12/3/2016 Children'sLiteratureEarlyHistory,FairyandFolkTales,VictorianChildrensLiterature,ContemporaryChildrensLiteratureEncyclopediaofChil

DocumentsHomepage::EncyclopediaofChildrenandChildhoodinHistoryandSociety::ChCo

Children'sLiterature
Liketheconceptofchildhood,children'sliteratureisverymuchaculturalconstructthatcontinuestoevolve
overtime.Children'sliteraturecomprisesthosetextsthathavebeenwrittenspecificallyforchildrenand
thosetextsthatchildrenhaveselectedtoreadontheirown,andtheboundariesbetweenchildren'sliterature
andadultliteraturearesurprisinglyfluid.JohnRoweTownsendoncearguedthattheonlypracticaldefinition
ofachildren'sbookisonethatappearsonthechildren'slistbyapublisher.Contemporarypublishersarenot
makingthatdistinctionanyeasierforexample,MAURICESENDAK'sOutsideOverThere(1981)was
publishedasapicturebookforbothchildrenandadults,andJ.K.Rowling'sHARRYPOTTERseriesis
availableinadultandchildren'sversionswiththeonlydifferencebeingthebook'scoverart.Whilefolkand
FAIRYTALESwerenotoriginallyintendedforchildren,theyhavebecomeastapleofchildren'sliterature
sincetheearlynineteenthcentury.Ontheotherhand,manybookswrittenforandwidelyreadbychildren
duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesareconsideredhistoricalchildren'sliteraturetodayandare
readalmostexclusivelybyadultscholarsofchildren'sliterature.Children'sliteraturehasbeenwritten,
illustrated,published,marketed,andpurchasedconsistentlybyadultstobegiventochildrenfortheir
edificationandentertainment.Generallyspeaking,itistheintendedaudienceratherthantheproducersofthe
textswhodefinethefield.Children'stextswrittenbychildoradolescentauthors,suchasDaisyAshford's
TheYoungVisiters(1919)orANNEFRANK'sHetAchterhuis(1947TheDiaryofaYoungGirl,1952),are
exceptionstotherule.Manyfamouschildren'sauthors,suchasLouisaMayAlcottandLEWISCARROLL,
producedfamilymagazinesaschildren,andbitsoftheirjuveniliawerereworkedintopublishedchildren's
books.Moreoften,children'sbooksresultfromthecollaborationordirectinspirationofaspecificchildor
groupofchildrenwithanadultauthor.JamesBarrie'sfriendshipwiththeLewelynDaviesboysresultedin
theplayPeterPan,orTheBoyWhoWouldNotGrowUp(1904)andthenovelPeterandWendy(1911).The
bedtimestoriesthatA.A.MilnetoldhissonChristopherRobinwererevisedintoWinniethePooh(1926).
Althoughchildren'sliteratureisintendedprimarilyforchildren,itismoreaccuratetoviewsuchtextsas
havingdualaudiencesofchildrenandadults.Adults,particularlyparents,teachers,andlibrarians,often
functionasgatekeeperswhoidentifyappropriatetextsforchildren.Sincechildren'sliteraturehasbeen
marketedandpurchasedbyadultswho,inturn,presentittochildren,authorsandpublishershaveattempted
toproducechildren'stextsthatappealtothedesiresoftheactualadultpurchaser,ifnotthechildreaderof
thetext.Inthepicturebookandchapterbookgenresespecially,anadultreadstoachildorchildrenina
group.Itisonlywiththeadventofthepaperbackbookthatadolescents,andinsomecasesyoungerchildren,
havebeenabletoselecttheirbooksindependentofadultsupervisionorfunds.Priortothedevelopmentof
publiceducationandfreelibrariesinthelatenineteenthcentury,children'sliteraturetendedtobelimitedto
themiddleandupperclasses.Achildren'sbookreflectstheideologiesofthecultureinwhichitwaswritten
andembodiesthatperiod'sassumptionsaboutchildrenandappropriatebehavior.Consequently,children's
literaturemoreoftenembodiesadultconcernsandconceptsofchildhoodratherthantopicschildrenmight
chooseforthemselves.Thisgapbetweenchildren'sandadult'sattitudestowardchildren'sliteratureisoften
revealedinthedifferencebetweenthetopsellingchildren'sbooks,whicharefrequentlyseriesbooks,and
thebookschosenannuallybytheAmericanLibraryAssociationastheoutstandingpicturebook(winnerof
theCaldecottMedal)andtheoutstandingbookofprose(winneroftheNewberyMedal).

