
Pad 1.

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Relative Bearing. Displayed on a -40 to 360 scale, this curve is presented as a

cross-check between Pad 1 azimuth (P1AZ) and hole azimuth (HAZI). The
relationship is RB = P1AZ - HAZI
Dip Curves. These are the eight raw microresistivity curves before any Emex
correction. The speed curves are not presented.
Emex Curves. Both Emex current and voltage are displayed. As an aid to the field
engineer, they allow the operation of the Automatic Emex Control to be monitored
during logging.
Calipers. Two caliper diameters set at 90 to each other are presented on a linear
20-in. scale.
The field log is readily used to evaluate the data quality. Dip curves should be
visually similar in detail and activity. Any departure from this norm may signal
unusual conditions or faulty tool operation. The user of computed data is encouraged
to study the curves carefully when judging the quality of the computations.

Dipmeter Computation
Given that a plane cutting a wellbore produces resistivity anomalies at slightly differing depths on the wall of the
borehole facing up- or downdip, the computation of dip and dip azimuth is reduced to a problem of trigonometry.
Any plane can be uniquely defined by three points in space. A four-arm dipmeter provides four points. If the
bedding planes are uniformly thick and plane at the intersection with the wellbore, only three of the available four
points are necessary to compute a dip. When one of the correlation traces is substandard due to hole conditions
or recording techniques, the fourth trace allows a margin of safety. Parts (a) and (b) of Figure 1 show a cross
section of a borehole with a four-arm dipmeter tool, and a schematic of the correlation curves that might be
recorded.

Figure 1

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A comparison of displacements of an anomaly on two correlation curves is key to computing the formation dip.
Figure 2 illustrates a dipping plane cutting across a borehole and the expected displacements.

Figure 2

The starting point for dip computation is thus the correlation of one trace to another in order to discover the
relevant displacement. The correlation process can be made optically using the 60 in. per 100 ft record and a
special apparatus known as an optical comparator, or it can be done by computer. Optical correlation is rarely
used anymore since it requires a skilled specialist, takes time, and makes no allowance for tool acceleration and
deceleration. Computer-based correlation can be made using a variety of techniques, such as pattern recognition,
Fourier analysis, and conventional correlograms. The most commonly used technique builds correlograms. Three
parameters are used to control the correlation process, as illustrated in Figure 3 .

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Figure 3

They are the correlation interval, the search angle, and the step distance.
Correlation intervals may range from a few inches to several feet, depending on the information sought. For
detailed stratigraphy with high-quality raw data, a correlation interval of 3 in. to 2 ft may be used. For standard
work, 2 ft to 6 ft is good, while for structural information, 6 ft to 18 ft will do.
The search angle defines how far up and down the hole to seek a correlation and, depending on the hole size,
reflects the analysts guess of the highest expected dip.
The step distance defines the depth increment to be used between rounds of correlations. This is usually set to
half the correlation interval. Thus, a dipmeter computed on 4 ft x 2 ft x 35 means a correlation interval of 4 ft
was used with a step of 2 ft and a search angle of 35
Since only three points are required to define a plane, a four-arm dipmeter survey forms an overdetermined
system. Any three curves of the four can provide a dip.
Three items may be selected from a choice of four in twelve ways. Potentially, therefore, many dips may be
computed at the same depth. In practice, it is found that they do not all agree. For the same reason that fourlegged stools tend to wobble on an uneven floor, but three-legged stools do not, a number of dips are possible
simply as a result of nature not providing us with bedding planes that are perfect planes at the scale of one
borehole diameter. Add to this the effects of borehole rugosity, floating pads, and the like, and the result is a
scatter of possible dips. The choice of the correct dip then becomes an exercise in common sense. In general,
this exercise has come to be known as "clustering." Simply stated: If at any level in the well the majority of the
possible dips agree with each other and agree with the majority of the dips at adjacent levels in the well, then
those are the most probable dips to use. The criterion for judging the worth of any type of dipmeter computation
is, of course, its ability to reflect the known geologic facts.

Computing Dip
In the early days of the dipmeter, operators made dip measurements directly from readouts similar to the
modern field log. Conductivity curves were recorded in much greater detail at a scale of 1:20, or 60 in. = 100 ft.

21

Each curve feature is the signature of a geologic event in the depositional sequence through which the tool
passes. The same event can often be recognized in each of the eight curves, though depth may vary because of
dip. By measuring the displacement of the event between each of the curves and knowing the precise depth
scale, the actual displacement may be read in inches or fractions of inches of borehole. The dip angle relative to
the plane of the electrodes can be calculated trigonometrically. Hole deviation and direction, the orientation of
Pad 1, the true dip angle, and direction relative to a horizontal plane can also be calculated.
Computer processing of dipmeter data has completely replaced the manual method for normal applications, but
the basic principles have remained. Visual correlation and inspection of detailed logs is still useful in quality
control and in studies of fractures and other specific geological events.
In the following discussion of dip computation systems, references are made to examples of dip results in order
to show the effects of computation type, tool type, and computation parameters. Here we provide an explanation
of the presentation method.

Other Presentations
Several approaches for processing raw dipmeter data and for displaying the results are available. The choice of
system or systems to use should be determined by the type of problem to be solved-structural, stratigraphic, or
(as is often the case) both.
In addition to the various arrow plots, azimuth-frequency diagrams, and formation-imaging displays that have
been described and illustrated, a number of other graphic and tabular presentations are available from dipmeter
data. The more popular ones are covered in the dipmeter interpretation sections of this manual.

Interpretation and Applications

Once a dipmeter has been computed, a number of ways of presenting the answers is
available. These include:
tadpole or arrow plots
SODA (separation of dip and azimuth) plots
listings
azimuth frequency plots
histograms
polar plots
stick plots
stratigraphic plots
A typical tadpole plot is shown in Figure 1 .

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Figure 1

The dip magnitude is read from the position of the base of the tadpole on the plot.
The dip azimuth is read by observing the direction in which the tail of the tadpole
points. The azimuth convention is to measure angles clockwise from north. Thus a
north dip points uphole, an east dip to the right, a south dip down-hole, and a west
dip to the left.
SODA plots separate dip and azimuth as distinct points on separate tracks of the
answer plot.
Listing In addition to the dip and dip azimuth, these listings may include further
details such as dip quality and hole volume.
Azimuth frequency diagrams (or rose plots) present statistical information regarding
some depth interval in the well, usually 100 ft or 500 ft. Within that interval a polar
plot is built with the number of dips having a dip azimuth of a particular direction
plotted in a circular histogram. These are most useful for making a quick scan of the
geologic column for trends in dip direction with depth. Conventional histograms of
both dip and dip azimuth can also be presented ( Figure 2 ).

23

Figure 2

Polar plots can be built in two ways. One way, the rose plot, has already been
described. Another way is to scale the plot with zero dip at the outside and 900 at
the middle. Thus the azimuth of the lowest dips becomes more apparent. This type
of plot, popular for picking structural dip, is illustrated by Figure 3 .

Figure 3

24

Stick plots ( Figure 4 and Figure 5 ) show a series of short lines inclined to the
horizontal.

Figure 4

Each line represents the dip angle as projected in some line of cross section.

25

Figure 5

A stick plot can be oriented whichever way the geologist wishes. If the orientation is
changed, the new axes must be relabeled. It is normal to distort the horizontal and
vertical scales on these plots to fit the geologists mapping requirements. Stick plots,
normally used in multiwell projects to draw cross sections, are particularly helpful
where the interwell correlation is not immediately obvious from conventional logs.
Stratigraphic plots attempt to give a visual representation of the bed stratigraphy.
Each dip may be represented by the trace of the bedding plane on the borehole wall.
If the trace could be "unwrapped" and laid on a flat surface, a sine wave would be
visible, its amplitude a reflection of the dip magnitude and its low point an indication
of the dip azimuth. Figure 6 illustrates such a plot.

26

Figure 6

Dipmeter plots may be interpreted by observing the variation of dip and dip azimuth
with depth in conjunction with the openhole logs. Here color helps highlight certain
types of patterns. Conventionally, dips of more or less constant azimuth that show
an increase in dip magnitude with depth are colored red; those that show a decrease
in dip magnitude are colored green. Figure 7 illustrates these patterns.

27

Figure 7

Broadly speaking, dip interpretation may be split into two parts, structural and
sedimentary. Gross structural characteristics, such as unconformities, folds,
anticlines, and synclines, produce patterns that vary gradually over hundreds of feet.
Sedimentary characteristics, such as crossbedding, only appear within sedimentary
beds and are localized to a few feet to tens of feet. To become familiar with some of
these patterns and their associated geologic features, six cases may be considered.
Presentation of Dip Data
The basic method of presentation of computed dip answers is the arrow or tadpole
plot. Each tadpole consists of a dot with an attached tail. In Figure 8 the position of
the top dot shows a dip magnitude of 20.

28

Figure 8

Magnitude is the dip angle with respect to horizontal. The tail of the tadpole always
points in the downdip direction in this example-N60E, or 60 east of north. The
computed dipmeter result is composed of many, often thousands, of tadpoles. From
the tadpoles it is possible to recognize changes in dip and direction up and down the
well. Changes in magnitude and direction are shown as depth increases.
During the computation process, the computer outputs quantities that are used to
qualify the sharpness or reliability of the correlation. This determination of answer
quality is represented on the tadpole plot in three basic codes. Solid tadpoles
represent answers of high accuracy and confidence. Hollow tadpoles represent
answers of a lesser degree of the same. No tadpoles, or blank zones, are intervals
for which actual correlations were sufficiently in doubt that a decision could not be
reached. This method of plotting enables the user to make a judgment on data
quality.
Figure 9 is a typical tadpole plot over 40 m of hole.

29

Figure 9

Note the solid tadpoles, hollow tadpoles, and blank zone, as previously described.
The second set of tadpoles to the far right indicates the hole-drift angle from vertical
and the direction of drift. This information can be very useful in interpreting dip data
and will be addressed later.
An azimuth frequency plot (also known as a rose diagram) is shown on the same
track as the dip tadpoles. Each of these plots represents azimuth distribution of all
dips between the arrowheads A and B.
From a series of these plots over a long interval, one may recognize major direction
changes without studying the tadpole plot in detail. The curves on the left of the
figure are the two calipers and a computed resistivity. Gamma ray curves may also
be displayed. The calipers are a useful indicator of difficult logging conditions,
particularly poor pad contact due to hole irregularities. The calipers may also show
an enlarged hole where the borehole intercepts a fault or fractured zone. The
resistivity curve can be used to positively tie the computed dip plot on depth with
other openhole logs.
Tadpole Plot Characteristics

30

Figure 10 is a dipmeter plot of a section with excellent parallel bedding, less welldefined bedding, and a blank zone, where no correlations could be found.

Figure 10

Note that a consistent trend of hollow tadpoles can give a high-quality interpretation
although each individual dip may not in itself imply high accuracy; this is the case
within the top 15 m of the log.
The general appearance of the dipmeter plot when variables such as tadpole scatter,
tadpole quality, and other trends are considered reflects changes in bedding
characteristics that are functions of depositional environment, tectonics, diagenesis,
rock stress, and other useful geologic factors not deduced from most other logging
devices. Indeed, the sequence of those observable characteristics often can be
repeated from well to well as consistently as can lithologic sequences, and can
provide additional geologic information about an area.
Note that during interpretation of any dipmeter plot, the major influence on the
quality of the tadpole is the rock characteristic. Poor bedding may be influenced by
any of the following:
lack of textural or mineral stratification

31

 small-scale heterogeneities--e.g., concretions, cross-laminations

bioturbation
diagenesis--e.g., dolomitization of limestones or cementation of
clastic rocks resulting in obliteration of original bedding
deformation by creep, slumping, diapirism, or plastic flow
fracturing due to tectonic stress and movement
rubble in fault zones
in some cases, swelling of clay-rich formations adjacent to the
borehole by absorption of drilling fluids or modification of the rock
stress by the drilling process
dips paralleling the hole axis
From the appearance of the plot we can infer formation characteristics related to
sedimentary and tectonic processes that further enhance the overall interpretation.
1. Folded Structure. Figure 1 shows a folded structure.

Figure 1

Note that in the shallow part of the well, dips are moderate and to the north.

32

In the deeper section, the well has crossed the axial plane of the fold and dips are more pronounced and to the
south. At the point the well crosses the axial plane, dips are flat. It is here that a hydrocarbon trap exists. From
the dips on the flanks it is possible to compute both the tilt of the axial plane and the plunge of the fold.
2. Unconformity. Figure 2 illustrates an unconformity.

Figure 2

A series of sediments in the deeper part of the well was originally deposited flat. Thereafter, these sediments
were tilted and then eroded and a new set of beds deposited. At the interface between the old and new
sediments, there is an abrupt change of dip.
3. Faults. Faults may be picked from dip patterns by observing the drag patterns, if present, on either side of a
fault. Figure 3 shows a normal fault with drag.

33

Figure 3

Above the intersection of the wellbore with the fault, a red pattern will develop (dip increasing with depth). Below
the intersection of the wellbore with the fault, a blue pattern will develop (decreasing dip with depth). At the
intersection of the wellbore with the fault plane, the dip of the fault plane itself may be seen occasionally. Note
that the fault dips down in the direction of the azimuth of the drag pattern. It thus strikes perpendicular to that
direction.
4. Current Bedding. Among the sedimentary details that may be inferred from a dipmeter plot is the direction of
transportation of sediments by streams. Figure 4 shows the sort of pattern to be expected in such a case.

34

Figure 4

Here, blue pat- terns develop with the dip azimuth in the patterns pointing downstream. Depending on where the
well is drilled, it may be of interest to move upstream toward the source or down- stream to finer sediments or
broader deposits.
5. Channel Cut and Fill. A common type of deposit results when a channel is cut and refilled with reservoir
sand. A red pattern will develop together with a characteristic Sp shape, broadening to the base. In drilling such
plays, it is useful to know in which direction the channel extends and in which direction it thickens.
Note that the well in Figure 5 was drilled off the axis of the channel.

35

Figure 5

Had it been drilled to the north, a thicker section of sand would have been found. To move to the center of a
channel, therefore, offset the well in the same direction that the red pattern tadpoles point. To follow the
channel, move at right angles to the red pattern dip azimuth, in this case either east or west.
6. Buried Bar with Shale Drape. Another common feature is a buried bar over which subsequent shale deposits
have been draped. Here, dips within the sand body decrease with depth (blue), but, above the sand body, dips in
the shale increase with depth (red) ( Figure 6 ).

36

Figure 6

The SP usually shows a characteristic pattern, broad at the top. To follow the bar, wells should be offset at right
angles to the dip azimuth seen within the bar. To drill a thicker section, a well should be offset in the opposite
direction to the dip seen in the bar.
Another application of the dipmeter survey is the detection of fractures. There are many methods available for
fracture detection, but no single method by itself is completely reliable. The use of the dipmeter for fracture
finding, then, is just one of many methods, and should be used to complement the others.
The theory is very simple. A fracture may be invaded with mud filtrate and therefore offer a less resistive path to
electric current. If one of the dipmeter pads happens to lie in front of a fracture, it will record a low resistivity
value. Another pad at the same depth may not be in front of a fracture and will record a higher resistivity. Thus,
comparison of adjacent pad traces should reveal the presence of a fracture if the two resistivity values are
different.
Curves can be displayed in various ways to highlight such differences. Figure 7 shows one such presentation.

37

Figure 7

Note that since the orientation of the dipmeter tool is known, the orientation of the fracture can be deduced.
Good dip information requires good raw data. To ensure such data the following guidelines are suggested:

Recondition the hole prior to running the dipmeter.

Use a swivel-head adapter to reduce tool rotation while logging.
Log at 1800 to 2400 ft/hour to reduce tool jerking. Slow down even more if the tension on
the line is erratic.

Reject sections of log where the tool rotates once in less than 60 ft of hole.
Make repeat sections and/or overlaps of 100 ft to 200 ft every time the logging is stopped
for film or tape changes.

Inspect the raw log for dead correlation curves, insensitive curves, stuck calipers, etc. As a
last resort, three good correlation curves are sufficient, but four are much better.

Carefully inspect the orientation curves for nonsense readings, such as a hole deviation less
than zero.

38

On a computed log, check the dip against field controls for consistency. Many dipmeter

surveys have been off by 90 or 180 due to incorrect pad wiring or erroneous computation.

E2-computation
Computation Methods
One method used to obtain dip information from the raw data involves correlating
intervals of the dip curves. To a mathematician, a correlation coefficient is a measure
of agreement between any two curves. Numerically, coefficients may run from zero
(representing two completely dissimilar curves) to one (representing two identical
curves).
The computer calculates the similarity between a section of one curve and an equal
section of a second curve. The length of the interval on the first curve is the
correlation length or interval. The computer then moves the first curve by some
small, preset increment and recomputes the coefficient. This process is repeated
many times.
When plotted with respect to depth, the resultant series of coefficients forms a
function called the correlogram. This correlogram shows a peak value where the
curves have the best fit with each other ( Figure 1 ). The position of this peak with
respect to the center of the interval chosen on the first curve is the shift, or
displacement, between curves.

39

Figure 1

The process is repeated for all curve pair combinations at that depth; the result is
the relative position of correlated points around the borehole, which (when combined
with the other measurements such as tool orientation, drift, and caliper data) are
used to calculate the dip answer for that depth. A new interval is then chosen on the
first curve at a distance equal to the step distance from the previous round of
correlations just described, and the process is repeated to produce another dip
answer displaced in depth from the previous one by an amount equal to the step
distance. This step distance is normally chosen to be some fraction (usually 25 to
50%) of the correlation interval.
During the curve-to-curve comparison it is essential to prescribe for the computer
the distance up and down the second curve to which the first curve is to be
compared. This distance is fixed by the choice of the input parameter called search
angle.
Search angle is chosen according to the dip environment. For low structural dip
areas, a 45 search is common, as most stratigraphic dips fall within that range.
In tectonically disturbed areas, higher search angles may be required. The choice in
such circumstances must be guided by both local knowledge and close inspection of
the dip curves. Large displacements may be visually evident and an approximate dip
range may be estimated.
The user of the computed data should be aware of a particular characteristic of the
interval correlation system. In order to prevent some data from not being used in the
computation, the step distance is normally (as mentioned above) less than the
correlation interval. This may allow a dominant anomaly (a large sharp peak or
trough) to influence the dip answer for each step in which it is included in the
correlation interval. This can cause two or more adjacent dips to be essentially
identical, giving the user the impression that several parallel beds exist when in fact
there may be only one. For example, a 25% step may produce four similar dips from
one anomaly, a 33% step may produce three similar dips, and a 50% step may
produce two similar dips.
If the user is aware of the parameters used for the computation he will recognize the
duplications and interpret the dips correctly. However, if the effect is not desirable, a
method called pooling may be used to present the results. In pooled plots, adjacent
dips within a very small solid angle (2 to 3) are presented as one dip answer. Dips
that do not pool are still presented, so that no data is discarded.
Figure 2 shows another interval with both the unpooled and pooled results side by
side.

40

Figure 2

Note the groups of four dips on the unpooled data set that appear as single dips on
the pooled result. Also evident is the marked decrease in dip density in the pooled
data for the upper half of the log. This can be a desirable presentation, particularly
when plotting data on reduced scales, such as 1:600 or 1:1200, for structural dip
analysis.
Computation Parameter Selection
There are three basic types of interpretation problems that users of dipmeter data
may wish to solve:
structural interpretation
large-scale stratigraphic features
maximum detail, very fine stratigraphic features, as observed on
detailed core inspection.