EarlyHistory
Inorderforasocietytoproduceasubstantialbodyofchildren'sliteratureitmustrecognizetheexistenceof
childrenasanimportantanddistinctivecategoryofreaderswithseparateneedsandinterests.Despite
PHILIPPEARIS'smuchdebatedassertionthatchildhoodwasdiscoveredintheseventeenthcentury,
children'stextswithlimitedcirculationhavebeenlocatedfromearlierperiodsofhistory.Manuscriptsfor
religiouseducationandcourtesybooksintendedtoteachrulesofconductwerecirculatedamongthewealthy
intheMiddleAges.HarveyDartonhassuggestedthattherewerenochildren'sbooksinEnglandpriortothe
seventeenthcenturyhowever,helimitschildren'sbookstothoseprintedtextsthatappearedafterJohannes
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Gutenberg'sfifteenthcenturyinventionandincludeshandmadeaswellasprintedtextsthatwereconcerned
primarilywithinstruction,thusexcludingeducationaltextbooksorreligiousprimers.
Thetwinpurposesofinstructionanddelighthavelongbeenacceptedastheprimarygoalsofchildren's
literature.JohnNewbery,aLondonbookseller,publishedatleastthirtychildren'sbooksandisrecognizedas
thefirstBritishpublishertomakechildren'sbooksapermanentandprofitablebranchofthebooktrade.
Newbery'sALittlePrettyPocketBook(1744)isthefirstsignificantcommercialchildren'sbookpublishedin
English.GreatlyinfluencedbyJOHNLOCKE'sSomeThoughtsConcerningEducation(1693),thefrontispiece
ofALittlePrettyPocketBookfeaturesthemotto"DelectandoMomenus:InstructionwithDelight,"which
NewberyborroweddirectlyfromLocke.LockemodifiedtheconceptfromHorace'sArspoetica(c.19B.CE.
OntheArtofPoetry),whichrecommended,"Hewhocombinestheusefulandthepleasingwinsoutbyboth
instructinganddelightingthereader."WhatLocketheorized,Newberyputintopractice.Locke
recommendedthattoencouragereading,achildshouldbegivenan"easypleasantbooksuitedtohis
capacity."WhileLockerejectedfairytales,hefeltfables,becausetheyoftenwerecoupledwithamoral,
wereappropriatetextsforchildren.HespecificallyrecommendedbothReynardtheFox(1481)andAesop's
Fables(1484),noting"IfhisAesophaspicturesinit,itwillentertainhimmuchthebetter."ALittlePretty
PocketBookisacompendium,includinganillustratedalphabet,aselectionofproverbs,andanillustrated
groupofAesop'sfables.
Dartonwastoolimitingwhenheexcludeddidacticbooksfromhisdefinitionofchildren'sliterature.
TownsendconsideredthematerialpublishedpriortoNewberyastheprehistoryofchildren'sliterature.These
bookswerenotintendedforchildren,buteventuallyreachedthem,particularlychapbooksthatfeaturedfolk
talesorthelegendsofRobinHood.EducationaltextssuchasTheBabeesBook(1475),aconductbookfor
younggentlemen,alsocontributetotheprehistoryofchildren'sliterature.WilliamCaxton,thefirstEnglish
printer,publishedseveraltextsthatwerenotintendedspecificallyforchildren,buthisprintingsdidappealto
them,notablyAesop'sFables,ReynardtheFox,andThomasMalory'sMorteDarthur(1485).
Anearlyformofdidacticchildren'sliteraturewasthehornbookinwhichasinglesheetofprintedtext,
generallyconsistingofanalphabetandaprayer,wassharedbyagroupofyoungscholars.Theprintedtext
wasattachedtoawoodenframeandprotectedbyabitofflattedhornattachedtoawoodenhandle.Alater
innovationwasthebattledore,whichusedparchmentorheavypaperinsteadofwoodandthereforeallowed
forprintingonbothsides.TheCzechtheologianandeducatorJOHANNCOMENIUSrecognizedthatchildren
learnbothvisuallyandverbally.HepublishedOrbissensualiumpictus(1658)inHungary,andthetextbook
wastranslatedintoEnglishbyRobertHooleasVisibleWorld(1659).Thefirstillustratedtextbook,Orbis
sensualiumpictusincludessimplecaptionsinLatinandinthecommonlanguageaswellaswoodcutsthat
provideavisualencyclopediaoftheworld.Thisintegrationofvisualandverbalelementshasremaineda
significantdesignfeatureofchildren'sliterature,particularlyininformationandpicturebooks.Another
influentialchildren'stextbookwastheNewEnglandPrimer(c.1689),compiledbyBenjaminHarris.(While
nocopyof
JohnTenniel'sillustrationofAliceholdingabottlelabelled"DrinkMe"fromthefirsteditionofLewis
Carroll'sAlice'sAdventuresinWonderland(1865).EverygenerationhasremadetheimageofAlice,thereby
constantlyrenewingherrelevance..
thefirsteditionhasbeenlocated,asecondeditionwasadvertisedin1690andtheearliestsurviving
Americancopyisdated1727.)Italsocombinedsignificantvisualandverbalelementsitsmostfamous
sectionistheillustratedalphabet,whichbegins"A,InAdam'sFallWeSinnedAll,"linkingtheteachingof
literacywithreligiouseducation.TheNewEnglandPrimerbecamethemostfrequentlyusedschoolbookin
NorthAmericaduringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.
Puritanchildren'sliteraturewasintendedtoprovidechildrenwithreligiousandmoraleducation.Themost
extremeexampleisJamesJaneway'sATokenforChildren:BeinganExactAccountoftheConversion,Holy
andExemplaryLivesandJoyfulDeathsofSeveralYoungChildren(1672)inwhichmultipledeathbedscenes
presentchildrenwhoarephysicallyweakbutspirituallystrong.WhilethePuritanswereoneofthefirst
groupstocreatealargebodyofchildren'sbooks,theirdoctrineoforiginalsinassumedthatallchildrenwere
damneduntiltheywereconvertedtoChristianity.AlessharshversionofPuritantheologyforchildrenis
foundinJohnBunyan'sABookforBoysandGirls(1686),acollection
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Storiesaboutanimals,suchasBeatrixPotter'sTheTaleofPeterRabbit(1902),werepopularduringthe
Victorianera,whenchildren'sliteraturereachedaculturalpeak.Potter'sbookswereespeciallyrenownedfor
theircharmingillustrations.
ofpoemsordivineemblemsdrawnfromnature.Bunyan'sreligiousallegoryPilgrim'sProgress(1678)was
notwrittenspecificallyforchildrenbutwasquicklyproducedinabridgedversionsforyoungerreadersalong
withDanielDefoe'sRobinsonCrusoe(1719)andJonathanSwift'sGulliver'sTravels(1726).Theenduring
popularityofPilgrim'sProgresswithchildrencanbeobservedintheMarchsisters"PlayingPilgrims"inthe
firsthalfofAlcott'sLITTLEWOMEN(1868).
Newbery'schildren'sbookswerelessovertlyreligiousthanthoseproducedbythePuritans.Insteadhis
children'stextsappealedtoparentsdrawntoeconomicandsocialadvancement.Directlyaimedatthe
emergingurbanmiddleclasses,thesebooksshowedhowliteracyledtofinancialsuccess.Themostovert
exampleisTheHistoryofLittleGoodyTwoShoes(1765),whichisthoughttohavebeenwrittenbyOliver
Goldsmith,whowroteotherchildren'stextsforNewbery.Thestoryfeaturesthepoorbuthardworking
orphan,MargeryMeanwell,whobecomesatutoressandeventuallyimpressesandmarriesawealthysquire.
Newbery'schildren'sbookssupportamiddleclassideology.
Newbery'sgeniuswasnotasanauthororillustratorbutasapromoterandmarketerofchildren'sbookswho
wasskilledatconvincingmiddleclassparentsofthevalueofthisnewproductcategory.Hisfrequent
advertisementsinthepressandhishabitofinsertingothertitlesandspecificproductsintothetextsofhis
children'sbooksisapracticethatcontinuesinchildren'spublishing.Healsodevelopedthecustomof
couplingchildren'sbookswithnonbookaccessories.ALittlePrettyPocketBookwasavailableataslightly
higherpricewhenaccompaniedbyeithera"BallandPincushion,theUseofwhichwillinfalliblymake
TommyagoodBoyandPollyaGoodgirl."
Thedevelopmentofchildren'sliteratureinEnglandoccurredsimultaneouslywiththeriseoftheEnglish
novel.Itisworthnotingthatthefirstchildren'snovel,TheGoverness,orLittleFemaleAcademy(1749)by
SarahFielding,waspublishedinthesameyearasTomJones,whichwaswrittenbyherbrotherHenry
Fielding.