41

It is often desirable to interpret a combination of the above from a single dipmeter

log. As a result, a variety of systems have evolved to handle widely different
requirements.
The most commonly used and generally applicable approach is the correlation
interval system described earlier. For analysis of structure and large-scale
sedimentary features, a 4-ft correlation interval and a 1-ft or 2-ft step is usually the
first approach to analysis. For special applications or difficult logging conditions,
other values of these parameters may be more useful. In fact, if the user of the data
is specifically interested in one of the three interpretations mentioned above,
parameters must be chosen to optimize that result.
Therefore, it is important to understand how the tadpole plot is affected by the
choice of these parameters. For each step, a single dip answer is produced, and all
the data within that correlation interval are used to obtain that single dip. A 4-ft
interval may contain from 0 to more than 100 correlations, due to bedding contrasts,
but only a single dip is calculated, based on the best fit of the correlation curves.
Large correlation intervals tend to smooth the dip results. Short correlation intervals
allow the system to find more detailed results.
Figure 3 contains a 4-m section of dipmeter computed in a sand section using
several correlation intervals.

Figure 3

42

Note that although the dip direction trend is similar in each, the implied crosssectional view of the formation is significantly different.
Plot A clearly shows detailed internal sedimentary structures with a much better
suggestion of environment than do B and C. Plot B retains most of the characteristics
of Plot A, but with some apparent averaging and smoothing at dip magnitude
boundaries. Plot C suggests large-scale, almost parallel crossbedding. This plot fails
to indicate the more complex internal sedimentary structures evident on the A plot.
It is apparent from comparing these three computations that the choice of the
computation parameters should be influenced by the type of information required to
support exploration and production programs. Although the basic principles described
in the foregoing apply to all correlation interval techniques, algorithms differ
significantly for different tool types, allowing the best adaptation to the data obtained
by the tool.

Dip Computations with the 4-Curve Dipmeter Tool

For the 4-curve tool, two correlation techniques are available to determine the magnitude of the dip and the
azimuth of its direction: interval correlation (CLUSTER* Program), as described above; and feature correlation
(GEODIP* Program), where individual peaks and troughs are first classified by size, shape, and other
characteristics, and these features are matched from curve to curve, taking into account certain constraints. The
objective of the latter method is to adapt the program to variations in bedding frequency and thickness, with the
result that dip computations are made at points on the dip curves rather than over preselected intervals. This
system then frees the computation from a fixed interval constraint, and allows computation of dips of individual
bed boundaries.
Note: Throughout this document an asterisk (*) indicates a mark of Schlumberger.
The overlapping correlation sequences of CLUSTER processing are an improvement over previous programs, but
it still has the disadvantage of a fixed, rigid correlation "window," unresponsive to variations in the density of
geologic data in the curves.
A close study of dipmeter curves shows that many curve features or elements are identifiable from curve to
curve. As shown in Figure 1 , these features have various thicknesses (from 1 in.

43

Figure 1

to several feet), amplitudes, and shapes. Each feature may be considered to be the signature of a geological
event in the depositional sequence of the formation. Moreover, the dip of the bed boundaries is not necessarily
constant, and sometimes varies rapidly.
In the GEODIP program, each of the four dip curves to be correlated is mathematically decomposed into a depthordered sequence of ranked elements.
In feature extraction, which is the first phase of the program, elements such as peaks, troughs, spikes, and steps
are identified in the curves. Each feature has one or two boundaries and a set of parameters that describe its
shape.
In the second phase, the GEODIP program attempts to match elements of one curve with similar elements of the
others according to the following logic:

By a built-in order of precedence (e.g., first large troughs, then large peaks,
then medium troughs, and so on), the program first evaluates higher-order
features, then when necessary also evaluates lower-order ones. This is done
during multiple passes through the four sets of elements.
Because geologic strata are deposited in succession, their boundaries do not cross. So, if

event A appears above event B on one curve, it cannot appear below event B on another. This
is the rule of noncrossing correlations.

44

If no correlation can be found within the specified search angle among all four curves, the
program lowers its standards and looks for 3-curve correlations instead. Planarity is monitored
continuously, and if it fails to meet preset standards, the program makes no attempt at 4-curve
dips, but computes the four different 3-curve dips and displays them all.
Because the program works from identifiable features on the curve, each one corresponds to a geologic event
and the density of the output data depends on the density of geologic information at that level. This makes
GEODIP processing particularly successful in fine-structured sedimentary sections and for definition of lithological
changes, such as scour surfaces.
The calculation of dip angle at each depth is from displacements measured on boundaries rather than on feature
centers. These boundaries are shown on the correlation curves of a GEODIP log. They are themselves useful
features for interpreting lithology, as Figure 2 suggests.

Figure 2

Determining Data Quality

The geologic validity of each dip determination may be tested in several ways.
Closure If displacements are determined between each adjacent pair of curves, taken cylindrically (1-2, 2-3, 3-4,
4-1) they should have an algebraic sum of zero. (Moving from one electrode to the next, you should return to
where you began after making a traverse of all four electrodes.) This condition is called perfect closure. Small

45

closure errors may be due to inaccuracies in the computed displacements; large closure errors indicate that one
or more of the correlations are in error.
Planarity Another test is for planarity, the condition that the four points should define a plane. After four
displacements have been calculated, the lines joining diametrically opposed electrodes may fail to intersect, if
there is an anomaly in the calculation or in the bedding.
For the 4-curve tool, the geometry of the pad linkage ensures that distances between opposing adjacent pairs
remain equal. Displacements computed from opposite pairs of curves (h 1-2 and h 3-4 for example) must
therefore be equal but opposite if the bedding surface is planar. (The line segment connecting Pads 1 and 2 on
the dipping plane parallels and equals in length-but is oppositely directed to-the line segment connecting Pads 3
and 4, for example.) For perfect planarity, h1-2+h3-4 = 0 and h2-3 + h4-1 = 0.
Likeness A third test is for likeness, a quality derived from the correlogram, to compare the similarity of the
curves. The highest correlation coefficient computed over the search interval is the likeness of the two curves,
and the trial displacement of that maximum is the displacement retained for that interval of the curves. Since
more than one cross correlation is required to compute a dip, the credibility of the dip answer is roughly
proportional to the lowest likeness of all the correlations used.
Despite these tests, the results sometimes show excessive scatter that is not of geologic origin, particularly when
shorter correlation lengths are selected to improve resolution. The CLUSTER program reduces the scatter in the
output by statistically reducing the data. It is assumed that random noise does not repeat itself through small
changes of the correlation environment. Thus, at a given level the redundancy inherent in having four correlation
curves allows the curves to be grouped in various combinations in a search for consistency. In addition,
coherence between consecutive overlapping levels above and below each point in the hole is checked.
The program computes correlations between five of six possible pairings of the four curves, taken two at a time.
To define a plane, any two of these pairs must have one curve in common. The CLUSTER program, working with
this output, considers eight such solutions. Each of the eight yields a solution for the true dip plane, and generally
each is slightly different. Calculations from an adjacent level yield another set of eight solutions. Since the
correlation interval is greater than the step distance, neighboring correlation intervals overlap. Comparison of
dips from several overlapping levels (eight solutions from each level) shows statistical scatter among the different
solutions, but there should be a tendency for many of them to "cluster" near some numerical value. When several
solutions (not all from one level) fall within an acceptable range of values, the program quotes the value for the
group, rejecting those that scatter outside. As a result, legitimate dip trends can be sorted from noise.

Computing Dip with 8-Curve Data

This section discusses the methods developed specifically for processing 8-curve data using the principles of
interval and feature correlation, the presentation of the results, and the presentations available at the wellsite
and at the computing centers.
The determination of formation dip measurements using the 4-curve dipmeter tool depends on the bedding plane
being detected by at least three of the four measure electrodes. This, in turn, implies that the formation is wellbedded or laminated. Unfortunately this is not always the case, and for many formations pad-to-pad correlations
are impossible to establish, making sedimentary studies difficult or impossible. Also, pad-to-pad correlations may
be difficult in highly dipping formations or in highly deviated holes.
The 8-curve tool was designed specifically to overcome this limitation by providing two microresistivity curves, 3
cm apart, on each of the four pads. The density of the results is an order of magnitude higher than with previous
4-pad hardware and processing. In addition, the improved sonde velocity correction, using accelerometer data to
compute instantaneous sonde speed and length of travel along the borehole, greatly increases the coherence of
the results and helps salvage data affected by severe hole conditions.
The processing methods discussed here have been developed to take advantage of the tool improvements. They
provide three independent computations of formation dip and allow adaptation of the interpretation of the results
to the specific problem of interest (e.g., structural, sedimentary, geometry of the sand body).
Programs for computing dip from 8-curve measurements include the basic interval correlation program, called
mean square dip (MSD), which uses all 28 possible cross correlations to compute 28 displacements (if all are
successful). Since only two adjacent displacements are needed to define a plane, considerable redundancy has

46

been built into the measurement system. The program thus tries to find a "best fit" plane that satisfies most of
the displacements.
A second interval correlation method called continuous side-by-side (CSB) is also used. It only considers
displacements computed from the side-by-side buttons on the pad. These four computed displacements
represent the apparent angle of the set of bedding planes that cut across the borehole.
Finally, feature correlation is provided by the LOCDIP* computation. These pad-to-pad correlations are made
over short intervals centered on bed boundaries, as defined by the major inflection points on the microresistivity
curves. This method is used to identify and then correlate major individual curve features. The correlation lines
are displayed with the actual microresistivity curves in a way similar to the GEODIP computation and
presentation.

Mean Square Dip (MSD) Processing

At any one depth level, there are 28 possible cross correlations for the 8-electrode measurements, as compared
to six for the 4-curve recording. As in 4-curve processing, the correlation method for the eight curves requires
defining an interval length, a step, and a search angle; however, there is a significant difference in the way the
cross correlation is made. In the standard interval correlation program, a specific interval of a reference curve is
defined and then slid along the interval of the matched curve. For the 8-curve dipmeter tool, the MSD method
considers the same depth interval on each curve and uses only the data within that interval to make correlations.
In the case of low apparent dip, nearly all the data points within the interval are considered when the correlation
is made. As the apparent dip increases, fewer and fewer points enter into the correlation. A limit is imposed when
the search angle is increased until only half the points in the intervals are being used. This corresponds to an
apparent dip of about 72 in an 8-in. borehole with a 4-ft correlation interval.
In areas where high dips (or high apparent dips due to deviated hole conditions) are expected, this limitation can
be overcome by displacing the curves by a known amount before cross-correlations are attempted. The amount
of the curve displacement or shift would be that corresponding to the displacement one would expect if the actual
dip plane were the same as the assumed or "focusing" plane. Hence, the net displacement used in the dip
computation is the interval shift plus the displacement computed between the curves after the shift. The focusing
plane can be chosen as either

a fixed plane defined by the analyst (default is a horizontal plane), or

a plane defined by a previously computed dip
For moderate structural dip computations, experience has shown that the following input
parameters are usually satisfactory:
interval length, typically 4 ft.
step distance, expressed as a percent (usually 50%) of interval length-(e.g., for a 4-ft
interval, step distance would be 2 ft)

search angle; 45 usually find most dips relative to a horizontal plane

The MSD program, then, is primarily used to determine structural dip by finding strong planar
events crossing the borehole. The button-button displacements are computed and the best-fit
plane through these displacements is found.
This initial best-fit can then be refined by an iterative process in which points beyond k (which varies from 2.5 to
1.4) standard deviations from this initial best-fit plane are rejected, and a best-fit plane through the remaining
points is calculated. An empirical quality factor is assigned to the final best-fit plane. This factor, ranging from 0
to 20, is a function of the number of iterations made and the final number of displacements retained.
There is no vertical continuity logic or clustering routine in the MSD computation; each level is autonomously
processed. The redundancy available (28 possible displacements, when two are enough to define a dip) reduces
the possibility of producing mathematical dips or noise correlations.

47

Continuous Side-by-Side (CSB) Processing

Continuous side-by-side (CSB) processing is a unique feature of the 8-curve measurement and takes advantage
of the fact that there is great similarity between the two microresistivity curves recorded by each pad since the
two measure electrodes are separated by a horizontal spacing of only 3 cm. With side-by-side correlations, CSB
processing is able to define formation dip that may not be apparent on pad-to-pad correlation. Even more
important, the CSB program is responsive to the fine bedding structure of the formation, making it particularly
effective for defining stratigraphic features. This is illustrated in Figure 1 , where the curves recorded by Pads 2
and 3 are shown for 12 ft of hole.

Figure 1

Side-by-side correlations are shown as thin lines, and, for reference, the pad-to-pad correlations found for the
same interval are shown as thick lines. From this example, we see that the number of side-by-side correlations is
approximately an order of magnitude greater than the pad-to-pad correlations, and that the resolution is on the
order of a few inches.
Another important feature, due to the proximity of the buttons on the pad, is that the displacements found by
side-by-side correlations are much smaller than pad-to-pad displacements. This allows the measurement of very
high dips that are not detected by pad-to-pad correlation. For such cases, once credible dips are found by CSB
processing, they can be used as input to the focusing option for the MSD program.
Figure 2 shows a conventional pad-to-pad MSD correlation for a case of high apparent dip.

48

Figure 2

The well is deviated about 35 to the southwest, in the same direction as the regional structural trend (30 to
40). Thus, a given bedding surface would cut the borehole high on the northeast side and low on the southwest
side. Obviously, getting a good correlation is difficult, although the quality of the dip curves and the borehole
condition is excellent. Figure 3 shows the results obtained with side-by-side CSB processing.

49

Figure 3

In this case, the 3-cm spacing of the buttons allows an unambiguous correlation to be made.
In the standard CSB computation, each pair of microresistivity curves (e.g., buttons 1-lA) is cross-correlated
using short correlation intervals of 12 in. or less, and under favorable conditions even 4 in. or 3 in. The step
distance can be taken equal to half or three-quarters of the correlation interval. This gives a vector parallel to the
dip plane. Under ideal conditions (planar beds) another vector is found at the same depth by cross-correlating the
microresistivity curves of an adjacent pad (e.g., buttons 2-2A). These two vectors are then used to define a dip
plane.
With only four side-by-side correlations, a cross-check is needed to verify that the bed is indeed planar. If it is,
then displacements obtained using microresistivity curves from opposite pads (e.g., buttons 1-lA, 3-3A) should
be equal in value but opposite in sign, and the dip can be obtained from any two orthogonal pairs at that depth.
If this is not the case, however, a window is opened around the level under examination, and the vertical
continuity of the displacements a certain number of levels above and below it is checked. The pad showing the
best vertical continuity is kept. A similar procedure is then followed for Pads 2 and 4 and, again, the pad showing
the best vertical continuity is kept. The orthogonal pair showing the smoothest continuity within the window is
used for dip computation.
In order to evaluate the credibility of the dip, a quality value ranging from 0 to 20 is assigned to each dip
according to the vertical continuity and the quality of the correlograms at the various levels or depths.
If the environment of deposition produces little contrast between beds or the formation is highly crossbedded
with sequences terminating over lateral distances of the same order as the borehole diameter, then pad-to-pad
correlation may be difficult or impossible due to curve dissimilarity. CSB provides an excellent solution to this
problem.

50

Correlation intervals as small as 2 in. have been matched with detailed core information, although 6-in. to 1-ft
correlation intervals are most commonly used.
Figure 4 shows the detail available from the CSB as compared to visible core features. To make this comparison
the CSB was processed with a 6-in.

Figure 4

correlation interval and a 2-in. step and then plotted on a scale one-quarter of full size in order to match with the
core photographs. Good dip agreement is apparent. Note the low contrast on the dip curves correlating to the
fore-sets in the lower one-third of the photo. The truncation visible on the core is also evidenced on the dip plot.
Such detail would not be possible with standard pad-to-pad correlation systems.
The good likeness of the side-by-side curves is useful in cases of high apparent dip. Under these conditions it
becomes difficult to find an unambiguous curve match between the pads. Use of the side-by-side configuration
allows reliable measurement of displacements between the curves from the same pad and computed dip values.

LOCDIP Computation
As discussed earlier, inflection points on the microresistivity curves describe geological events in the depositional
sequence of the formation. The purpose of the LOCDIP program is to detect the geological events, or boundaries,
and where applicable to associate a dip precisely at that boundary independent of dips at other depths. Instead of
correlating intervals of curves, it detects features (inflection points) on each curve and attempts to link these
around the borehole, in a manner somewhat similar to GEODIP processing. There are, however, some important
differences:

51

To be retained as a LOCDIP result, an event must be recognized on at least

seven of the eight microresistivity curves; GEODIP logic requires only three out
of the four curves. Thus, LOCDIP logic is more demanding than GEODIP logic.
A measurement of the planarity is derived for each of the possible dip planes at any level.

The retained value corresponds to the surface that best approximates the set of these planes.
By convention, a perfectly planar surface has a planarity of 100.

Some events are recognized on only a few of the dip curves. In this case, the available

correlations are traced across the applicable curves, with an "options" notation of "F"
(fracture) or "P/L" (pebble or lens) for single-pad events or two/three-pad events,
respectively. These interpretations, however, are not to be considered as certain, but rather as
possible.

The processing of the 8-curve data is designed to extract the maximum amount of dip information
from the raw curves. A well may present several interpretation problems due to variations in
lithology and bedding characteristics. A single computation system may not offer the total
solution. It is useful, therefore, to be able to combine the results of several types of computation
in one presentation.
DUALDIP* Presentation
The DUALDIP presentation for the 8-curve dipmeter tool allows results from more than one computation to be
combined. Figure 5 is an example of multiple computations on a short section.

Figure 5

52

In the figure, the dips on the left side are side-by-side (CSB) results with a correlation length of 8 in. and a step
of 4 in. This produces three dips per foot, or about 10 dips per meter.
The tadpoles on the right are of two types. The round-headed tadpoles were computed from pad-to-pad
correlations with a correlation interval of 4 ft and a step of 2 ft. This is the MSD computation.
The triangular-headed tadpoles are LOCDIP computations, also known as pad-to-pad feature correlations. These
dips usually correspond to the more prominent bed boundaries, and are computed by the earlier mentioned
pattern-recognition system. For each LOCDIP computation which used seven or eight of the dip curves, a solid
correlation line is drawn on the plot showing exactly where the bed boundary was interpreted. For each of these
correlations a local dip is shown. If fewer than seven curves are correlated, then the correlation is shown as a
dotted line, but dip is not computed.
This presentation not only gives a visual impression of the frequency of stratification and its planarity and
parallelism, but it also allows the user to judge the validity of the correlations. This is of particular value in
detailed studies of sedimentary features.
All three systems may not, nor should they necessarily, give the same dip answer. This characteristic can be used
to great advantage in interpreting sedimentary features, particularly thin, highly bedded clastics.
In Figure 5 , the two local dips at A and B correspond to the top and bottom of a distinct sedimentary unit. They
suggest the boundaries both dip at 1 northerly. All the finer bedding within these boundaries produced CSB or
round-headed dips consistently north-northeast between 4 and 10.
The internal bedding indicates sediment transport direction from south-southwest to north-northeast, with topset
and bottomset surfaces approximately 1 northerly. The CSB result is different from that obtained from LOCDIP
and MSD processing, whose computation system is restricted to major events, which can be correlated from pad
to pad. The CSB logic favors events with some continuity; individual single events are less likely to be computed,
particularly where both types are visible within the correlation interval. This tendency for different systems to
favor different types of bedding planes has been very useful, particularly in the interpretation of fluvial
environments.
Note also that the 4-ft MSD correlation showed the dip at C to be southwest about 90 and consistent over 4 ft.
This is easily explained, considering the previous discussion of overlap effects, and it is supported by the LOCDIP
computation at that depth. This boundary presents a dominant anomaly to the 4-ft correlation system, and for
fine stratigraphy would be misleading by itself. When all bedding features, large and small, are parallel, all
systems should give the same answer as at D.