TheGovernessintroducedthepopulargenreoftheschoolstory,themostcelebratedexamplebeingThomas
Hughes'sTomBrown'sSchoolDays(1857).ThisenduringfascinationwiththegenreisechoedinJ.K.
Rowling'sHarryPotterseries.
Anothermajoreducationaltheoristtohaveaprofoundinfluenceonchildren'sliteraturewasJEANJACQUES
ROUSSEAU,whosemile(1762)waspublishedinFranceandquicklytranslatedintoEnglish.Inmile
RousseaurejectedthePuritanconceptoforiginalsinandmaintainedthatchildrenwereborninnocentbut
werelatercorruptedbysociety.Ironicallyforatextthatwastoinspirethepublicationofmanychildren's
books,Rousseauthoughtchildrenshouldlearnbydoingratherthanbyreading.Hearguedthatchildren
shouldonlybetaughttoreadatagetwelveandthenbelimitedtothebookRobinsonCrusoe.Thebest
knownEnglishfollowerofRousseau,ThomasDay,wroteHistoryofSandfordandMerton(17831789),a
threevolumecomparisonbetweenthevirtuesofHarrySandford,thepoorbutvirtuoussonofafarmer,and
TommyMerton,thespoiledsonofawealthymerchant,whoareeducatedundertheconstantmoralizingof
theirtutor,Mr.Barlow.MaryWollstonecraft'sOriginalStoriesfromRealLife(1788),illustratedbyWilliam
Blake,isasimilarstoryforgirls,withtherationalMrs.Masonfindingobjectlessonsfromnaturetoinform
hertwocharges,CarolineandMary.Rousseau'sbeliefintheabilitytoreasonwithchildrenratherthanusing
physicalpunishmentisexemplifiedinAnnaLaetitiaBarbauld'sLessonsforChildrenbooks(1778)aswellas
inRichardEdgeworth'sPracticalEducation(1798),writtenincollaborationwithhisdaughter,andinMaria
Edgeworth'sTheParent'sAssistant(1796).MariaEdgeworth,daughterofRichard,wasoneofthefinest
writersofmoraltales,whichwerethoseshortdomesticstoriesthatencouragedchildrentofocusonself
improvement.Suchmoraltaleswereoneofthedominantformsofchildren'sliteratureduringtheeighteenth
century.

FairyandFolkTales
Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,fairyandfolktaleswereconsideredinappropriatereading
materialforchildren,especiallyamongthemiddleclass.Puritansviewedthemasaformofwitchcraft,and
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bothLockeandRousseauwarnedagainsttheirfrighteningaspects,preferringstoriesofdailylife.Mary
SherwoodwasthemoststrictwriterofthemoraltaleandtheauthorofthepopularTheHistoryofthe
FairchildFamily(18181847),whichwasintendedtoprovidethereaderwithreligiouseducation.Atone
pointinthebook,aftertheFairchildchildrenquarrel,toteachthemalessontheirfathertakesthemtoa
gibbetonwhichhangsthedecayingbodyofamanwhowasexecutedforkillinghisbrother.Sarah
Trimmer'sFabulousHistories(1786)isataleinwhichafamilyofrobinsteachesmoralvalues.Trimmer
alsoeditedTheGuardianofEducation(18021806),ajournalforparentsandtutors,whichwasoneofthe
firsttoevaluatechildren'sbooksandtoattemptahistoryofchildren'sliterature.
Attitudestowardfairytalesaschildren'sliteraturechangedduringthenineteenthcenturywhenJacoband
WilhelmGrimmpublishedtheirtwovolumecollectionKinderundHausmrchen(18121815)inGermany.
TheGrimmswerepartoftheGermanromanticmovementand,withotherwritersforadultsincluding
LudwigBechstein,ClemensBrentano,andE.T.A.Hoffmannchampionedthefolktaleandtheliteraryfairy
tale.TheGrimmswereattemptingtocollectandpreserveGermanfolkloreforotherscholars,butwhen
EdgarTaylortranslatedthetalesintoEnglishasGermanPopularStories(18231826),herevisedand
redirectedthetalesforchildren.GeorgeCruikshankillustratedthevolumes,andhishumorousdesignswere
praisedbyJohnRuskin.ThepopularityoftheGrimm'sfairytalesaschildren'sliteraturewasbuttressedby
the1697publicationofCharlesPerrault'sHistories,oucontesdutempspass,avecdesMoralitez(1697).