Formation-Imaging Tool
Successful dipmeter interpretation depends greatly upon the accurate evaluation of
geological features. The application of the classic dip patterns is a relatively simple
matter when geological events such as current bedding or lateral accretion are
known. In many complex environments this is a severe problem. A whole core over
the zone of importance solves these problems, but whole core availability is the
exception rather than the rule. Formation imaging provides a continuous oriented
borehole representation that can be used in conjunction with a whole core or, in
most cases, by itself to evaluate geological events.
Interpretation The goal of formation-image interpretation is to characterize formation
properties to assist sedimentological interpretation, determine the presence of
permeability paths and permeability barriers, help calculate net pay, plan perforation
and fracturing, and to help decide whipstocks and where to drill next.
Formation images must always be interpreted after lithology has been fairly well
defined, so supplemental data are usually necessary to enhance the confidence of

53

image interpretation. As with other dipmeter interpretations, the more supplemental

data available, the better the interpretation.
Measurement The clustered microresistivity buttons on two or four of the
microscanner pads provide a continuous electrical image of the borehole wall. The
pads are oriented at right angles to achieve a three-dimensional perspective. These
resistivity data are then mapped to a gray-scale or color "corelike" borehole wall
image. This allows fine-scale features to be described through essentially the same
interpretation procedure as that used in the examination of slabbed cores. The
images characterize many types of structural and stratigraphic features. These
oriented features, combined with a conventional dipmeter plot, are used to evaluate
these events to extend the reservoir geometry beyond the wellbore.
Images of the rock formation exposed by the wellbore are processed from the
microresistivity traces. Each image pad covers 2.8 in. of the borehole wall. Thus,
22% of an 8-in. borehole can be imaged with two pads and 44% with four pads on
each logging pass. This coverage can be increased with multiple logging passes. The
tool also contains a triaxial accelerometer and three magnetometers for orientation
and to enable speed corrections to be made on the acquired data.
Presentation of Images
Several presentations are available for displaying the data. The vertical scale
provides the most striking difference between the formation-imaging presentations
and other logs. The normal detail scale for logs is 1:240, while the formation images
are presented on a 1:5 scale. The standard presentations can be broadly classified
into two types: straight-line images and azimuthal images.
Straight-Line Images A straight-line presentation shows the images in a stationary
horizontal scale ( Figure 1 ).

54

Figure 1

This presentation is divided into several sections. The left section contains the depth
scale, the pad orientation, and the borehole deviation. The long arrow on the tadpole
indicates the direction of borehole drift; the body of the tadpole indicates the
magnitude of deviation by its position on the horizontal scale. The small arrow shows
the azimuth of Pad 1. The next section contains the caliper and resistivity correlation
curves. The calipers from Pads 1-3 and 2-4 are shown. The resistivity curve is used
only for correlation and not for quantitative purposes. Pads 3 and 4 of the 2-pad tool
provide the image. Both the raw microresistivity traces and the processed images
are presented. The microresistivity traces are from the 27 image buttons. The image
traces are computer enhanced using 16 gray levels; they range from white
(resistive) to black (conductive).
Another popular presentation is shown in Figure 2 .

55

Figure 2

In this example, the formation images are displayed on the same depth scale as the
dipmeter log. This scale is not as effective for identifying individual sedimentary
features but is better for displaying the overall features of a zone and showing how
they relate to dip patterns.
Azimuthal Images A BORMAP presentation is shown in Figure 3 .

56

Figure 3

The horizontal scale shifts according to the respective azimuths of each pad. Thus,
multiple passes can be merged to portray a more complete picture of the wellbore.
In this example, images from two logging passes (from a tool with two imaging
pads) were merged to cover approximately 44% of the well-bore. There are vugs
present at 4208.7 ft and at 4210.4 ft. This presentation is very effective for
secondary porosity evaluation and for sedimentary structure identification.
Image-Examiner Workstation
Image interpretation can be enhanced by means of a computer workstation equipped
with image-examiner processing programs. This allows such interactive processing
features as
scale changes of both the vertical and horizontal, to enhance the
interpretation
a display of other logs for correlation on the same scales
graphic enhancement of specific features, such as bedding, texture,
vugs, and fractures

57

 dip computation of bedding surfaces, fault planes, and fractures

correlation of images to whole core sections, extending the
interpretation to noncored sections
orientation of cores from features present in both the core and the
formation images
quantification of images (such as sand count and calibration to core
porosity) to increase interpretation accuracy
Dip Computation/Thin Bed Definition Computation of the dip magnitude and azimuth
of specific beds is essential to many interpretations and can be performed on an
image-examiner workstation. An example is shown in Figure 4 .

Figure 4

The magnitude is measured from horizontal (0) to vertical (90). The azimuth of the
downdip direction is measured from true north. The thin sand shown at 6969 ft dips
to the northwest. A sine wave is fit through both the upper and lower surface of the
sand, indicating a 39 dip magnitude and an azimuth of 317. These dips are "true

58

dip", since hole deviation is compensated. Apparent dips may be presented if a direct
comparison with a whole core is required The actual thickness of the sand stringer,
measured be-the sine waves, is 1.61 ft.

E3-dip patterns
Introduction
There are several graphical methods of plotting dip computations. This chapter
covers interpretation rules based on the common "tadpole" plot. The head of the
tadpole indicates dip magnitude and is plotted on a dip scale ranging from 0 to 90
versus depth. The tail of the tadpole, which points in the downdip direction, is plotted
on a compass rose (north, up; east to the right; south, down; and west to the left).
The two or more tadpoles forming a group are derived from the internal structure of
sediment layers deposited in a single depositional environment. All dips on a tadpole
plot can be assigned to one of four basic groups. These groups are the building
blocks used to create megapatterns. Mega-patterns, lithology, and knowledge of the
depositional environment are used to make interpretations.
Dip Groups
The four dip groups are the red (slope), blue (current), green (constant), and
random. These basic groups are the building blocks of megapatterns, which are used
to identify missing or repeat sections and to interpret stratigraphy. The red, blue,
and green patterns are illustrated in Figure 1 , which shows the borehole, formationimaging, and dipmeter tadpole plots for each.

Figure 1

Red (Slope) Groups

59

Red dip groups are composed of two or more adjacent tadpoles with constant
azimuths and downward increasing magnitudes. These groups are generated from
sediments deposited on a sloping surface or from sediments with dips that have been
altered by postdepositional movement.
Most red groups result from downdip thickening. Beds deposited on a sloping surface
thicken and become wedge-shaped in the downdip direction; therefore, the dip
direction of red groups indicates the direction of thickening.
Blue (Current) Groups
Blue dip groups are composed of two or more adjacent tadpoles with constant
azimuths and downward-decreasing magnitudes. These groups are generated mainly
from sediment layers deposited as foreset beds. The dip directions of the foresetgenerated blue groups indicate the directions of current flow during deposition. Some
blue groups are generated by weathering beneath erosional surfaces; this process
creates downward-flattening features.
Green (Constant) Groups
Green dip groups are composed of two or more adjacent tadpoles with constant
magnitudes and azimuths. These groups are derived from parallel crossbeds or from
sediments that were deposited flat and have subsequently undergone structural
uplifting. Green groups are the only dip groups indicating structural dip today and
are the groups sought within zones of least scatter.
Random Groups
Random dip groups are composed of adjacent tadpoles with random magnitudes and
azimuths. These groups are derived from sediment layers deposited in high-energy
environments, such as shallow water less than 50 ft deep; from layers that have
undergone reworking by bioturbation; and from layers that have undergone
postdepositional movement.
Megapatterns
These dip groups are used as building blocks in identifying megapatterns.
Megapatterns, lithology, and depositional environment information are used for
determining the location of attributes of faults, unconformities, and stratigraphic
features.
Mega-Red Dip Patterns
The mega-red dip pattern is a family of the basic dip groups characterized by an
increasing downward magnitude trend and a constant or gradually rotating general
azimuth ( Figure 2 ).

60

Figure 2

Individual basic dip groups may exhibit dips that do not match the general trend.
The features in the subsurface that create mega red patterns on the dip plot include
distortions near a fault plane, sand bars, beach ridges, reefs, and channels of all
types.
Normal Faults Two distortion types, rollover and drag, may be present near a normal
fault. Rollover, with dip into the fault, results from sediments slumping into the
downthrown side of a fault that was active at the seafloor during the time of
deposition.
Drag zones contain beds dipping in the same direction as the fault plane. The megared dip pattern results from friction between the active downthrown block and the
passive upthrown block. Most of the distortion occurs in the active or down-thrown
fault block; however, upthrown drag is occasionally noted.
Mega-red dip patterns are not always found near the fault plane. Some faults have
no downthrown or upthrown distortion; in these situations there is no dipmeter
indication unless there has been tilting of one of the fault blocks.
Reverse Faults Reverse thrust fault usually exhibit drag on both sides of the fault.
The drag zone in the overthrust block creates a mega-red pattern dipping in the
direction of overthrust. The downthrown dip pattern, if one exists, is a mega-blue
pattern. If drag is present on only one side of the fault, it occurs on the more active,
overthrust side.

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If a missing or repeat section is at or near the base of a mega-red pattern, the

pattern probably results from some type of distortion near the fault plane. If there is
no indication of a nearby missing or repeat section, then the mega-red pattern
probably has a stratigraphic origin.
Additional information from other logs about the depositional environment and
lithology is necessary to determine the stratigraphic feature generating a mega-red
pattern.
Mega-Blue Dip Patterns
Mega-blue dip patterns are formed when the dip magnitudes of families of basic
groups decrease downward but their azimuths remain the same or rotate slowly (
Figure 3 ). As is true of mega-red patterns, a few individual basic dip groups may
exhibit random azimuths. Also, local data about depositional environment and
lithology obtained from other logs are required to make a stratigraphic
interpretation.

Figure 3

Mega-blue patterns result from foreset deposition, weathering under erosional

surfaces, and compaction caused by the sinking of a relatively dense mass, such as a
sand or coral reef, into softer underlying beds. Dip direction of foreset beds indicates

62

the direction of sediment transport or current flow. The dips created by compaction
indicate the direction to the thickest portion of the overlying mass. Fore-set
deposition occurs in delta-dominated environments, tide/ wave-dominated
environments, longshore current sand waves, submarine fans, tidal flats, and at or
near the axes of any type of channel.
Identifying Megapatterns
Basic dip groups that do not form megapatterns terminate at or near a vertical or
slightly inclined line ( Figure 4 ).

Figure 4

Basic dip groups that form megapatterns terminate at successively higher

magnitudes-e.g., higher downward for a red, higher upward for a blue--for the
length of the pattern. If the deepest dip group of a megapattern has an azimuth
different from the azimuth of the general pattern, the azimuth of the pattern, not the
basal group, should be used.

Theoretical Dip Patterns

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A series of theoretical dip-versus-lithology patterns can easily be created for any specific environment. Since the
same dip patterns can be created by different stratigraphic features, the theoretical sketches are grouped by
depositional environments (nonmarine, deltaic, interdeltaic, and deepwater) . A missing and repeat dip response
is also included.
The interpretation process can be carried out step by step in the following sequence:

Determine structural dip.

Delete structural dip if necessary.
Identify and describe the attributes of missing and repeat sections.
Make stratigraphic interpretations using lithology and knowledge of the depositional
environment.

If independent knowledge of the depositional environment is unavailable, local "rules of thumb,"

using such parameters as bound water resistivity, shale resistivity, and dip scatter, can be used
as environmental indicators.
Structural Dip In order to represent structural dip today, any bedding plane or sediment layer must have been
deposited flat and have undergone only structural uplift since the time of deposition. Structural dip trends are
selected from zones of least dip scatter, since such zones are most likely to have been deposited in a low-energy
environment and thus are most likely to represent structural dip today. A good rule of thumb is to assume that
structural dip trends picked from the dipmeter display extend horizontally no farther than they do vertically. Dip
trends that extend 1000 ft or more can usually be extended as far horizontally as the closest offset well.
However, if numerous faults and unconformities are present, it may be impossible to find a dip trend that extends
1000 ft vertically.
Structural dip should be deleted before fault and stratigraphic interpretations are made if the dip magnitude in
the zone of interest is less than that of structural dip, or if the dip azimuth in the zone of interest is different from
that of structural dip.

Missing or Repeat Sections

After determining and (if necessary) deleting structural dip, the next step is
interpreting missing and repeat sections. Missing sections result when normal faults,
angular unconformities, disconformities, or diastems are present. Repeat sections
result from compressional faulting and folding.
Since stratigraphic features and faults can generate identical dip patterns, an
independent input as to locations of probable missing sections is desirable before
making missing-section interpretations. Normal faults may generate red dip patterns
that dip either toward or away from the fault plane. Dip patterns on the downthrown
side of growth faults, which result from rollover into the fault, dip toward the fault
plane. The vertical extent of such patterns can be used as a minimum fault
displacement indicator. Nongrowth normal faults that occurred after some formation
compaction had taken place create red dip patterns that dip in the same direction as
the fault plane. These result from a drag zone immediately downthrown to the fault.
Reverse and thrust faults, which generate "right-side-up" repeats on the logs, create
red-over-blue dip patterns. The patterns dip in the direction of overthrust, and the
fault plane is located at their junction. Overturned folds also create log repeat
sections, but one repeat is a mirror image of the other.

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From the bottom up on Figure 1 , the first missing and repeat section is a diastem or
disconformity.

Figure 1

Since the angular difference across such features is less than one-half of a degree,
they are not easily recognized on dipmeter plots. The small blue pattern shown
beneath the missing section is the result of some type of weathering.
The next repeat section results from an overturned fold. The log response of the
repeat section produces a mirror image with the repeat section upside down with
respect to the first log response. In this example, there is a dip reversal across the
fold; this is not always the case.
A reverse or thrust fault also produces a repeat log response, with the repeat right
side up with respect to the first log response. Both the red pattern in the upper, or
overthrust, block and the blue pattern in the downthrown block are the result of
drag. The dip direction of the overthrust red pattern is the same as the direction of
over-thrust (to the east in this example).
The next upward dip decrease is the result of a period of postdepositional uplift that
created a portion of the underlying 25 northeast structural trend. There was no

65

erosion of the uplifted beds. Deposition, which continued without a break, then
produced onlapping beds. The overlying 20 east structural trend was produced by a
later period of uplift. Such features are common in sediments deposited in deepwater
environments.
The next upward dip increase, from 20 east to 10 east, occurs across an angular
unconformity. The blue dip pattern drawn below the unconformity results from some
type of weathering and occurs most of the time. Since this small blue pattern is
identical to patterns produced by stratigraphic events, it should not be considered a
diagnostic unconformity indicator.
There is independent input that a fault exists within the section of 10 east structural
dip. Since there are no associated red or blue patterns, this is a middle-aged normal
fault that has no distortion near the fault plane. However, a sudden structural dip
change occurs when one fault block has been tilted.
There is also independent input that another fault is located just uphole. A red dip
pattern, which terminates at the probable fault location, is present in this example. If
the vertical extent of the red pattern is more than 200 ft, the pattern is almost
certainly the result of dip into the downthrown side of a growth fault The dip
direction is toward the upthrown block (example: upthrown to the northeast). If the
vertical extent of the red pattern is less than 200 ft, the red pattern may result from
either rollover into a growth fault or drag on the downthrown side of a later fault.
When the pattern results from drag, the dip direction is toward the downthrown side
and normal to the fault strike.
Continental Environment
Figure 1 illustrates some continental environment depositional features and their
associated dip patterns.

66

Figure 1

From bottom up, the group of tadpoles indicating east structural dip is derived from
sediments deposited essentially flat in an upper delta plain environment. Sands
deposited in such an environment may contain secondary porosity because some
plant-produced acids are capable of dissolving sand grains.
Flood-plain sediments produce a "bag-of-nails" dip scatter. Few (if any) dips
reflecting structural dip are found within such sediments.
Next is an eolian sand. The illustrated dip patterns have constant (angle of repose)
dip trends underlain by blue patterns. This is a typical dip response from transverse
and barchan dunes. The dip direction indicates the prevailing wind direction at the
time of deposition (from west to east in this example).
Longitudinal dunes produce red or blue patterns whose dip directions are normal to
the prevailing wind direction. Dome and parabolic dunes produce mainly red patterns
dipping in the prevailing wind direction.
Swamp or marsh deposits generally produce blank zones because bedding planes
have been destroyed by rooting and bioturbation.

67

Stream channels filled with clay plugs produce red dip patterns within shale sections.
The patterns dip toward the channel thalweg.
When stream channels are filled with sand instead of clay, possibly during a marine
transgression, a red dip pattern found at the base of the sand dips toward the
thalweg and normal to the strike of the channel (example: thalweg to the northeast,
and northwest-southeast strike). This dip pattern is overlain by a blue pattern whose
dip is 90 from that of the underlying red pattern. This dip direction indicates the
current flow direction within the channel (example: direction of flow to the
southeast).
Point-bar sands exhibit a number of internal blue dip patterns whose dips are in the
direction of current flow. A red pattern that dips toward the thalweg may also be
present just above the point bar. If the beds that produce the blue dip patterns are
thicker than 3 ft, the blue patterns probably result from accretion depositions that
dip toward the thalweg rather than from trough crossbeds that dip down-current.
Continental Shelf, Delta-Dominated Environment
In the example in Figure 1 , delta-dominated means that some, if not all, of the
stratigraphic features deposited in a deltaic environment were preserved in their
original forms rather than in reworked forms.

Figure 1

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The bottom sand is channel-like and was formed by the compaction of underlying
muds. All dips of the red dip pattern (faulting has been eliminated) found within the
sand dip toward the axis and normal to the strike of the sand. Because of
compaction of the sediments below the sand, a blue dip pattern dipping toward the
channel axis is usually found beneath the sand in the underlying shales. Other logs
exhibit gradients (downward-decreasing resistivity, increasing interval transit time)
in the underlying shales. Sands formed by compaction may be more than 2000 ft
thick.
Crevasse splays generate blue dip patterns pointing in the direction of current flow
(example: direction of flow to the southeast). A sand deposited as a distributary
mouth-bar and topped by a scour channel exhibits a red-over-blue dip pattern that
dips in the same direction. The blue pattern dips in the direction of current flow
(example: direction of flow to the east-southeast) and the red pattern dips toward
the scour channel axis (example: axis to the east-southeast), which usually has a
very limited areal extent. In general, when adjacent red-over-blue patterns dip in the
same direction, the red pattern can be ignored.
Whenever a distributary mouth-bar sand undergoes shallow-water reworking, a bagof-nails dip scatter is produced. Such sands tend to be clean with good porosities and
permeabilities.
When all the original depositional features of a distributary channel are preserved,
they produce a red dip pattern at the base of the sand, overlain by a blue pattern.
The pattern azimuths are 90 apart. The red pattern dips toward the channel axis
and normal to the channel strike (example: axis to east and north-south strike) The
blue pattern dip indicates flow down the channel (example: flow from north to
south). A distributary mouth-bar produces a blue dip pattern whose direction is that
of current flow (example: flow from northwest to southeast) .
When the blue pattern magnitude variation is 10 or more, the distributary mouthbar tends to be elongated in the direction of dip (inertia-dominated environment).
When the dip variation is less than 10, the distributary mouth-bar tends to be fan or
crescent shaped (friction-dominated environment). Distributary mouth-bars and
crevasse splays look the same on dipmeter plots.
Continental Shelf, Tide- or Wave-Dominated Environment
Figure 1 illustrates some of the stratigraphic features and associated dip patterns
that are found in a continental shelf, tide- or wave-dominated environment. Many of
these features are the result of reworking of previously deposited deltaic sediments.