Perrault'sartfulandmoralcollectionofeightfairytaleswastranslatedasHistories,orTalesofPastTimesin
1729byRobertSamber.TheliteraryfairytaleswrittenbyPerraultareoftenreferredtoasTheTalesof
MotherGooseorsimplyMotherGoose'sTales.ThephraseContesdemamerel'oyeappearedinthe
engravingofanolderwomantellingstoriestoagroupofchildrenthatservedasthefrontispieceofPerrault's
collectionthephrasewastranslatedbySamberas"MotherGoose'sTales."
FairytalesbecamefashionableamongadultsintheFrenchcourtattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyasa
resultofPerrault'spublicationandofMarieCatherineAulnoy'spublicationinthesameyearofContesde
fes(Storiesofthefairies).Aulnoy'scollectionofliteraryfairytaleswastranslatedintoEnglishin1699as
TheHistoryofTalesoftheFairies.AnotherinfluentialFrenchwriterofliteraryfairytaleswasMarie
Beaumont,whoimmigratedtoEnglandin1745,whereshepublishedMagasindesenfans(1756),which
wastranslatedintoEnglishasTheYoungMissesMagazine(1757).Theworkfeaturestheconversationsofa
governesswithher
TheoriginalteddybearthatinspiredA.A.Milne'sWinniethePooh(1926).Thebearwasgivenasapresent
toChristopherRobinMilnebyhisfatherandwasimmortalizedinMilne'stext,aswellasErnestShepard's
illustrationsandlaterDisney's..
pupilsandincludesanumberoffairytales,thebestknownbeingherversionof"BeautyandtheBeast."
Perrault'sfairytalesgraduallywereadoptedaschildren'stextsknowncollectivelyastalesofMotherGoose.
Aulnoy'sfairytaleswereidentifiedasthetalesofMotherBunchandbecamethebasisformanypantomines,
aVictorianfamilytheatricalentertainment.
HenryCole,underthepseudonymFelixSummerly,editedtheinfluentialseriesofchildren'sbooks,The
HomeTreasury(18431847),whichhelpedrehabilitatethereputationoffairytalesasappropriatechildren's
fare.Colewantedtheseriestodevelopimaginationinchildrenandalsotocounteracttheattacksonfairy
talesbywriterssuchasTrimmerandSherwood.Moreover,theserieswasintendedasanalternativetothe
enormouslypopularinformationbookswrittenbyPeterParley.ParleywasthepennameofSamuel
Goodrich,aprolificAmericanwriterofinformationbookswhoconsideredfairytalesandnurseryrhymes
coarseandvulgar.TheHomeTreasury,withitsnumerousfairytalesandworksofimaginativeliterature,was
conceivedbyColeasantiPeterParleyism.Theconstantbattleoverfairytales,animpulsethatpitsthevalue
ofstoriesofordinarylifeagainstimaginativeandfantasticaltexts,isadebatethatregularlyappearsinthe
historyofchildren'sliterature.
Dr.Seuss'sclassicTheCatintheHat(1957)waswrittenasareadingprimerforyoungerchildren,usinga
vocabularyofjustover200words.ThemostpopularofDr.Seuss'sbooks,TheCatintheHatsoldover7
millioncopiesbytheyear2000.Geisel,Theodor,illustrator.TMandcopyright1957andrenewed1985by
Dr.SeussEnterprises,L.P.Reproducedby
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WiththepublicationofHANSCHRISTIANANDERSEN'sEventyr,fortalteforborn(Tales,toldforchildren
1835,1843,1858,1861)intoEnglishin1848,thetriumphofthefairytaleaslegitimatechildren'sliterature
wascomplete.Shortlythereafter,collectionsoffolktalesandliteraryfairytales,whichwerewritteninthe
manneroffolktalesbyaspecificauthor,tendedtodominatechildren'sliteratureuntiltheendofthe
Victorianperiod.ThemostpopularliteraryfairytaleoftheVictorianperiodwasLewisCarroll'sAlice's
AdventuresinWonderland(1865),whichwasfollowedbyitssequelThroughtheLookingGlass(1872)both
wereillustratedbyJohnTenniel.Carroll'simaginativenovelsareoftencreditedwithchangingtheemphasis
ofchildren'sliteraturefrominstructiontodelight.Whencomparedwiththemajorityofthechildren'sbooks
thatprecededtheAlicebooks,Carroll'sworksareremarkablyfreeofreligiousorsociallessons.Carrolleven
gentlyparodiedIsaacWatts'spoem"AgainstIdlenessandMischief"fromDivineSongs(1715),yetthe
allusionalsoconfirmsthecontinuedpopularityofWatts'sreligiouswork.Religiouslessons,suchasthose
foundinGeorgeMacDonald'sAttheBackoftheNorthWind(1871),orsociallessons,asthoseemphasized
inChristinaRossetti'sSpeakingLikenesses(1874),remainedsignificantfeaturesofchildren'sliterature
duringtheVictorianperiod.