69

Figure 1

At the bottom of the figure, parallel seaward-dipping cross-beds are produced by

beach rock that forms in a carbonate environment at the saltwater-freshwater
interface along shorelines.
An oolitic bar is identified by a red pattern immediately above the bar (assuming, of
course, that it was not penetrated on the crest). The red pattern dips toward the
pinch-out and normal to the strike of the bar (example: pinchout to the northeast,
and northwest-southeast strike) . Dips within the oolitic bar are immaterial.
A reef also exhibits a red pattern above its top and a blue pattern in the underlying
beds. Few, if any, meaningful dips are found within reefs. The overlying red pattern
dips toward the pinchout and normal to the strike of the reef. The blue pattern,
which results from compaction, dips toward the thicker part of the reef (example:
pinchout is to the east-northeast and the reef strikes north-northwest, southsoutheast) .
A buried beach ridge exhibits a red dip pattern immediately above the top of the
ridge and numerous dips within the beach-ridge sand. The red pattern dips toward
the shaleout and normal to the strike of the beach ridge (example: shaleout to
northeast, and northwest-southeast strike) .

70

A sand bar that formed at the wave breakpoint also exhibits a red dip pattern above
the sand but few dips within the sand (reworking increases the electrical
homogeneity) . The red pattern dips toward the shaleout and normal to the strike of
the bar (example: shaleout to the northeast, and northwest-southeast strike) .
In Figure 2 the bottom sand was deposited as a slip-face sand on the landward side
of a beach.

Figure 2

The internal blue dip pattern dips landward and normal to the beach strike (example:
land to west, and north-south beach strike).
The next sand was deposited as beach dunes and contains varying dips resulting
from festoon crossbedding. Formations on the berm crest of a beach can be
deposited flat and would later indicate structural dip.
Runnel sands may exhibit blue patterns derived from mega-ripples whose dip
azimuths approximate the beach strike. Small-scale ripples may produce either blank
zones or random dips. The example beach strike is north-south, indicated by southdipping blue patterns derived from megaripples.

71

A beach-face sand contains seaward-dipping parallel cross-beds (example: parallel

crossbeds dipping 5 east indicate that seaward was to the east during deposition).
Upper shore face sands contain a few parallel seaward-dipping crossbeds (example:
1 and 2 east dips indicate that seaward was to the east during deposition). Lower
shore face sands contain mainly blank zones and random dips that result from highenergy environments and extensive bioturbation.
Longshore current sand waves exhibit blue dip patterns dipping in the direction of
transport and parallel to the nearby fossil shoreline (example: dips to south indicate
transport from north to south along a north-south striking shoreline).
A tidal flood delta, or washover, fan generates landwarddipping blue dip patterns
(example: west-dipping blue patterns indicate that land was to the west during
deposition).
Ebb deltas produce seaward-dipping blue patterns (example: east dip indicates that
seaward was to the east at the time of deposition).
Deepwater Depositional Environment
Figure 1 illustrates the sedimentary features found in deepwater (continental slope
and deeper) sediments.

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Figure 1

Often, postdepositional movement occurs within sediments deposited on the

continental slope. This produces a bag-of-nails dip appearance. Structural dip is
extremely difficult to determine from such intervals.
Deposition at the distal end of submarine fans produces alternating sand-shale layers
that later can become low-resistivity pay zones. Dips recorded in this environment
indicate structural dip. The midfan portion of a submarine fan produces blue patterns
that indicate sediment transport directions (example: transport direction was north
to south) .
Debris flows produce blank zones or zones of random dips. A submarine channel
penetrated near the edge exhibits a red pattern that dips toward the channel axis
and normal to its strike (example: axis to the east, and north-south strike) . A nearthe-axis location within a feeder channel produces only blue patterns, which indicates
flow down the channel (example: south-southwest dipping blue patterns indicate
flow from north-northeast to south-southwest) .
A feeder channel penetration between the axis and channel edge produces the "blueover-red with axis 90 apart" dip pattern combination. The red pattern dips toward
the channel axis and normal to the channel strike (example: axis to the east and

73

north-south strike). The blue pattern dip direction indicates the flow direction down
the channel (example: flow direction was from north-northeast to south-southwest) .
These theoretical patterns show all of the original dip patterns intact. In practice,
portions of the original patterns may have been destroyed by reworking. Also,
random dips that behave like noise are scattered throughout the patterns.
Exercise No. 1

Figure 1

The upper 3 m of the log in Figure 1 are in interbedded shales and silts. The lower 4
m are mostly sand in a fluvial environment.
This exercise requires the student to study the dip curves closely, from a standpoint
of similarity between adjacent side-by-side electrodes and similarity from pad to pad.
Also study the dip results from each of the three systems: CSB, MSD, LOCDIP.
Study the comparison of 5-inch correlation CSB, LOCAL DIP, and 1-foot correlation
MSD. What are the bedding characteristics for each of the four intervals?

74

Solution
Interval 1
Curve pairs vary from similar to unlike, and the CSB results reflect this fact. Pad-to-pad similarity is quite poor,
causing the MSD dip scatter. Bedding is probably irregular and of very short lateral extension. There is some
stratification, however, as indicated by the similarity of side-by-side curves.
Interval 2
The lower 2 m of this section are well-bedded with small curve contrast. Agreement between systems is fair,
implying some consistency in direction. At the arrow, note that LOCDIP and MSD point north at 9, whereas CSB
shows SW crossbedding over that section. This is an excellent example of a dominant anomaly (see correlations)
influencing the dips over the complete 1-ft correlation interval on the MSD, and the similar LOCDIP response.
Interval 3
Well-bedded, with good basic agreement among systems.
Interval 4
Poor bedding, with noncorrelational conductive anomalies. These are pyrite blebs, very small but very conductive.

E4-structural dip interpretation

Structural Dip Interpretation
Structural dip changes (and the lack of such changes) are good indicators of the type
of structure present ( Figure 1 ). The following are guidelines for interpreting
structure based on structural dip changes.

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Figure 1

Structural dip decreases upward in structures uplifted contemporaneously with

deposition. Constant dip over an interval indicates postdepositional structural uplift.
Structural trends that decrease to zero dip and reverse magnitude and azimuth
indicate structures with tilted axes. Deviated holes create the same effect by
penetrating different parts of the structure being explored.
Structural dip changes over short intervals indicate numerous faults. The beds
between two faults only a few hundred feet apart commonly exhibit different dips
from beds above and below the two bounding faults as a result of tilting.
If structural dip is changing rapidly in the horizontal direction, it is dangerous to
extend the structural trends very far horizon-tally. Only the geologist can decide how
far the trend may be extended. When the dip of a structure is changing, the feature
interpreted as structural dip is the dip of a plane tangent to the mapping horizon.
Salt Domes
Intrusive masses of salt form domelike features by penetrating overlying normally
bedded sediments. Figure 1 is a sketch of a typical salt dome.

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Figure 1

A number of faults are present, most of which dip toward salt. Unconformities and
pinchouts are common, as are steep dips near the flanks of the salt dome. If the top
of the dome is shallow enough, it may be overlain by caprock.
Not all domes resemble the one shown. Other features that lend themselves to
dipmeter interpretation may be present; these are presented on the following pages.
Overhangs Figure 2 illustrates a well that penetrated salt far below an overhang.

77

Figure 2

Note the following:

Dips are generally highest closest to salt.
Dips increase as an overhang is approached from above.
Dips, then, decrease below the overhang.
There is another downward increase as the well approaches the main salt stock.
One of the uses of the dipmeter on wells drilled near a salt dome is to indicate the
presence of overhangs, which warrant further investigation by an ULSEL survey.
The ULSEL device is an electrical logging system with long electrode spacings
allowing formation investigation up to 2000 ft from the wellbore. ULSEL
measurements combined with induction log and dipmeter data provide the
information necessary to compute the distance, direction, and profile of the nearest
salt dome.

78

Vertical and Overturned Beds Vertical, near-vertical, and overturned beds are found
near salt domes and in areas of over-thrusting. Straight holes are rarely drilled
through vertical beds. The apparent dip has a computed value of less than 90. The
dips become vertical only after correction for sonde tilt.
The steepest dips near a salt dome are generally found under an overhang, and
some beds may be overturned indicating a horizontal and vertical component to salt
movement ( Figure 3 ). The illustrated well was sidetracked under the overhang, and
it penetrated increasing easterly dipping vertical beds, overturned beds, and, finally,
high easterly dips again.

Figure 3

Pre-Salt Uplift Growth Faults Another cause of dip into salt is the presence of a large
pre-salt uplift growth fault. The dip into the downthrown side of the growth fault can
override any uplift-created dip away from salt. This feature occurs on the south flank
of the dome illustrated in Figure 4 .

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Figure 4

Gouge Zones Some salt domes are covered by a thin gouge zone, usually less than
100 ft thick. These gouge zones contain a mixture of the various sediments the
dome has penetrated. When the resistivities of the normally pressured, bedded
shales around a dome are approximately 1 ohm-m, the gouge resistivity averages
approximately 1.2 ohm-m. Gouge is a mixture of sands and shales, and it has a
"hashy" appearance on the SP and short-spaced resistivity curves.
A blanket of diapiric clay is sometimes found draped around one flank of a salt dome.
This is a high-pressure, low-resistivity clay. Resistivities within Gulf Coast diapiric
clay domes are commonly less than 0.5 ohm-m. Dips within gouge zones and diapiric
clays tend to be random or nonexistent.
Clay Domes
Clay domes are formed in the same manner as salt domes. Source beds are masses
of low-density shales. The density of these shales can be less than the density of
salt: 2 g/cc versus 2.16 g/cc. These low-density shales floated upward through zones
of weakness to form clay domes. The penetration of younger overlying beds created
dips away from the clay dome.
In the northern Gulf of Mexico the top of a clay dome is indicated by a downward
decrease in resistivity. The half-ohm shale point was used as an indicator of the top
of the clay dome in the Eugene Island Block 198 field.

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Resistivities within domes may be as low as 0.2 ohm-m in the U.S. Gulf Coast region.
In Nigeria, a 1 ohm-m value is more common.
It is currently more difficult to identify clay domes than it was in the 1960s. At that
time, a constant dip trend matching the dip of the domal surface was recorded within
the dome. As the dome was approached from above, the dip trend increased in
magnitude, just as if the flank of a salt dome were being approached. After the clay
dome was penetrated, a constant dip trend was usually recorded. This is illustrated
in Figure 5 .

Figure 5

Since the late 1960s clay dome dips have become more elusive. Instead of constant
dip trends within the dome, only blank zones are found on dip plots. One explanation
for this change has been advanced by a major company geologist. He suggests that
the current lack of dip data within the clay dome results from formation damage
caused by increased mud weights. Dips detected within clay domes were probably
derived from cleavages or compaction surfaces, not from bedding planes.

81

Dips are still found within high-pressure, low-resistivity shales in their normal
stratigraphic position. After shales have been uplifted, they may be more susceptible
to mud-weight induced damage.
Structural Dip Deletion
Formation dip results from the original depositional dip, compaction and
postdepositional deformation, and structural uplift or subsidence. The magnitude and
direction of structural dip are removed before making fault or stratigraphic
interpretations.
If the dip in the zone of interest is less than the structural dip,
structural dip should be deleted from each of the dips on the tadpole
plot.
If the dip in the zone of interest is equal to or greater than structural
dip, but with a different azimuth, structural dip should be deleted.
Results of Dip Deletion
Figure 1 is an actual dipmeter plot that illustrates the results of structural dip
deletion.

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Figure 1

The dips opposite the pay zone are less than structural dip, so structural dip should
be deleted before attempting a stratigraphic interpretation. After deleting the 22 of
north-northwest structural dip, the dips in the zone of interest form a southsoutheast dipping red pattern. If structural dip is not deleted prior to stratigraphic
interpretation, the interpretation will be in error.
Instead of being a fan deposited by a north-northwesterly flowing current, the sand
was deposited as fill within an east-northeast, west-southwest striking channel, with
the axis lying to the south-southeast.
Benefits of Dip Deletion
Structural dip deletion serves as an indicator that the correct structural trend was
identified and deleted. The structural dip on Figure 2 was selected as 35 at an
azimuth of 90 down to 7150 ft.

Figure 2

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Below 7150 ft, the structural dip was selected as 35 with an azimuth of 117.
After a structural dip of 35 at 117 was deleted over the entire interval, an apparent
northeast structural dip trend remained above 7150 ft. Almost all apparent structural
trends disappeared below 7150 ft. This indicates that 35 at 117 was the correct
structural dip below 7150 ft but incorrect for the interval above. Another deletion
pass was made over the entire interval to delete 35 at an azimuth of 90. The
apparent trend above 7150 ft disappeared, indicating that the correct structural dip
was deleted. The incorrect structural dip deletion below 7150 ft produced an
apparent southwest structural trend.
Another benefit of structural dip deletion is the identification of dips resulting from
erroneous correlations. These dips tend to be higher than structural dip, and they
typically remain unreasonably high after deletion.
The Process of Dip Deletion
If the magnetic recording tape is available, structural dip deletion is a relatively easy
process, and a tadpole plot with structural dip removed can be quickly generated. If
the answer tape is not available, the processing must be recomputed, or a "stereo
net" or hand calculation must be performed. Programs are available for the HP-25,
HP-41C, HP-75, and the TI-59 calculators. For logs with more than a few points
requiring structural deletion, log recomputation is strongly recommended .
Deleting Uplift Effects
Gulf Coast salt domes may have undergone several periods of uplift, both
contemporaneous and postdepositional. Dips have reversed as the salt being uplifted
at one location masked the dip from a nearby salt spine that had been uplifted
earlier. Prior dips in directions different from those of current dips indicate the
existence of fossil structures in the area. These structures may still be productive.
To determine structural dip at any specific time, the effect of structure must be
removed a single uplift at a time. The shallowest structural dip should be removed
first. The remaining dips indicate the attitude of beds prior to the youngest uplift (
Figure 3 ).

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Figure 3

After selecting a new structural trend for the shallowest remaining interval, delete
the trend. The remaining dips indicate the attitude of the beds at the time of the
second-youngest uplift. This process is continued until the end of the dipmeter log is
reached.

E5-fault interpretation
Introduction
Faulting occurs when beds are in tension or under compression. Such forces produce
normal faults and reverse or thrust faults. In areas that have undergone mainly
tension (such as the northern Gulf of Mexico), almost all of the faulting is normal. In
areas that have undergone both earlier tension and later compression, both normal
and reverse/thrust faults may be present in the same well. For dipmeter
interpretation, input of the local geology is required to define the actual model.
In order for a fault to be detected by the dipmeter, either some sort of distortion
must be present near the fault plane or one fault block must be tilted more than the
other. When tilting is present, the location of the fault is indicated by a sudden
change in dip magnitude and/or direction.
Typical forms of distortion near both tensional and compressional faults are shown in
Figure 1 .

85

Figure 1

Each of these is covered in this section. Normal faulting (beds in tension) is

discussed first and reverse/thrust faulting (beds under compression) last.
Beds in tension break, and one block slides downward relative to the other. The
block that moves downward is usually called the downthrown block. The upthrown
block appears to have been passive during much or all of the faulting process. The
attributes of a normal fault include directions of dip and strike, hade, dip angle of the
fault plane, and vertical and horizontal displacements (throw and heave).
Beds that are in compression break, and one block overrides the other. The
overriding block is called the overthrust block; the other block is called the
downthrown block. If the fault angle (with respect to the horizontal) is less than 45,
the fault is called a thrust rather than a reverse fault. Attributes of a reverse or
thrust fault are dip of the fault plane, strike and over-thrust directions, and
displacement.
Growth Faults
Faults that were active during the time of deposition are called growth faults. The
downward-moving block provided a low area that acted as a sediment sink and
accumulated thicker layers of sediments than the equivalent upthrown zone.

86

Tension-created slumping into the downthrown side of the fault also aided the
downthrown thickening processes. Downthrown thickening, which begins some
distance from the fault, increases toward the fault plane, with the maximum amount
of thickening found immediately downthrown. This thickening into the fault, plus
sinking of the increasingly heavier downthrown side of the fault, produces a rotation
effect that also increases the dip of the beds into the fault.
Rollover
The cumulative effect of downthrown thickening, slumping, and rotation, which is
called rollover, produces a trend of downward-increasing dips that dip toward the
upthrown fault block ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

This trend terminates at, or shallower than, the fault plane. It is this dip trend that
allows growth faults to be located, and their attributes identified, by the dip-meter
tool. The downward-increasing dip trend produces a red dip pattern whose azimuth is
toward the upthrown fault block and normal to the strike of the fault. Although not
routinely found associated with growth faults, strike slip movement rotates the
azimuth in a direction opposite to that of block movement. The vertical extent of the
red pattern can be used as an indicator of the minimum displacement of the fault.
Displacement is usually greater than the vertical extent of the fault; it is rarely less.
Subsidence Effect

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When the rate of deposition is greater than the rate of subsidence, a system of
progressively younger faults in a seaward direction is created. When the rate of
deposition equals the rate of subsidence, a fault with a very large displacement is
produced, assuming of course that the system is stable for a considerable period of
time. When the rate of deposition is less than the rate of subsidence, progressively
younger faults are created in a landward direction.
Bed Thickness
Figure 2 is a cross section illustrating the effect of a growth fault on bed thickness.

Figure 2

Wells 1-3 penetrated the upthrown block of a down-to-the-east growth fault. Both
sands A and B are the same thickness in both wells. Part of sand A is faulted out in
Well 4, while sand B, which is still located upthrown, remains the same thickness.
Well 5 penetrated sand A in a downthrown position in the rollover zone, so the sand
is much thicker than its upthrown equivalent. Sand B was faulted out of Well 5. Well
6 penetrated both sands in a downthrown position within the rollover zone, so they
are thicker than their upthrown equivalents. The downthrown thickening continues to
decrease to the east until Well 9 is reached. This well is located beyond the eastern

88

limit of the rollover zone, so both sands are the same thickness as their upthrown
equivalents.
Growth Fault Examples
Figure 3 is an example of a large growth fault which cuts the Vicksburg formation of
a South Texas well.

Figure 3

The fault, which cuts the well at a depth of 14,890 ft, is downthrown, or dips, to the
southwest. Therefore the rollover zone, which dips toward the upthrown block, dips
to the northeast. The rollover zone (the zone that creates a downward-increasing dip
trend) extends upward to 13,750 ft; the minimum displacement of the fault is
approximately 1000 ft.
Figure 4

89

Figure 4

is an example of an offshore Louisiana fault whose displacement is smaller than that

of the fault in Figure 3 . This offshore Louisiana Miocene example illustrates the
rollover created by a small growth fault. The fault, which by correlation has a
displacement of only 120 ft, is located at 12,638 ft and is downthrown, or dips, to
the south-southeast and strikes normal to the pattern dip direction, or eastnortheast west-southwest. Because of shattering of sediments near the fault plane,
only a scattering of dips were recorded immediately downthrown.
Some fault examples show even more extensive shattering and washing out of the
hole on the downthrown (most active) side of the fault plane. The dip trend which
begins at the base of the blank zone is recorded from the upthrown block, so the
fault cut is no deeper than the bottom of the blank zone. Usually it is picked at the
base of the blank zone.
One of the "eyeball" indicators of a possible missing section, which is present in
these examples, is a borehole dogleg. Any time the bit crosses a formation
compaction change it reacts by creating a change in the amount and/or direction of
well drift. Since compaction changes are almost always present across a fault or
unconformity, a change in well drift azimuth and/or magnitude can (but does not
always) indicate the presence of a fault or unconformity.

90

As long as a fault continues to grow, downthrown thickening is produced. This in turn

produces an increasing-with-depth red dip pattern. During periods of relative
nongrowth resulting from changes in depositional processes, the beds are rotated at
a constant rate. This in turn produces constant dip zones within rollover-created red
dip patterns. Figure 5 is an example of such a fault.

Figure 5

The increasing-with-depth rollover zone begins at about 8700 ft. From 9100 to 9250
ft the dip trend remains constant. From 9250 down to 9350 ft the dip again increases
downward, indicating a period of renewed growth.
Structural Dip Imprint
The dips from a zone of distortion are changed when structural dip is imprinted on
them, so it may be necessary to remove structural dip before determining the
attributes of a fault, just as it is necessary when making stratigraphic interpretations.
Figure 6 is a theoretical example of the appearance of a dip-meter plot when
structural dip is imprinted over dips created by rollover.

91

Figure 6

(A) shows a west-dipping red dip pattern created by rollover into a down-to-the-east
growth fault. (B) shows that a moderate amount of east structural dip was added to
the west dipping red pattern of (A). The resultant dip pattern, moving down the hole,
is a decreasing dip trend or blue pattern. The dip decreases to zero, then increases
in the opposite direction until a maximum is reached at the fault. A typical red
pattern is formed below the zero crossing point. Below the fault cut, only east
structural dip is seen.
(C) illustrates an even stronger east structural dip imprinted over the west-dipping
red pattern. At the point where the west-dipping structural dip and the strong east
structural dip start to oppose each other, a decreasing dip trend, or blue pattern,
begins. In this case, the trend decreases down to the fault cut but never quite
reaches zero dip. As soon as the fault is crossed, only strong east structural dip is
recorded.
Figure 7 is a dipmeter example of the first type of imprint, where a strong red
pattern opposes moderate or low structural dip in the opposite direction.

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Figure 7

Structural dip is about 10 south-southeast. This opposes the northwesterly dipping

red pattern dipping into a down-to-the-southeast growth fault. The resulting dip
patterns are ones of decreasing dips (blue pattern) from 13,700 ft down to the zero
crossing point at 13,790 ft, then ones of increasing dips (red pattern) in the opposite
direction down to the fault cut at the base of the blank zone at 13,880 ft.
Deviated Wells
Deviated wells are sometimes drilled parallel to fault planes. As a well periodically
gets closer to the fault and, in some instances actually bumps the fault, the dips
increase and then decrease. Some dip scatter is created by formation shattering and
hole conditions near the fault.
Platform wells may be deviated in a direction and an angle such that they cross
normal faults from the upthrown to the downthrown sides instead of in the usual
manner.
Post-Depositional Pre-Compacted Faults (No Distortion)

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Normal faults that occur after deposition but before formation compaction usually
exhibit no distortion near the fault plane. Such faults can be recognized on the
dipmeter plot only if a change in structural dip occurs across the fault. Because there
is a change in the degree of formation compaction, the borehole doglegs even
though there is no distortion of the beds near such a fault.
The sudden downward decrease of structural dip is one of the "eyeball" indicators
used to differentiate between faults and unconformities. Most of the time, in areas
that have not undergone strong tectonic deformation, the downward decrease
indicates faulting. In order to have lower dip below an unconformity, two different
centers of uplift are required.
Instead of downthrown rotation, some faulted areas have undergone rotation of the
upthrown fault block. This creates a sudden structural dip increase in a downward
direction. This is the same dip pattern created by the presence of an angular
unconformity or a rapid, postdepositional structural uplift. Therefore, other
information is needed to determine which of the three features is present when a
sudden downward increase in structural dip is noted on the dipmeter plot.
A lack of distortion near a fault plane can occur with both tensional and
compressional faults. Therefore, unless there is a structural dip change at the fault
cut, faults of this class cannot be seen on dipmeter plots.
Post-Compaction Faulting (Drag)
Normal faulting that takes place after some degree of deformation has occurred
usually develops drag, or beds dipping in the same direction as the fault, near the
fault plane. In some areas, drag is found only on the downthrown side of the fault; in
others, drag may be found in beds on both the downthrown and upthrown sides.
Since the relative motion of the upthrown and downthrown fault blocks creates a
drag zone whose dip is in the same direction as that of the fault plane, the maximum
dip of the resulting red dip pattern may be used as a minimum dip of the fault plane.
Local experience is used to determine whether or not the maximum dip of a draggenerated red pattern is in fact a reasonable value for the dip of a fault plane.
Figure 1 is a theoretical example of a normal fault with drag only on the downthrown
side.

94

Figure 1

The red pattern, which was generated by the downthrown drag zone, dips in the
same direction as the fault and normal to the strike of the fault. The maximum dip of
the pattern may be used as the minimum dip of the fault plane. As happens with a
growth fault, the hole doglegs within a hundred feet or so of the depth at which the
fault cuts the well. Since drag is present only on the downthrown side, structural dip
is recorded on the upthrown side of the fault.
Figure 2 illustrates a normal fault with drag in both the upthrown and downthrown
beds adjacent to the fault plane.

95

Figure 2

The dip in the downthrown block created a dip pattern similar to the one in the
previous example. However, drag, which is also present in the upthrown beds,
creates a pattern of downward decreasing dips or a blue pattern. The fault cuts the
well at the junction of the two patterns. Once again, the maximum dip of the red
pattern may be used as a minimum dip of the fault plane.
The amount of rollover present on the downthrown side of a nonburied growth fault
decreases upward. It disappears at a point corresponding to the time at which the
fault ceased to be active. The amount of drag created by any period of movement
remains relatively constant over the entire interval. The termination point may be a
point corresponding to the end of the active faulting period, or, if buried, to an
unconformity.
Faults with Hybrid Dip Patterns near the Fault Plane
Some faults begin as growth faults with downthrown rollover zones. Either continued
movement along the fault plane or movement that began after compaction occurred
then created a downthrown drag zone. Since rollover and drag-generated dips
oppose each other, dip patterns like those illustrated in Figure 1 are created by
continuing or later fault movement.

96

Figure 1

A red, or downward-increasing, dip pattern begins at the point at which the hole
penetrated the rollover zone. The dips increase down to the point at which the dragzone dips begin to oppose the rollover dips. The trend then decreases downward to
the zero crossing point. Below that point, another red pattern dipping in the same
direction is formed. The dips continue to increase in magnitude down to the fault cut.
On the upthrown side of the fault the dips may return immediately to a structural
trend, or indicate an upthrown drag zone.
Buried Faults
Growth faults die out gradually in an upward direction. Postdepositional faults may
extend to the surface, where they create cliff-like scarps, or they may end abruptly
at an erosional surface. Such faults are called buried faults.
In addition to ending abruptly at an unconformity, disconformity, or diastem, buried
faults may change displacement across deeper unconformities. The buried-fault
creation process is illustrated in Figure 1 .

97

Figure 1

First, a fault extending to the surface is formed. Later, erosion removes the elevated
portion of the upthrown block; the land surface is once again level across the fault
zone.
The original amount of uplift is labeled a. Still later, deposition begins again, and
horizontal sediment layers are deposited above the erosional surface. Subsequently,
movement again occurs along the fault plane. This movement creates a displacement
labeled b. The displacement of the beds below the unconformity is now a + b.
Erosion has removed the beds that were originally displaced by amount a. Therefore,
only displacement b extends across the unconformity on the upthrown side. If
erosion occurs again, the beds that were uplifted above the surrounding land surface
will be eroded to a flat surface.
The displacement below the shallowest unconformity is equal to b. The displacement
below the deepest or oldest unconformity equals a + b. This cycle may be repeated.
Figure 2 illustrates a buried fault example from eastern Venezuela.

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Figure 2

A down-to-the northwest growth fault is located at 3842 ft. The fault terminates at a
depth of 3760 ft, which is the unconformity separating the Paleozoic from the Lower
Cretaceous.
This growth fault was originally active in Paleozoic time. Any scarp that existed was
eroded before Lower Cretaceous sediments were deposited above the unconformity.
No subsequent movement occurred along the fault plane.
Since both types of distortion (rollover and drag) commonly found near normal faults
create similar dip patterns, some local knowledge is useful in determining which type
to use when making an interpretation. In any given area one type of distortion is
found near most of the area faults. For example, in the northern Gulf of Mexico and
in Nigeria, rollover is the dominant distortion type. In Mississippi and North
Louisiana, drag is most often found on the downthrown side of normal faults.
Here are some rules of thumb for determining the type of distortion present near a
normal fault:
If the vertical extent of the downthrown mega-red dip pattern is
more than 200 ft, rollover is assumed. Normal fault drag rarely
extends vertically more than 200 ft.

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 When the vertical extent of the mega-red dip pattern is less than 50
ft, drag is assumed. In areas where rollover dominates, this
assumption can lead to incorrect interpretation about 30% of the time,
since many small growth faults do exist. When the vertical extent of
the mega-red pattern is between 50 and 200 ft, use the dominant type
of distortion known to exist in the area.
Deviated wells may cause the extent of the dip pattern to be expanded by 50% or
more. Hole deviation must be taken into account when using the vertical extent of a
mega-red pattern as input into one of the rules of thumb.
Semicontemporaneous antithetic fault systems that help accommodate rotation are
often found associated with growth fault systems. These faults usually exhibit
downthrown drag that creates red dip patterns dipping toward their downthrown
blocks. The dipmeter example in Figure 3 shows three such faults.

Figure 3

These faults are down-to-the-northwest so the northwest dipping red dip patterns
found on their downthrown sides are the result of drag rather than rollover. These
antithetic faults are dipping into a large down-to-the-southeast growth fault which is
below the total depth of this well.

100

Compressional Faults
Faults that result from compressional forces may, depending on the fault angle, be
called reverse or thrust faults. The fault angle of reverse faulting is 45 or more,
while thrust fault angles are less than 45
The main form of distortion found near a reverse or thrust fault is drag on both sides
of the fault. Drag, which is the result of movement of compacted beds, may be
additionally modified by horizontal movement, or strike slip.
The compressional fault attributes that may be available from dip-meter plots are
depth, strike, direction of overthrust, and fault angle. Figure 1 illustrates the
expected dip patterns near compressional faults.

Figure 1

Such faults commonly show up very well on dipmeter plots. A mega-red dip pattern
is usually found in the overthrust block. Its azimuth is in the direction of overthrust,
assuming, of course, that no strike-slip has occurred. The downthrown pattern is one
of downward-decreasing dips, or a blue pattern. These dips also point in the direction
of overthrust. Both dip patterns are the result of drag on both sides of the fault. The
fault is located at the junction of the red and blue patterns.

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Figure 2 is a dipmeter example from western Venezuela showing a reverse fault.

Figure 2

Structural dip above 7800 ft is 12 southeast. From 7800 to 8450 ft westerly dipping
beds in the overthrust drag zone oppose the southeast structural dip. This produces
a decreasing-with-depth pattern down to the zero crossing point at 8030 ft; the
pattern then increases downward to the fault cut. The dip azimuth reverses across
the zero crossing point.
The maximum dip of this example is recorded at the fault. The blue pattern
generated by the downthrown drag zone decreases rapidly. The dip patterns near
major compressional faults are rarely symmetrical. The overthrust pattern usually
has the greatest vertical extent. If the displacement is small (i.e., less than 100 ft),
the red and blue dip patterns tend to be more nearly symmetrical.
The dip direction on both sides of the fault is the same as the direction of overthrust,
which is to the west in this example. The strike of the fault, north-south, is normal to
the direction of dip patterns.
In this example, the direction of structural dip in the overthrust block and the
direction of overthrust are opposite, so the dip trend decreases to the zero crossing

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point and then increases in the opposite direction. Had the direction of structural dip
and of overthrust been the same, the dip trend would have continued to increase in
the overthrust drag zone. Horizontal movement of one block relative to the other
(strike-slip) may also occur. The drag-created dip patterns, which dip in the direction
of over-thrust, would be modified by any horizontal movement. When such
movement occurs, the drag dip patterns are rotated in the trailing direction, which is
opposite to the direction of movement, and so no longer indicate the direction of
overthrust.
Both compressional faults and overturned folds create repeat sections on logs. If the
repeat is right side up, it is the result of faulting. If one repeat is upside down or a
mirror-image of the other, it is the result of folding.

Exercise No. 1

Figure 1

See Figure 1 .
There is a missing section in this well between 14,000 and 14,100 ft.

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Where is the dip change that indicates the location of the fault?
Where is the top of the rollover zone or top of the mega-red dip pattern?
What indicator suggests the presence of rollover rather than drag?
What is the minimum displacement of this growth fault?
In what direction is the fault downthrown?
What is the strike?
Is a dogleg present?

Solution
The dip change corresponding to the base of the rollover zone is at 14,049 ft.
The top of the mega-red dip pattern, which corresponds to the top of the rollover
zone, is at 13,680 ft.
The vertical extent of the red pattern is more than 200 ft; therefore, rollover rather
than drag is present.
The minimum displacement of the fault, which is equal to the extent of the red
pattern, is 370 ft.
The rollover zone dips into the fault; therefore, the fault is downthrown to the south
and strike is EW.
There is a dogleg. The hole is vertical at 13,000 ft and drifts to the SE a maximum of
3-1/2 at 14,000 ft. The hole then begins to straighten.

D6-reef interpretation
Introduction
Buried topography may significantly influence the thickness, sedimentation, and dip
attitude of beds overlying topographic features. One of the first stratigraphic
applications of dipmeter data was to determine the positions of wells drilled on
buried topographic features. The factor contributing to the interpretation of these
situations is the drape of beds over the underlying buried topography. Although this
chapter deals primarily with reef interpretation, many of its basic principles apply to

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buried ridges, knobs, and depressions covered in the next chapter. The differences
between them lie in the application of the interpretation.
The dip of reef surfaces is interpreted from the drape of sediments over the reef,
particularly where the reef underwent considerable vertical growth. Dipmeter data
obtained very near the reef or on the reef slope exhibit dip anomalies that help to
describe the reef slope. The magnitude of the dip at any point above a reef varies
depending on the following:
the slope of the reef surface
the height of the reef above the surrounding platform
the distance of the point above the reef surface
the type of rock above the reef
the total historical overburden
the position over the reef at which the measurements were taken
(crest, flank, or toe)

Figure 1 shows the cross section of a barrier reef complex.

Figure 1

Dipmeter interpretation will be described for wells drilled

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 in pinnacle reefs overlain by shale

in pinnacle reefs overlain by low-compactibility formations
on the forereef slope
on the crest of the barrier complex
The dip patterns may be somewhat different in each of these cases because of the
relief of the feature as well as the lithology of the enclosing formations.
Well-correlation and dip data have shown that the slopes on reef flanks can vary
from 2 or 3 to as high as 45. As evidenced by current reefs, higher slopes are
possible, but are not generally observed in the subsurface. It is possible that erosion
of steep and irregular slopes prior to burial produced reef flanks of reduced dip
angle. Large accumulations of reef talus material near some reefs may support this
premise.
Of the factors influencing the dip above a reef, the most important are reef
topography and the compactibility of overlying beds. If all dip patterns above reefs
conformed to the same model, interpretation would be straightforward.
Unfortunately, identical dip patterns may imply quite different reef slopes in different
environments.
Figure 2 is a photograph of a pinnacle reef in a Cambrian zone in West Texas.

Figure 2

Some significant features show in the enclosing beds. Note the drape of the
overlying beds in the flank position with the direction of dip sharply away from the
reef mass.

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It is useful to note that subsidence of the mass into the underlying platform has
caused dip below the reef to be toward the reef mass itself.
Finally, within the reef there is generally a lack of distinct stratification.
Comments on Reef Interpretation
The tectonic and geological history of an area generally determines a maximum
height of buried topography above a reference datum. This is particularly true of
reefs, because the controlling conditions for vertical accumulation may prevail over a
large portion of a basin.
Further, unfavorable conditions cause cessation of growth over large areas, and the
limited vertical height becomes common to many reefs simultaneously. Therefore, a
maximum expected height of reef crest above a datum may be well established.
Reef falls, or pinnacles that for whatever environmental reason ceased growth early,
may have any thickness less than maximum. The length (and shape) of the slope
pattern in wells drilled on the flank position may be interpreted qualitatively as a
guide to the vertical size of the reef. "Typical" dipmeter patterns for the area are
very useful in this respect.
The accuracy of interpretations discussed in this chapter depend largely upon
knowledge of sediment compaction around reefs and other buried topography. The
relatively simple procedures employed to estimate compaction may not apply directly
to all areas.
Extrapolation of dip assuming a linear slope may be used best where experience with
seismic and well-to-well correlations support this approach. Extrapolating updip
beyond the elevation geologically possible or likely for a particular feature could be
misleading and expensive. The basic concept should prevail, however, and persons
employing these basics in their analyses are advised to consider all available data
and experience.

Reef Interpretation
The pattern of drape over a reef may be determined by a number of factors, including

compaction
compaction with deposition
solution of surrounding salts
solution with deposition of overlying sediments
gypsum to anhydrite conversion
combinations of the above

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Compaction
In most circumstances, compaction plays the key role in causing drape over buried topography. It is useful
therefore to refer to a model to understand and interpret the dip patterns.
The simplest model, and one with good independent support from well correlation, is illustrated in Figure 1 ,
which shows a simple reef mass of constant slope of 30 surrounded by shale.

Figure 1

If we know the compaction factor of the shale, and we assume that all shale compaction occurred after deposition
and that the reef is rigid, then we can accurately calculate the present attitude of the shale bedding plane.
For this model it is assumed that present shale thickness is 50% of the original precompaction thickness;
therefore, the resulting compaction factor is 0.5.
From these assumptions we can conclude that the dip of the shale bedding plane is the angle of the tangent,
which is 50% of the tangent of the reef angle.
The equation is
-1

tan (0.5 tan 30) = shale dip = 16.1

The general equation is
-1
shale dip = tan [(1 - C) tan reef dip]
where:

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,
and
1 - C = compaction
Solving for the reef dip, which cannot be directly measured, we have

reef dip = tan

-1

reef dip = tan-1

In this example, with a measured shale dip of 16.1, we can calculate the reef dip to be 30.
Considering the range of local changes in compaction due to lithological changes, locally
changing reef slope, or the fact that compaction may not be totally postdepositional, a simple
solution is to divide the shale dip by an estimate of compaction.
reef dip =
= 32
As shale-dip values increase, as in the case of very steep-sided reefs, the simplified solution
becomes less accurate and the general equation should be used; however, slumping, fracturing,
and sliding may render interpretation more difficult and the precision of reef slope less significant.
In the previous simplistic model where all compaction was assumed to occur after deposition, the theoretical dip
pattern would be a constant 16.1. Where beds are now essentially parallel, they may be considered to have
been paralleled during deposition and therefore equally compacted. This model is applicable in these cases.
In general, however, the drape of beds over a reef produces a red pattern on the dipmeter plot if the well is
drilled in the flank position. The existence of the red dip patterns implies that compaction cannot be assumed to
be postdepositional except over limited intervals where the dip magnitude is relatively constant. In this case, the
compaction may only be invisible over short intervals because of the low rate of change of dip with depth.
Provided other factors remain constant, reefs with large relief tend to produce long red patterns above; those
with low relief produce shorter patterns. In any case, it is the analysis of the red pattern that allows us to
calculate the reef slope.

Estimating Height of Nearby Reefs

Two basic dip patterns have been observed in shale-enclosed reefs. The first is a long, slowly increasing red
pattern. The dip of the shale above the reef is some fraction of the reef dip, and the reef dip is estimated using
the earlier derived equation. The interval from 1315 to 1365 m shows little dip change, which indicates that it
was deposited prior to most of the compaction process. This zone is therefore a candidate for the simple model
approach.
The second dip pattern observed in shale-enclosed reefs is characteristic of steep-sided, probably curved surfaces
of high-relief pinnacles ( Figure 2 ).

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Figure 2

Statistically, this pattern has two sections. The lower section is characterized by a sharp slope pattern
immediately above the reef. The upper section is a long and slowly decreasing slope pattern. Where the sharp
slope pattern and the slowly decreasing dip pattern join is the approximate height of the nearby reef.

Estimating the Reef Slope

The reef slope should be estimated using two methods. First, applying your knowledge of compaction to the
upper dip section, calculate the dip. Second, extrapolate the lower red dip pattern to the reef surface. This dip is
a good estimate of the reef dip at the contact, but it may not persist over long horizontal distances. If the two
dips agree within a few degrees, confidence in the answer is high. If the two dips do not agree within a few
degrees, they at least establish a range of possible dip. Knowledge of the seismically defined size and shape
should be integrated into the final solution.
Where overlying beds are of low compaction, the overlying dip also is less. For example, a formation with
compaction of 20% and a dip over the reef of 4 would imply a reef dip of approximately 20. In this case the red
pattern would not be nearly as striking as in the previous examples.
Some interpreters may be tempted to find the exact depth of the contact, and they may seek a particular tadpole
to define the dip of the surface. This approach can give quite erroneous results, because of the local irregularities
existing on any weathered surface. These irregularities may be of a size on the order of the borehole diameter.
In this case the dip at the contact would be entirely misleading, and the general dip trend is better defined from
dips sufficiently above the surface, because the small features would have been compensated by sedimentation
and compaction.

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As a general rule, dip patterns should be extrapolated horizontally in the same order as the vertical length of the
pattern. This implies that any single-dip tadpole should not be extrapolated beyond the borehole.

Reef Detrital Material

Dip within a reef is not generally very well ordered. There is one exception, however: reef detrital material.
Reef detrital material is often found in accumulations near the base of the reef, and dip patterns within this
material may have the appearance of foreset bedding.
This bedding may have dips greater than the reef dip, but the direction should be generally downslope. This
information is particularly useful where it supports draping dip in overlying beds and in situations of low reef dip
or low compaction.
The only indication of this detrital material may be from the dip-meter plot, as there is little mineralogical
distinction between detritus and the main reef mass. This information may be significant when estimating the
depth of the reef top, particularly where the detrital section is quite thin.

Reefs Surrounded by Salt

Reefs surrounded by salt are not likely to exhibit strong dips in the overlying sediments. If salt solution occurs
simultaneously with or subsequent to deposition of these sediments, a dip pattern is produced. This pattern is
determined by the rate and timing of the removal of salt. If salt removal commenced after deposition of some of
the overlying beds, then these beds would have collapsed to more or less conform to the reef surface. Their dip
would then be equal to the reef dip, and a pattern of essentially constant magnitude would be formed. This is
illustrated in interval A in Figure 3 .

Figure 3

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If the beds of interval B were being deposited during the removal of salt, a red pattern over that interval would
be produced on the dipmeter plot. Interval B could be expected to thicken in the downdip direction.
The dip pattern in the figure would be further modified by compaction during and after deposition, but the basic
pattern would be recognizable. Reef dip in this case would be approximately equal to or slightly greater than the
constant dip value of interval A.
If salt removal occurred contemporaneous with the deposition of some of the overlying beds, most of the interval
above the reef would exhibit a red pattern, as illustrated in Figure 4 .

Figure 4

The dip of the reef would approximately equal the trend of the red pattern extrapolated to the reef contact.
Extrapolation of red patterns of drape over reef or weathered surfaces is necessary, because dips near the
surfaces may be difficult to ascertain due to bedding destruction by fractures, slump, or sliding and local
irregularities of the surface.

Dipmeter Interpretation
Figure 5 illustrates the dipmeter pattern of a well drilled in the flank position of a reef where salt removal around
the reef played a significant role in the final dips of the overlying beds. The pattern may be analyzed as follows:

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Figure 5

Interval A contains a section of relatively constant dip with an average value of 15 to 18 east. This interval
was probably deposited prior to salt removal, and it represents the minimum dip of the reef.
Interval B contains a red pattern that indicates the period of salt removal.
Interval C contains a long, gentle red pattern that finally disappears well above the top of the figure. This
pattern is probably a reflection of compaction during deposition, and it would be superimposed on the patterns of
intervals A and B.
Because regional dip in this area is less than 1 to the southwest, the consistent east dip above 3900 ft is
interpreted as part of the overall drape on the reef. The long drape feature, over 1000 ft in length, suggests that
the reef feature is not small.
Based on the seismic interpretation and the dip data, it was decided to whipstock the well to contact the reef 300
ft to the west. The result was to gain 90 ft of elevation on the reef. A straightline correlation between the two
contacts implies a reef dip of 16-1/2, approximately the mean value of the tadpoles in interval A.

Exercise No. 1

113

Figure 1

Figure 1 shows a Devonian reef which has a long, linear slope in this area. Regional
dip is 1 SW. Compaction is 40 to 50%.
What is the reef dip?
What is the direction of dip?
How far and in what direction must an offset be drilled to gain maximum reef?

Solution
The long red dip pattern terminates at 6 just above the reef talus interval and would extrapolate
to the reef surface at about that angle.
If compaction = 50%,

reef dip

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If compaction = 40%,

reef dip
Direction of dip = NE.
Additional reef available is 190 ft.
If dip = 12, go 890 ft.
If dip = 15, go 710 ft.

Calculated from offset =

As shown in the accompanying figure, the actual offset well gained 160 ft in 700 ft offset from a reef dip of 13.
Compaction of the shale calculates to be 40% from the data in these wells.

E7-unconformity interpretation
Introduction
This chapter discusses two distinctly different types of topography. The first, buried unconformities, refers to
dipmeter interpretation of beds overlying topographic features such as ridges, knobs, or depressions. The second,
angular unconformities, involves the identification and interpretation of sediments deposited on eroded surfaces,
where the underlying beds are tilted with respect to the overlying beds.

Buried Unconformities
Dipmeter interpretation in traps formed below topographic features is similar to the approach used for reefs.
Compaction of overlying sediments and extrapolation of dip patterns are handled in a similar fashion. Where the
trap is formed above the unconformity, however, more data are required to describe the geometry of the
reservoir. Figure 1 is an example of such a case.

Figure 1

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The unconformable surface is Precambrian granite. Traps may be formed where sand has been deposited above
or along the flanks of granite ridges or knobs. The overburden, whether shale, sand, or evaporites, drapes over
the highs. The dip data on the flanks typically exhibit a red pattern terminating near the unconformity. This
pattern points in the direction of thickening of the overlying sediments, and therefore in the direction of
potentially thicker reservoir rock.

Determining Reservoir Geometry

Figure 2 is a schematic of a cross section and associated formation dips.

Figure 2

Note that the dip of the sand top is less than that of the unconformity. These two dips are significant in
determining reservoir geometry. In this example, the sand thickens in the east direction, but it is structurally
lower. In the west direction the sand would be higher, but thinner or nonexistent. Although the sand thins updip,
the pay section thickens in this example.
The slope of the top of the sand may be determined directly from the dipmeter plot, but the slope of the base
must be computed with the same logic described in the reef section. From these two dip values, the sand
thickness in both the updip and the downdip directions can be calculated.
Experience has shown that a compaction of 0.5 may be used in this area. Therefore,, the dip of the unconformity
would be roughly twice that of the reservoir top. With knowledge of any water contact, marginal or wet wells may
be whipstocked or offset to encounter the optimum hydrocarbon section.

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The left side of Figure 3 shows an induction log and computed dipmeter through a section overlying a granite
unconformity.

Figure 3

This unconformity is anomalously higher than was expected. Zone A, the prospective zone, contains no sand
development. The dipmeter plot shows a coherent S80E dip. The dip is at an average of approximately 5, and,
applying 50% compaction, it is calculated that the granite drops off to the east at a rate of 10. Regional dip in
this area is less than 1. The east dip trend gradually decays to regional dip far above the top of the granite. This
long red pattern can be interpreted in the same manner as that for reefs. From local data, the operator could
surmise that sand is developed and hydrocarbon does exist in the area.
Based on this information, the operator decided to whipstock the hole downdip. The induction log on the
whipstock hole is shown on the right side of the figure. Seismic information and experience with other wells
suggests that an additional thickness of 30 ft for zone A would increase the chances for reservoir development.

Determining whipstock Distance and Direction

Assuming linear slopes, the following is the equation for determining additional thickness:

additional thickness = D (tan

where:
q2 is unconformity dip
q1 is top dip

117

q2

q1

- tan )

D is horizontal distance

In this case, the unconformity dip was calculated to be 10. The zone-top dip read from the plot
was 5.
Using the equation, the additional thickness of 30 ft would require that the offset distance D be 337 ft, provided
the offset direction is directly downdip. The well was whipstocked 500 ft S35E, approximately 45 further south
than the dipmeter plot indicated. If the strike of the high feature persists in the N10E-S10W direction, as was
suggested by seismic, then the 500-ft offset at S35E would contact the unconformity at the same depth as a
350-ft offset at S80E ( Figure 4 ).

Figure 4

The cross section between the original and the whipstock holes shows an increase of 34 ft in zone A thicknessonly 4 ft more than predicted. Approximately 20 ft of the additional thickness was composed of sand, all of it oilbearing. Assuming that the slopes are approximately linear and that the feature is elongated, the linear
interpolation from the 350-ft whipstock produces a 9 dip for the unconformity and a 3.5 dip for the zone top.
These figures are not in great variance with the dips calculated from the dipmeter plot.
In this case, it was essential for the operator to know that the granite feature was elongated in the N10E-S10W
direction in order for a S35E whipstock to be successful, since that was not exactly the dipmeter-indicated
direction.
If a feature is more round than elongated, "splitting the difference" between seismic- and dipmeter-indicated
offset directions can lead to very unsatisfactory results. The dipmeter data, if of good-quality tadpoles and
persistent patterns, is a specific measurement of a specific geographic location, and should provide better results
than other methods that may be more interpretive.
Compaction Estimation In wildcat areas the compaction factor must be estimated, and experience shows that a
figure of 40 to 50% generally works well. However, developed areas with whipstocked holes or multiple wells

118

drilled on the same feature (or similar features) provide the information to back-calculate compaction values. The
previous case contained excellent data for calculation of compaction.
Using the logs from Figure 3 , correlations A, B, C, and D indicate that very little thickening occurred downdip
through that section. The major thickening was in the interval between the unconformity and correlation A; thus,
the dip of correlations A to D can be ascribed to compaction of the sediments below A, and correlations A to D
were deposited basically flat and parallel.
The following method for estimating compaction applies equally well to reefs or unconformities. Figure 5 shows a
rigid sloping mass penetrated by two wells, A and B.

Figure 5

Log correlation is made on a bed as close as possible to the rigid mass in Well A.
The following assumptions are then made:

The correlated bed was flat at the time of deposition.

Compaction rate of sediment a in the high well was identical to that of sediment e in the low
well.

All compaction occurred after deposition of the correlated bed.

Based on those assumptions, the following compaction estimate can be made:
If C = ratio of present to original thickness, then, from the data in the figure,

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And

Also,
h+a=e
Therefore,

Then,

By definition,
compaction = 1 - C
Applying this principle to the induction log example in Figure 3 :
d = 45, b = 14, and h = 54
C calculates to be 0.57, and the compaction, 1 - C , is 0.43, or 43%. Multiplying the zone-top dip
by 2 to obtain the unconformity dip would have given a fair approximation.
This type of analysis should only be applied to similar lithological sequences in the same general area. It is not
necessary to use two wells on the same feature, as long as the lithological sequence and compaction can logically
be assumed to be the same. Inaccuracies would be encountered in situations with significantly nonlinear surfaces
or with extrapolations beyond those that are geologically sound.

Angular Unconformities
Angular unconformities are created when Previously deposited sediments are
removed by erosion and redeposited in another area. Erosion is commonly
considered to be a land-surface phenomenon, but it can also occur in a subaqueous
environment, where wave action and currents erode sediments.
Angular unconformity implies an angle difference of One-half degree or more
between the beds below the erosional surface and those above. If the angle is less
than one-half degree, the beds are essentially parallel, and the separating surface is
called a disconformity.
Figure 1 illustrates the creation of an angular unconformity.

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Figure 1

Sediments are initially deposited in layers. The layers are shown horizontal in the
figure, but bedding planes may be deposited at any angle from flat to the angle of
repose.
Next, structural uplift elevated the layers from an environment of deposition into one
of erosion. Some sediments were removed and redeposited elsewhere, and the
erosional process produced a more or less flat surface.
Conditions changed again and deposition recommenced on the erosional surface.
There is a difference in attitude between the underlying beds, which were tilted by
structural uplift, and the overlying beds, which were deposited flat.
This process may be repeated. The end result of deposition-up-lift-erosion-deposition
cycles is two or more dip trends decreasing upward in steps. Unless the area
underwent major tectonic activity, the usual dip pattern across an angular
unconformity is higher dip below, lower dip above. A dip below an angular
unconformity that is lower than that above requires two centers of uplift.
Figure 2 is a dipmeter log example through an angular unconformity.

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Figure 2

Structural dip below the unconformity is 18 south; structural dip above is 9 south.
This example also illustrates a feature found beneath erosional surfaces much of the
time: a blue dip pattern resulting from weathering below the erosional surface. This
zone may contain fractures that flatten downward or beds steepening immediately
below the erosional surface as a result of swelling clays or overburden removal.
Localized steepening beds can be seen in outcrops.
When a topographic surface is developed by erosion, drape of the overlying beds can
occur, as illustrated in Figure 3 .

122

Figure 3

The drape generates a red pattern terminating at or above the unconformable

surface. Depending on the depositional environment, a blue pattern may be present
instead.
Exercise No. 1

123

Figure 1

Figure 1 is an example of a major unconformity.

Where is the unconformity?
Is a weathered zone present?
Is a dogleg present?
What is the structural dip at the top of the example?
What is the structural dip at the bottom of the example?
What is the structural dip between the top and bottom of the example?

Solution
The major dip increase in this example occurs at 11,450 ft, where the structural
trend increases from 3 SE to 14 SE.

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There is a weathered zone. The high-angle blue dip pattern immediately below the
unconformity was caused by weathering. The other blue patterns result from
stratigraphy.
Structural dip at the top of this example is flat.
There is another angular unconformity at 11,150 ft, where the dip trend changes
from flat to 3 SE.
There is a hole dogleg between 11,100 and 11,200 ft.

E8-depositional interpretation
Eolian environment
Introduction
A dune is a hill of sand, deposited by wind, that rises to a single summit and
possesses a slip face. Dunes may be various sizes and shapes depending on wind
conditions, sand type, and sand supply. Dunes may be oriented perpendicular to the
prevailing wind (e.g., barchan and transverse dunes), parallel to the prevailing wind
(e.g., seif or longitudinal dunes), or they may acquire complex formations (e.g.,
dome-shaped or star-shaped dunes).
Dunes are the most impressive and important feature of a desert environment. They
are also important geologically. The Nugget formation of the western United States,
the Norphlet formation of the U.S. Gulf Coast, and the European Rotliegendes
formation form important hydrocarbon reservoirs. The eolian Botucatu of Brazil is a
large freshwater aquifer.
Much of the following information is based on the work of Reineck and Singh. (See
Depositional Sedimentary Environments, 1980, New York: Springer-Verlag.) Figure 1
illustrates some typical dip patterns in eolian environments.

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Figure 1

Parabolic Dunes
Parabolic dunes are U-shaped sand ridges with their concave side toward the wind.
Parabolic dunes are associated with blow-up features. The middle part of the
parabolic dune moves forward ahead of the arms, which are believed to be hindered
by vegetation.
The characteristic dip pattern of parabolic dunes is a red pattern at the center of the
dune dipping in the direction of the prevailing wind ( Figure 1 ).
The dips found near the tips of the arms may be skewed more than 90 from the
direction of the prevailing wind.
Foreset laminae of parabolic dunes are low-angled relative to other dune types. The
foreset laminae are characteristically concave-downward as a result of slip-face
shape and the presence of vegetation. The azimuth spread of the dip of foreset
laminae is rather large-up to 200.
Barchan Dunes

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Barchan dunes are crescent-shaped sand mounds occurring as isolated bodies, in

chains, or in colonies of individual dunes coalescing into complex forms. Barchan
dunes are formed by a unidirectional wind, and they migrate by sand avalanching on
the slip face. The extremities or horns of a barchan extend forward and downwind,
as the horns migrate more rapidly than the main body.
Simple barchans may be made complex by the coalescence of many sand dunes. In
regions where the wind blows periodically from directions other than that of the
prevailing wind, small, oblique slip faces may be produced, but the general dune
form and direction of movement are retained.
When interpreting eolian zones, note that the structural dip is at the left edge of the
tadpole cloud unless the log is from an area that has undergone appreciable
structural uplift. The general dip direction is in the direction of the prevailing wind.
Near the horns, dips are less and may be almost 90 to the direction of the
prevailing wind. The zones of crossbedding dips with constant magnitude near the
center of barchan dunes reflect the angle of repose during deposition.
The angle-of-repose zones are underlain by fore set-generated blue dip patterns. The
minimum dip found at the base of these blue patterns reflects the dip of interdunal
layers and approximates structural dip. The foreset laminae of crossbedded units in
barchan dunes are mainly planar (tabular types with a dip from 20 to 35 in the
central part).
Figure 2 is a dipmeter log through the eolian Rotliegendes sand in Holland.

127

Figure 2

The dip patterns are typical for barchan-type dunes.

Dome-Shaped Dunes
Dome-shaped dunes are low, circular sand ridges lacking a well-developed,
downwind, steep slip face. Dome-shaped dunes develop when dune height is
checked by a strong, unobstructed wind. The characteristic internal structure
displays low-angled foreset laminae.
Dome-like dunes produce red dip patterns similar to parabolic dunes. The central
portion of the dome contains dip in the direction of the prevailing wind. The dip left
and right of the center may be skewed as much as 75 to the prevailing wind.
Transverse Dunes
Transverse dunes are elongate, almost straight sand ridges perpendicular to the
predominant wind direction. These ridges are regularly spaced and are separated by
broad interdune areas that may have developed as inland sabkhas.

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Transverse dunes originate in areas of inland sabkhas, where the damp sabkha
surface inhibits the growth of barchan horns. When the interdune sabkhas eventually
disappear, a sand sea with transverse dunes may be produced. Dip patterns
produced from transverse dunes are similar to the patterns found near the center of
barchan dunes; the patterns consist of zones of angle-of-repose dips underlain by
foreset-generated blue patterns.
Crossbedded units are mostly of the planar-tubular type. The foreset laminae are
relatively long, even, and high-angled. The azimuth spread of foreset laminae dip is
probably less than that of all other types of sand dunes, with one well-developed
maxima in the direction of the prevailing wind.
Longitudinal Dunes
Seif or longitudinal dunes are elongate, continuous, serrated, straight sand ridges.
Their long axes parallel the prevailing wind direction. Several seif dunes commonly
occur as a series of long parallel ridges separated by broad interdune areas.
Sand is deposited alternately on opposite sides of the sand dunes. Crossbedding dips
are normal to the elongation of the sand ridge; therefore, the two maxima of highangle foresets are almost l80 apart. Locally, some low-angle bedding is present,
especially in the lower part of a seif dune.
It has been suggested that the most important factor in generating seif dunes is the
existence of a strong wind with a uniform direction. The higher the wind velocity, the
larger the seif dune and the greater the interdune spacing. All other conditions being
equal, barchan dunes develop at lower wind velocities than seif dunes.
Seif dunes may be modified to barchan dunes if wind velocities are not strong
enough to maintain the seif dune form. The depositional pattern in seif dunes
produces red and blue dip patterns with an azimuth normal to the prevailing wind.
Occasionally an azimuth reversal occurs within the blue patterns.
Whalebacks
Whalebacks are large-scale features associated with seif dunes. They are platforms
of rather coarse-grained sediments left by the passage of a series of seif dunes along
the same path.
The platform and the sides are composed of horizontally bedded sediments with
crossbedded seif dune sediments below.
Wadis
Wadis are predominantly dry desert streambeds that are only active following
sporadic, but often heavy, rains. Wadis are better developed near hills where the
rainfall is slightly higher. Wadis are characterized by sporadic and abrupt fluvial
activity and by a low water-to-sediment ratio. Deposition by flash floods is very rapid
because of the sudden loss of velocity as the water is absorbed underground. Most

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wadis diverge downslope and deposit the bulk of their sediment in fan-shaped bodies
at the downstream limit of the flow.
Wadi channels are not permanent, and they may be filled by their own detritus or by
wind-blown sediments. During subsequent seasons, a new channel system is likely to
cut into the older sequences. Wadi channels produce dip patterns similar to those
found in braided streams.
Small ripples, megaripples, and plane beds are the bedforms developed in wadi
channels by the variable flow conditions. Deposits within the wadi channels may be
conglomeratic and fanglomeratic. During certain phases of flow, the sediment
transported through the wadi may resemble mud flows. The nature of the sediment
is strongly controlled by source rocks and the availability of various grain sizes. Wadi
deposits may lack pebbles and may contain only well-sorted sand. The deposits
produce ripple and horizontal beddings.
Desert Basins
Desert basins represent areas of inland drainage with water flowing towards the
center. Basins are often low depressions resulting from deflation of tectonic origin.
Water accumulates in these low-lying areas, producing shallow, ephemeral lakes.
The larger examples may be semipermanent desert lakes.
Inland sabkhas are formed when sediments are subjected to wetting by inflowing
wadis or ground seepage, subsequent drying, and deposition of damp, salt-encrusted
sediments. In deflation hollows, where the water table is higher than the ground
surface, a small lake may develop. Sand dunes may be drowned and preserved as a
consequence of a rising water table caused by seepage and inflowing water.
Abundant detrital sediment is brought to desert lakes and inland sabkhas during
floods. As current velocity is almost nil, the deposition of silt and clay occurs from
suspension, and individual thin beds may contain graded bedding. Gypsum, halite,
and other evaporite minerals are commonly associated with these deposits. The
uppermost clay layers may crack and curl during dry seasons, and these features
may be preserved if covered by blown sand.
Detrital sediment is rarely deposited in lakes resulting from groundwater seepage;
instead, salt pans are built. Some windblown detrital sediment may be incorporated
as thin layers or impurities within the chemical precipitates.
Sediments of inland sabkhas are usually parallel-bedded with silty and clay-rich
layers alternating with thin, sandy, gypsum or gypsiferous clay layers. These
sediments are deposited as inflowing wadi sediments settle from suspension, or as
wind-blown sediments are captured by adhesion ripples on the sabkha surface.
Bedding is better developed in desert lake sediments than in inland sabkha
sediments. Sabkha sediments sometimes generate only blank zones on the dipmeter
plot.

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Deltaic environments
Introduction
Only a small percentage of modern coastlines are delta-dominated at any given time.
Most coastlines are located in interdistributary environments where sediments
deposited by older deltas are undergoing reworking and redeposition.
Deltas are constructed where rivers enter the sea. Where long-shore currents are
weak and abundant sediments are available, deltas prograde seaward, forming
elongate or birdfoot deltas. The modern Mississippi Delta is a classic example of a
birdfoot delta. Strong longshore currents prevent or retard seaward progradation,
and the resulting deltas form cuspate-arcuate shapes.
Deltas discharge seaward through active distributaries. Fan, crescent, or elongate
sand bodies called distributary mouth bars or distributary front sands are deposited
seaward of the mouth of each distributary. These and the following features are
illustrated in Figure 1 .

Figure 1

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During periods of high water, breaks occur in the natural levees formed along the
distributary channel margins. Discharge through breaks or crevasses in the natural
levees forms crevasse splays. Crevasse splays have the same shapes as distributary
mouth bars. As the distributary channel progrades, bodies of water between
distributary channels are constrained by sedimentary deposition into interdistributary
embayments.
Figure 2 is an example of dipmeter plots from a deltaic environment and a
tide/wave-dominated environment.

Figure 2

Distributary front deposition at rates of tens of feet of sediment per year exist. The
associated rapid burial and subsidence appear important in sediment preservation
because they prevent reworking of the sediments by waves, tides, and currents.
Identifying the Environment

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It is possible to confuse a thin eolian sand section with a deltaic sand; therefore,
recognizing a fossil delta depends in part on local knowledge that the sediments
under investigation were deposited in a marine environment. If it is known that
deltaic conditions existed during the deposition of a zone of interest, log character
can be used to determine the probability of preserved deltaic sediments.
A strong family of mostly blue dip patterns is a good indicator. The blue patterns
would be intermixed with a few red patterns with azimuths 90 from the blue
patterns. Funnel-shaped SP and gamma ray curves are indicative of preserved
deltaic sediments; however, a funnel shape alone does not identify a deltaic
environment. Shale resistivities may provide clues on a strictly local basis to indicate
that the zone of interest was deposited in a deltaic environment.
Identifying Deltaic Features
Once it has been determined that a zone of interest was deposited in a deltaic
environment, the data should be compared to a generalized deltaic model. If the
entire deltaic system was preserved, which is unlikely, the system would consist of
the following:
distributary channels
distributary mouth bars
crevasse splays
longshore current sand waves
marshes
These features become the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle you wish to solve. In the
worst-case scenario, the entire delta would have been reworked, and all of the pieces
would be missing. Usually, however, several of the pieces are present. They may be
from adjacent parts of the puzzle, or they may fit randomly into the model with no
adjacent pieces.
There are several facts to help solve the puzzle. If the zone of interest was deposited
during a deltaic period of deposition, strong dip patterns can be assigned a deltaic,
rather than a reworked, origin. Also, the location of land during the time of
deposition is known, at least approximately. Logs are responding to only fragments
of each deltaic feature, not the entire system.
Distributary Channels
If a complete depositional sequence were preserved, the dip patterns on the
following illustrations would be seen. Figure 3 shows the expected dip patterns within
a distributary channel.

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Figure 3

When the channel is penetrated at or near its axis, only blue dip patterns, indicating
flow down the channel, are recorded. The south-dipping blue pattern on this figure
indicates flow down a north-south striking channel.
When the channel is penetrated near the edge, only red dip patterns, dipping toward
the channel axis, are found. Current velocities are lower near the channel edge;
therefore, only laminar deposition occurs.
Between the two zones, a red-blue dip pattern combination is usually found. The
basal layer of fill mimics the dip of the surface it is deposited on; therefore, the
drape over the sloping surface of the channel cut creates a red pattern dipping
toward the channel axis. This red pattern (or patterns) is overlain by blue patterns
with a dip azimuth 90 to the underlying red pattern. These blue patterns result from
flow down the channel. Foreset beds deposited by sediments transported down the
channel are formed after the basal portion of the channel is filled and leveled.
Distributary Mouth Bars
Within the distributary mouth bar seaward of the distributary channel mouth, only
blue dip patterns would be recorded ( Figure 4 ). These patterns indicate the
direction of sediment transport.

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Figure 4

The dip magnitude spread of the family of blue patterns is an indicator of the type of
depositional environment and the probable sand geometry. If the magnitude spread
of the family of dips is greater than 10, the sand was probably deposited in an
inertia-dominated environment, and the shape of the distributary mouth bar is
probably elongate. If the family magnitude spread is 10 or less, the environment
was friction-dominated, and the shape of the distributary mouth bar is probably
fanlike or crescent.
The subsurface deltaic sediments usually consist of a stack of fossil delta remnants
rather than sediments deposited by a single active delta. Dips belonging to patterns
measured in the subsurface tend to be steeper than their original depositional
angles. This steepening is probably the result of compaction.
Discharge Direction
The discharge directions of a delta are not always directly seaward. Some active
distributaries of the modern Mississippi Delta discharge to the north-northeast-not to
the south-southeast, which is the main direction of progradation.

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Figure 5 is an example of a preserved distributary mouth bar from the East Cameron
Block 270 field.

Figure 5

The distributary prograded to the northeast, a direction similar to the Main Pass
distributary of the modern Mississippi Delta. Deltas may prograde almost across the
continental shelf, as has the Mississippi Delta.
Distributary Channels and Distributary Mouth Bars
Dip meters run in wells that penetrate both distributary channels and distributary
mouth bars create the patterns shown in Figure 6 .

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Figure 6

Location A: A red pattern resulting from drape over an east-west striking channel
overlies a blue pattern generated by distributary mouth bar sands transported from
west to east.
Location B: The deepest blue pattern indicates distributary mouth bar sands. The
overlying red pattern indicates drape over the base of the distributary channel. The
shallowest blue indicates flow down the channel.
Location C: There is no red pattern indicative of drape at this location. Relative to
the information from the other wells, it is possible to identify this as the channel
axis. The underlying blue pattern indicates a distributary mouth bar sand. The
overlying blue pattern indicates flow down the channel.
This sequence is repeated on the opposite side of the channel, with red patterns
dipping to the north (Locations D and E).
Cuspate-Arcuate Deltas

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Rivers create cuspate-arcuate deltas by discharging their fresh water and sediments
seaward, but the strong longshore currents transport the marine sediments in the
direction of current flow, subparallel to the fossil coast-line. Figure 7 is an example of
a cuspate-arcuate delta from the Bekapai field, Mahakam Delta, Kalimantan.

Figure 7

Strong longshore currents transported sediments that were carried to the sea by the
ancestral Mahakam to the southwest. The dominant dip is southwesterly dipping blue
patterns.
Creation and Destruction of a Delta
The sediments deposited at a river mouth create increasing resistance to flow.
Eventually, the river follows the path of least resistance and changes course. When
the sediment supply to the delta is eliminated, deposition ceases, and destruction
begins. Deltaic sediments exposed on land and the seafloor are attacked by rains,
waves, currents, and tides. These destructive forces remove, re-sort, retransport,
and redeposit the previously deposited sands and clays in new forms.
The amount of a fossil delta that is preserved depends on many variables: the depth
of subsidence, the period of deltaic deposition, the thickness of the deltaic column,

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and the amount of protection from the open sea. One estimate by a knowledgeable
geologist, Dr. John Kraft, estimates a worst-case preservation rate of less than one
percent. The remaining 99% may be transported by waves, tides, and currents to be
redeposited in an interdeltaic environment. Figure 8 illustrates the dipmeter response
in zones where some of the original bedding planes were destroyed by reworking.

Figure 8

Interdeltaic environment
Introduction
Many sediments deposited in an interdistributary environment by waves, tides, and
currents were originally deposited within deltaic environments. Later reworking
provided the raw materials for the interdeltaic deposition.
Dipmeter logs that were run through sediments deposited in interdeltaic
environments tend to look rather sparse. They contain blank zones resulting from
bioturbation and rooting, and open tadpoles from low-quality correlations.

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As is true in other marine environments, the direction to land during the time of
deposition is a key direction ( Figure 1 ). This information allows tentative
identification of landwarddipping foresets deposited within tidal flood deltas,
washover fans, and slipface deposits.

Figure 1

Other transport directions indicated by blue patterns are seaward-dipping ebb delta
sands and sand waves deposited by longshore currents, paralleling the coast.
Beach sands dip seaward on their front portions and landward on their slip-face
portions. Tidal flat sediments exhibit blue patterns dipping in opposing directions as a
result of landward- and seaward-dipping foreset beds. Tidal channels in microtidal
and mesotidal ranges generate red patterns dipping toward their axes.
In a microtidal range (less than 2 m), any ebb delta present would be small (
Figure 2 ).

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Figure 2

In microtidal environments, tidal inlets with pronounced flood deltas on their

landward side exist. In a mesotidal range (between 2 and 4 m), a prominent ebb
delta would be formed. In a macrotidal range (more than 4 m), a tidal estuary would
be formed. Macrotidal estuaries contain sand bodies elongate in the directions of
tidal flow.
Ebb Delta
In the ebb delta shown in Figure 3 , it is assumed that land is to the west and the
coastline strike is north-south.

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Figure 3

A dipmeter log run at location A, in the southern portion of the ebb delta, would
contain southeasterly dip, not directly seaward in an easterly direction. A dipmeter
log run from a well drilled at location B would exhibit seaward or east dips. A well
drilled at location C would penetrate both the marginal flood channel and the
underlying ebb-deposited sediments. Foresets dipping back into the tidal channel
were deposited on the flood tide; as a result, they dip to the southwest. Beds
deposited during the ebb dip to the northeast.
Tidal Channel
Tidal channel dip patterns resemble patterns from other channel types. The basal
layer of channel fill mimics the dip of the surface on which it is deposited. The
channel base is a sloping surface except at the axis; therefore, red dip patterns are
created with azimuths toward the channel axis and normal to the channel axis strike.
After the fill smoothes and levels the channel base, foreset beds with dip along the
channel are deposited. The type of deposition preserved-flood or ebb-depends on the
location within the channel.

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Sand waves formed within tidal channels may contain a large amount of shell hash.
If preserved and buried, these waves would generate seaward-dipping blue dip
patterns.
In Figure 4 , the well location B is at or near the channel axis.

Figure 4

Only sand-wave foresets would be deposited, because of the relatively flat

underlying surface.
Flood Deltas
Deposition within flood deltas occurs as landward-dipping foresets. Similar landwarddipping foresets are found within washover fans and slipface sands.
Dipmeter logs run at locations A, B, and C on Figure 5 contain blue dip patterns
dipping to the northwest, to the west, and to the southwest, respectively.

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Figure 5

Particular caution must be exercise in the interpretation of dipmeter logs run through
sediments deposited in a tidal environment. The most significant dips are de rived
from sediments deposited within the flood delta, the ebb delta, and the tidal inlet.
Swash Bar and Recurved Spit
Two groups of dips that may produce conflicting interpretations are swash bars and
recurved spits. Swash bar dips create land-ward-dipping blue patterns, which can be
mistaken for flood delta dips. This can lead to an offset seaward of the terminal lobe.
The best approach to identifying swash bar deposits is to expect them to be
preserved near the tops of tidal sands or carbonates; therefore, beware of blue
patterns existing only in the top of a tidal sequence. Landward-dipping blue patterns
from flood deltas should extend throughout most of the sand or carbonate under
study.
Recurved spit dips are the other set of problem blue dip patterns. They tend to dip
away from the inlet and can contribute to offsets in the wrong direction. These dips
can be recognized by their dip in the direction of coastline strike.
Longshore Current Sand Waves

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Longshore current sand waves are composed of fore set beds that generate blue dip
patterns paralleling the fossil coastline. Deep water contains longshore currents
strong enough to redistribute sands previously deposited by turbidity flows.
To identify sand waves, one must (1) know that the sequence being interpreted is
from an interdeltaic depositional environment and
(2) determine the direction to land during the time of deposition.
Beach Sands
Shoreface Sands
Shoreface sands were deposited between the beach and a water depth of 20 m, the
fair-weather wavebase. These sands were deposited in a high-energy environment,
and few, if any, of the bedding planes were deposited flat. After deposition,
bioturbation occurred, destroying or distorting the original bedding.
Dipmeter logs run through shore face sands record a few widely scattered dips and
blank zones because of bioturbation. Bioturbation decreases in the shallowest portion
of the shore face zone; therefore, more dips are recorded as the mean low water line
is approached. Beginning at depths of about 5 m, some low-angle, seaward-dipping
crossbeds were deposited and preserved. These beds initially dip seaward 1 or 2.
Flaser bedding is also present in the lower shoreface zone.
Beachface Sands
Beachface sands were deposited as parallel crossbeds dipping seaward plus or minus
5.
Runnel
Deposition within a runnel may appear as megaripples dipping parallel to the beach,
small ripples, or laminations. Preserved megaripples generate small blue dip patterns
best identified by CSB computation. Small ripples usually create blank zones or false
correlations; however, they can be identified on the multisensor dipmeter output of
the 8-curve tool.
Berm Crest
Deposition on the berm crest is essentially horizontal. If preserved, the beds would
indicate structural dip. Dunes, which also form on the berm crest, contain festoon
cross-bedding, which generates a wide dip scatter.
Back Beach
If the back beach escaped bioturbation by fiddler crabs or their ancestors, it would
contain landwarddipping foresets that generate blue dip patterns. These
landwarddipping patterns are the best indicators for determining the strike of a fossil
beach.

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Washover Fans
Washover fans generate landward-dipping blue patterns similar to slip face foresets
and flood delta foresets. The character of other log responses provides clues for
distinguishing these features.
Washover fans were deposited over marsh deposits by a catastrophic event. This
process did not allow for appreciable sorting. Flood deltas were deposited in a
subaqueous environment with winnowing before final deposition.
Slipface sands were deposited on a land surface containing some plant material; this,
in turn, created a rooted layer. The rooted layer generates blank dip zones and is
electrically more homogeneous than undisturbed bedding.
Barlike or Convex-Upward Sands
Barlike or convex-upward sands may be formed at the wave break point or as beach
ridges. There is one distinct difference between these two types of sand Break pointbar sands are winnowed until there is little internal electrical contrast; therefore,
dipmeter logs exhibit mostly blank zones. In contrast, beach ridges exhibit many
internal dips ( Figure 6 ).

Figure 6

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When either type of sand is penetrated on the flanks, the drape the overlying beds
creates a red dip pattern just above the sand A fault can create the same dip
pattern; therefore, faulting must be ruled out before any stratigraphic interpretation
is attempted The direction of the red pattern is toward the shaleout and normal to
the strike of the bar or beach ridge. If the bar or ridge is penetrated at or near the
crest, no drape would be present, and the sand would appear blanket-like.
These same guidelines can be applied to oolitic bars. The drape extends beyond the
limits of barlike sands. A red pattern in the silty zone, where a bar should have been
located, dips away from the bar, and it can be used to determine the direction of
sidetrack.
In some cases only blue patterns dipping toward the shaleout are found above a bar
( Figure 7 ). These patterns tend to be components of a very subtle red dip pattern,
and may be partially related to slump of the clays deposited above the bar.

Figure 7

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Deepwater environment
Introduction
This chapter addresses the processes of deposition and the resulting dip patterns encountered in deepwater
environments. The processes of mass transportation are able to move, transport, and lay down sediments
between their zone of origin and a topographically lower zone under the influence of gravity. Generally, these
mechanisms provide intermittent and catastrophic transfers of large amounts of sediments, which are deposited
at or near the base of a slope.
Mass transport consists of rockfalls, slides and slumps, and gravity flows ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

Rockfalls
Rockfalls are formed by free-falling bodies of sediments accumulating at the bases of fault scarps, canyon floors,
and other steep slopes. The deposited sediments generally exhibit distinct limits, but no bedding.
The dimensions of clasts that form rock falls vary from sand-size to blocks measuring several tens of meters. The
clasts are in contact and generally contain intergranular porosity.

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The sequences resulting from submarine rock falls are often related to forereef escarpments or platform edges.
On slopes in deep-sea environments, rockfalls may contain abyssal sediments. The accumulation of sediment
blocks caused by rock slides can only occur at the foot of strongly inclined slopes, which are often characteristic
of carbonate margins.

Slides and Slumps

Subaqueous slides occur when a mass of semiconsolidated sediments moves along a basal shear surface. These
slides are able to transfer considerable masses (up to tens of cubic kilometers) of sedimentary materials from the
inner or outer continental platform to the abyssal plain. Any internal bedding characteristics of the mass are
preserved during movement. Slides can be divided into translational or glide and rotational or slump types. The
basal shear surface of a glide is a plane of slightly undulating surface paralleling the stratification.
In a slump, the concave shear surface permits rotation of the slump block. As a slump block moves down a slope,
compression occurs at the foot of the block, and tension occurs at its rear. Compression produces thrusts and
folds, and tension produces normal faults and open cracks. The central part of the block is generally not
deformed.
Slump blocks penetrated in the subsurface are not always easy to identify. They may appear on the dipmeter as
an isolated trend. When this occurs, the most probable explanation is either a tilted fault block (most commonly
found between two nearby faults) or a slump block. If faulting can be ruled out, then the slump block becomes
the most probable explanation.

Gravity Flow
Sediment gravity flow is a general term for flows of mixed sediments and fluids in which the bedding coherence is
destroyed and the individual grains move in a fluid medium. This includes mud flows or debris flows, grain flows,
liquefied flows, and turbidity flows.
Mud flows exhibit essentially plastic behavior with the muddy carrier phase creating sediment coherence. The
matrix containing the clasts is the main driving and lubricating force behind the flow.
The dynamics of grain flows are governed by the reciprocal interaction of clasts. This granular interaction causes
sandy flows to exhibit plastic mechanical behavior rather than fluid behavior. In contrast, liquefied flows, fluidized
flows, and turbidity currents exhibit a fluid behavior. Grain flows consist of cohesion-less sediment supported by
dispersive pressure. This process requires steep slopes for initiation and sustained downs lope movement.
Liquefied flows consist of cohesionless sediment supported by upward displacement of fluid as loosely packed
structures collapse. The sediments settle into tightly packed textures. Liquefied flows require slopes of greater
than 3.
Fluidized flows consist of cohesionless sediment supported by upward motion of escaping pore fluid. These flows
are thin and short-lived.
Turbidity current flows contain clasts supported by fluid turbulence. These flows can move long distances on lowangle slopes.

Submarine Channel-Fan Complex

Figure 2 illustrates the features found during the growth of submarine fans.

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Figure 2

Of these features, the obvious deepwater features interpretable by dipmeter logs are debris flows, which result in
blank zones; feeder channels, which produce typical red dip patterns at the base and blue patterns with a 90
azimuth difference above; and midfans, which generate blue dip patterns. Outer fan sediments generate
structural dips.
A submarine channel-fan complex can exhibit the same features as a delta complex, including natural levees.
Submarine feeder channels are cut by downs lope sediment flows and later filled ( Figure 3 ).

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Figure 3

As with other types of channels, the basal layers of fill mimic the dip of the underlying surface. Deposition on a
sloping surface produces a red pattern dipping toward the channel axis and normal with the channel strike. After
the bottom was filled and leveled, foresets dipping down the channel were deposited; these, in turn, generated
blue patterns dipping 90 from the underlying red patterns.
In the midfan portion of the system, only blue patterns dipping in the direction of sediment transport are
detected. Few obvious foreset beds are found within midfan outcrops, and this raises the question of what the
dipmeter tools are measuring. It is possible the dipmeter sensor is detecting some type of permeability change
associated with timelines or climbing ripples. Permeability changes do not always have a visual representation
and may appear only on X-ray photographs.
In the outer fan portion of the system, only structural dips are detected because deposition was essentially
horizontal. This is an environment in which the deposition of alternating laminations of sand and shale may
become low-resistivity pay zones.

Transport Directions
A common feature of deepwater sands is that transport directions are not directly offshore. Some sediments were
transported parallel to the continental shelf while others were transported back into land ( Figure 4 ).

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Figure 4

Landward transport can be a function of seafloor topography or it can be initiated by the presence of a down-tothe-basin growth fault. Whatever the cause, inshore transport in deepwater depositional environments does
occur.

Deepwater Longshore Currents

In some areas, considerable numbers of blue dip patterns indicate sediment transport parallel to the slope. This is
a result of the reworking of previously deposited sediments by deepwater longshore currents. This is another
environment conducive to the deposition of alternating sand-shale laminations.

Submarine Canyons
Submarine canyons exhibit alternating up and down canyon sets of blue dip patterns generated by deepwater
tidal action ( Figure 5 ).

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Figure 5

Submarine canyon fill sands closely resemble tidal sands on the dipmeter plot. The fill sands contain many blue
patterns dipping both up and down the canyon. These patterns were probably generated by deepwater tidal
action within the canyon. Canyon fill sands may be up to a thousand feet or more in thickness. They may also
exhibit indicators of compaction underneath-e.g., downward-decreasing resistivity or increasing interval transit
time gradients.

Turbidity Flows
Turbidity flows produce complex sand packages containing multiple depositional units. Separate reservoirs may
be present, though sand-to-sand contact seems probable. Figure 6 illustrates dip patterns encountered in sand
packages produced by turbidity flows.

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Figure 6

This package is made up of at least six submarine fans, two scour channels, and a sediment layer deposited in
the upper portion of a submarine feeder channel. In other areas, this portion of the channel is filled with
conglomerate. Shale layers are not required to separate one reservoir from another; an inch or so of silt suffices.

Debris Flows
Debris flows are best recognized by the dual-dip curves themselves, since few (if any) meaningful dips are
produced. Some correlations not extending around the four pads are seen on the presentation, but no tadpoles
are produced. Conglomerates can produce these features.

Feeder Channels
The depositional environment of the sand at 6400 ft in High Island Block 560-561 is a continental slope
environment; therefore, feeder channels would be the most probable feature ( Figure 7 ).

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Figure 7

The expected dip model would be a red dip pattern at the base of the sand section, with blue patterns above. The
red pattern azimuth is toward the channel axis and normal to its strike. The blue dip patterns indicate flow down
the channel. The azimuth of the blue patterns is approximately 90 from the azimuth of the red patterns.
The dipmeter log on Well 4 of High Island Block 561 exhibits the expected dip patterns for a filled feeder channel.
The basal red pattern dips to the northwest, which is the direction of the channel axis. The overlying blue
patterns dip to the southwest, which indicates flow down the channel from northeast to southwest.
The lower portion of the example shows the same dip pattern combination from the sand at 8900 ft. In this
example the red pattern dips to the north; therefore, the channel axis lies north of the well, and the channel
strike is west to east. The east-dipping blue pattern indicates sediment transport down the channel from west to
east.
The relative magnitudes of the dip patterns in these examples indicate their approximate positions within their
respective channels. The sand example at 6400 ft contains several blue patterns, but only one red pattern; this
indicates a position near the channel axis, where the blue patterns dominate. Had the location been nearer the
channel axis, only blue dip patterns would have been present.
The thin 8900-ft sand contains a strong red pattern and a weak blue pattern. This indicates a position near the
edge of the channel, where current velocities were lower and drape over the underlying surface was the dominant
type of deposition. Transport in this channel was from west to east paralleling the fossil coastline. This orientation
may result from flow parallel to a down-to-the-south growth fault system in the area.

Dip Scatter as an Environment Indicator

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Dip scatter results from both the original attitude of deposition and postdepositional deformation. The products of
both processes are diagnostic depositional indicators. The following comments on scatter are confined to a
marine environment.
The marine ecological zones, their defining depths, and their location on the continental shelf and slope are
illustrated in Figure 8 .

Figure 8

The original concept of less scatter on the lower continental slope was due to a lack of paleo-calibrated dipmeter
logs run through lower slope sediments. Later observations of dipmeter logs run in paleo-identified lower slope
sediments confirmed that some of the greatest sediment jumbles exist at the base of the continental slope. Dip
scatter is best used with shale resistivities, density-neutron responses, and other indicators.
When deltaic deposition is preserved in its original form, it can mask effects of the surrounding depositional
environment. Indicators are more obvious in a tide/wave-dominated environment than in a delta-dominated
environment ( Figure 9 ,

156

Figure 9

Figure 10 , Figure 11 ).

157

Figure 11

158

Figure 10

Inner neritic deposition in a tide/wave-dominated environment generates a 40 dip scatter and blank zones.
Some scatter results from a high initial angle of deposition, but much of it is the result of bioturbation.
Bioturbation produces zones of no correlation or zones where miscorrelations are probable. Near the 20-m
boundary between the inner and middle neritic zones, the amount of bioturbation and the corresponding dip
scatter decrease.
The scatter across the middle neritic zone ranges from 20 on the shoreward side to 3 on the seaward side.
Local experience allows additional subdivision of the middle neritic zone into 50- to 100-ft, 100- to 200-ft, and
200- to 300-ft ranges.
Dip scatter in outer neritic sediments ranges from none, where parallel laminations exist, to 2. Sediment
spreading by long-shore currents in this zone can produce laminated, low-resistivity pay zones.

Continental Slope Sediments

Dipmeter logs run through continental slope sediments tend to be difficult to interpret because of
postdepositional deformation by downslope creep, slump, and fracturing. Shales, in particular, may be so
severely deformed that few meaningful dips can be computed. Sometimes the only intact bedding planes are
found within sands; when this occurs, the sand dips are used for determining structure.
Shale resistivities can provide clues to the proximity of sand bodies associated with shorelines or deltaic
depositions. Shale resistivities are partially a function of grain size; therefore, the presence of silt-sized particles
increases the resistivity values. Assuming a model progressing from sand to silt to clay, the presence of increased
silt creates higher shale resistivity values.

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In the northern Gulf of Mexico, shale resistivities less than 0.8 ohm-m usually indicate deposition in a slope or
abyssal depth range. There are, however, exceptions to this general rule.
Dip scatter of 60 on the continental slope results from postdepositional deformation. The scattered dips result
from deformation; they are not related to structural or stratigraphic dips. The dip scatter again decreases to a
maximum of 2 in the abyssal range. Some sediment transport by deepwater longshore currents also occurs in
this environment.

Sea Level Fluctuations

A Pleistocene example illustrates changes in scatter resulting from sea level fluctuations during glacial and
interglacial periods. During the interglacial periods, sea level is high and deposition occurs in low-energy
environments-probably the outer shelf. This permits layer-cake deposition with dip variations less than 3. During
glacial periods, the sea level drops, and deposition occurs in inner and midshelf environments. The environmental
changes increase dip scatter considerably.

Compaction Features
Many thick, channel-like sands were formed by compaction, not by the cut-and-fill process. Sands deposited on a
mud bottom gradually sank downward, compressing and dewatering the underlying muds.
Shales formed from compressed muds exhibit downward-decreasing resistivity gradients and downwardincreasing interval transit time gradients. Density-neutron log response gradients are also present ( Figure 12 ).

Figure 12

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The dip pattern resulting from compaction is a mega-red pattern with interspersed blue groups dipping in the
same direction. No right-angle relationship exists between the azimuth of the red and blue dip groups, as it does
in features resulting from the cut-and-fill process.

Deepwater Chalks
Localized dipmeter interpretation rules are occasionally convenient. The following set of rules was developed for
the deepwater chalks of the Norwegian Central Graben. Figure 13 illustrates an Ekofisk chalk example.

Figure 13

In developing these rules, it was noted that chalk wells whose dipmeter logs exhibited many blank or scattered
dip zones and dip patterns were better producers than wells containing zones exhibiting mainly structural dips.
To quantify the interpretation process, multipliers or weights of 4, 2, and 1 were assigned respectively to blank or
scatter zones, red patterns, and blue patterns. These arbitrary weights are based on the permeability of each
type of zone.
Blank or scatter zones result primarily from chalk debris flows or conglomerates that contain the highest
permeability; therefore, they were assigned the highest weight.

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Red dip patterns represent beds draped over a sloping surface. These draped layers permit laminar flow, which
has a lower permeability; therefore, red patterns were assigned a weight of two.
Blue dip patterns indicate foreset-generated crossbeds cutting across the reservoir at some angle that interfered
with flow into the well. Blue dip patterns have the lowest permeability and the lowest weight factor.

Reservoir Quality Factor

The following equation was developed to determine whether a chalk interval is capable of commercial production.
The potential for commercial production was called the quality factor. The quality factor is the proportion of the
total footage under study contributed by each type of zone multiplied by the weight factor for the zone. The
equation is given below:

where:
FD = the total footage of dipmeter blank or scattered dip zones
Fr = the total footage of dipmeter red patterns
Fb = the total footage of dipmeter blue patterns.
Using this approach on operator data, it was discovered that chalk intervals such as the Ekofisk, Tod, or Hor with
quality factors of 2.6 or greater contained intervals capable of commercial production.
For the commercial threshold of 2.6 to be a reliable indicator, the interval must be sufficiently thick. Quality
factors can be contoured on both regional and fieldwide bases for the Central Graben area. Other weight factors
could have been chosen that would have worked as well. The value of the commercial threshold would have
changed. Similar techniques may have applications in areas where sandstones have undergone some downs lope
creep and slump or shallow-water working.

Fluvial channel deposits

Interpretation of Fluvial channels
The following are the five basic steps in interpreting a dipmeter log for a fluvial
channel:
Determine the structural dip (and delete it if necessary).
Determine the stratigraphic encasement.
Define the depositional environment.
Orient the sand trend.
Locate the offset.
Structural Dip
Structural dip is determined from the shales above and below the channel. These
dips may be different, since channels frequently occur as unconformities. The shale

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above the channel usually reflects the structural dip required for interpretation. In
very low-angle situations, the stratigraphic gain may be more important than
structural dip. The influence of coalescing channels repeatedly affects the structural
position of fluvial channels.
Generally, if structural dip is greater than 4, then the structural dip should be
deleted. Sometimes, if the dip magnitudes are low (less than 10), then even 2 dip
should be removed.
Stratigraphic Encasement
The stratigraphic encasement is the interval in which the channel facies occur,
including both the sand and shale components of a channel. Detailed correlations
with offset logs are used for defining the stratigraphic encasement. Under special
circumstances, the channel abandonment facies, or clay plug, can be identified from
higher gamma ray or more resistive shale log responses. Red dip patterns, reflecting
compaction features, may also be used to define channel facies. In all cases,
identifying the interval is critical to the interpretation.
Depositional Environment
Success in defining the depositional environment depends on the geologists input,
core and sample data, log responses, formation images, and dipmeter arrow plots.
Local knowledge of the geology is very important in identifying the environment.
Cores and samples are an integral component in new areas and are always useful in
any area.
Electrical formation images are a valuable aid to the interpretation of the thin, fluvial
sand zones.
Log responses are generally used to identify a fining-upward sequence, which infers
a channel system. Distinguishing a braided stream from a meandering stream is only
possible when very simple depositional sequences are penetrated. The braided
stream contains several fining-upward sequences within the sand. A meandering
stream contains one overall fining-upward sequence. This becomes very complex
when the borehole penetrates several coalescing units. Coalesced point bars
occurring in meandering streams may be interpreted as braided streams.
Dipmeter patterns are very similar in braided and meandering stream environments.
Families of red and blue dip patterns with 90 azimuth differences typically occur in
both environments ( Figure 1 ).

163

Figure 1

Braided streams can sometimes be recognized by the identification of transverse

bars within the stratigraphic encasement.
Channel Orientation
Channel orientation from dipmeter patterns is usually determined by the following
priorities:
1. strong blue
2. strong red
3. weak blue
4. weak red
5. erosional or drape
Channels are generally elongated parallel to the blue patterns and perpendicular to
the red patterns.

164

Locating the Offset

Considerations for locating an offset include reservoir geometry, reservoir quality,
structural position, surface restrictions, and secondary-recovery prospects.
Reservoir quality is determined primarily by permeability, bed thickness, and
porosity. In a point bar, for example, the coarser, better-developed sand is generally
near the thalweg, and fine-grained, poor-permeability sand is generally near the
inside bank. Also, the leading edge of a point bar usually has better sand quality
than the trailing edge.
Structural position is critical when a water or gas contact has been penetrated. The
structural position often depends on compaction over coalescing channels and
stratigraphic gains within the channel system.
Optimum location of an injection or a production well in a secondary-recovery project
is dependent on the relative position of the well in the reservoir. A well near the
leading edge of a point bar, for example, usually depletes quickly on primary
production. The well can only produce from one direction, toward the middle of the
point bar. This well can be used quite effectively as an injection well.
Required Accuracy Fluvial channels are usually narrow in width. This requires high
accuracy in the measurement of the channel orientation. Typically, fluvial channels
have a productive width of approximately 40 times their productive thickness. A 10ft thick channel sand has an estimated productive width of 400 ft.
An azimuth diagram, as shown in Figure 2 , can help in defining the channel
orientation.

165

Figure 2

There are several segments to the diagram.

1. Depths are determined from the logs and the dipmeter plot.
2. The geologist and the dipmeter interpreter agree up on the type of
deposition.
3. Structural dip is determined from the surrounding shale sections. If
the dip above and below the sand is different, the sand is assumed to
be deposited at an unconformity and the structural dip above the sand
is recorded.
4. Confidence rating is a means to rank the quality of the
interpretation. The rating is from A (highest) to D (lowest): A = strong
blue and red, B = strong blue or red, C = weak blue or red, and D =
erosion, drape, or intuition.
5. Orientation is shown as a line along the sand trend.
6. Current flow is the arrow on the end of the orientation line.

166

7. Channel thalweg is the arrow in the center of the azimuth diagram.

Determination of Well Position in a Point Bar
A relation between the blue and red dip patterns allows the determination of relative
position in a point bar ( Figure 3 ). Blue pattern azimuths are usually parallel to the
sand axis, since current flow is across the point bar. Red pattern azimuths are
generally perpendicular to the sand axis and point toward the channel thalweg.

Figure 3

For wells located on the leading edge of a point bar, blue and red pattern azimuths
are normally greater than 90 in angle difference. When a well is located midpoint,
the blue and red pattern azimuths are approximately 90 different (perpendicular) to
each other. For wells positioned on the trailing edge of a point bar, the blue and red
pattern azimuths are usually less than 90 in angle difference.
Figure 4 shows a dipmeter plot through a Cretaceous sand interval in a fluvial
meander channel.

167

Figure 4

The strong NE red and SE blue dip patterns show the channel thalweg to be N67E, a
current direction of S47E, and an orientation of N47W-S47E. The angle difference
between the red and blue dip pattern azimuths is slightly less than 90. This
indicates the well position to be on the trailing edge of a point bar.

Exercise No. 1
This exercise uses a classic deltaic example. The sand, shown in Figure 1 , from 6744
ft to 6900 ft was deposited in a deltaic environment.

168

Figure 1

In which part of the delta complex was this sand deposited? What is the strike of the
sand?
In what direction is the thickest part of the sand body? What was the direction of
current flow?
Was the entire sand deposited as one feature, or was there more than one feature
deposited?
This sand was deposited as fill within a distributary channel.
The strike of the channel is NE-SW.
The axis lies to the NW of the well.
Current flow was down the channel from NE to SW.
There is more than one channel present.

169

The main channel is below 6784 ft. This is the feature to consider when offsetting the
well.
Above 6784 ft, the current flow diminished as the channel began to fill with sand,
and channel switching occurred.
There is another minor channel between 6784 and 6761 ft. Its strike is also NE-SW,
and its axis lies to the NW. Flow was from the NE to SW. The few scattered dips
within this interval indicate some reworking.

Solution
This sand was deposited as fill within a distributary channel.
The strike of the channel is NE-SW.
The axis lies to the NW of the well.
Current flow was down the channel from NE to SW.
There is more than one channel present.
The main channel is below 6784 ft. This is the feature to consider when offsetting the
well.
Above 6784 ft, the current flow diminished as the channel began to fill with sand,
and channel switching occurred.
There is another minor channel between 6784 and 6761 ft. Its strike is also NE-SW,
and its axis lies to the NW. Flow was from the NE to SW. The few scattered dips
within this interval indicate some reworking.

170

Exercise No. 2

Figure 1

In Figure 1 , the sand between 3810 and 4060 ft was deposited in an interdeltaic
environment.
What type of sand is it?
What are its attributes?

Solution
This sand is the product of previously deposited deltaic sediments reworked by
waves, tides, and currents.
The top of the sand is now barlike, and it shales out to the NE. The strike of the sand
is NW-SE.
The blank zone near the top results from shallow-water reworking and bioturbation.

171

Exercise No. 3

Figure 1

Figure 1 represents a Pennsylvanian sand deposited in a fluvial meander channel.

What is the current flow direction?
What is the thalweg direction?
What is the channel orientation?
Construct the azimuth diagram.
What is the position of this well on the point bar?

Solution
The current direction is south.

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Channel thalweg is N41W.

The orientation is along the blue pattern azimuth (NS)
The angle difference between the red and blue pattern azimuths is greater than 90.
This indicates that this well is on the leading edge of the point bar.

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