Carroll'sAlicebooksdidnotsinglehandedlycauseashiftinchildren'sliterature.CatherineSinclair's
HolidayHouse(1839),whichdescribesthefrolicsomeadventuresofLauraandHarryGraham,reintroduced
noisy,mischievouschildrenintotheworldofchildren'sbooks.HeinrichHoffmann'sLustigeGeschichten
unddrolligeBilder(Merrystoriesandfunnypictures)waspublishedinGermanyin1845butsincethethird
edition,whichappearedin1847,wasknownasStruwwelpeter.Itfeaturedillustrationsandpoemsthat
mockedtheexcessesofPuritancautionarytalesforchildren.EdwardLear'sBookofNonsense(1846)is
anothercelebratedcollectionofnonsenseversewithcomicillustrationsthatrejectstheimpulsetobemorally
improvingordidactic.Learspecializedinthelimerickalthoughhealsowasskilledatwritinglongerpoems,
suchas"TheOwlandthePussycat"and"TheDongwithaLuminousNose,"whicharetingedwith
melancholy.CarrollandLearareoftenpairedasthetwogreatwritersofnonsenseliterature.Bothauthors
wereinfluencedbythoseanonymouscomicversesknowninEnglandasnurseryrhymesandintheUnited
StatesasMotherGooserhymes.TherehavebeencountlesspublicationsofcollectionsofMotherGoose
rhymes.OneofthemostnotableisMotherGoose'sMelodies(1833),publishedbyMunroeandFrancisof
Boston,inwhichMotherGooseproudlyannouncesherselftobeoneofthegreatpoetsofallagesandona
firstnamebasiswithBillyShakespeare.JamesOrchardHalliwell'sNurseryRhymesandTalesofEngland
(1845)providedtherespectabilityfornurseryrhymesthatfairytaleshadalreadyachieved.

VictorianChildren'sLiterature
Victorianchildren'sliteraturereflectedtheculture'sseparatespheresformenandwomenwithdifferenttypes
ofbookswrittenforgirlsandboys.Storiesforgirlswereoftendomesticandcelebratedthefamilylife,such
asAlcott'sLittleWomenorKateDouglasWiggin'sRebeccaofSunnybrookFarm(1903).Storiesforboys,
suchasMARKTWAIN'sTheAdventuresofTomSawyer(1876)anditssequelAdventuresofHuckleberry
Finn(1884),encouragedboystohaveadventures.WhileVictorianchildren'sliteraturedevelopedthe
characterofthegoodandbadboy,femalecharacterswereallowedlessflexibility.Adventurestoriessuchas
R.M.Ballantyne'sTheCoralIsland(1858),RobertLouisStevenson'sTreasureIsland(1883),and
RUDYARDKIPLING'sKim(1901)becameapopulargenreforboys.Girlswereencouragedtoreadmoralistic
anddomesticfictionsuchasCharlotteYonge'sTheDaisyChain(1856)andtheextremelypopulargirls'
schoolstoriesbyL.T.Meade,begunwithTheWorldofGirls(1886).Animaltales,suchasAnnaSewell's
BlackBeauty(1877)andKipling'sTheJungleBook(1894)and
AnillustrationbyClementHurdforMargaretWiseBrown'sGoodnightMoon(1947).Intendedforchildren
undertheageofsix,Brown'sbookhasbecomeabedtimeclassicforgenerationsofchildren.Harper&Row,
Publishers,1975.Illustrationscopyrightrenewed1975by.
SecondJungleBook(1895),werethoughttoappealtobothsexes.Thistraditioncontinuedintothetwentieth
centurywithBEATRIXPOTTER'sTheTaleofPeterRabbit(1902),KennethGrahame'sTheWindinthe
Willows(1908),andE.B.White'sCharlotte'sWeb(1952)assomeofthemostmemorableanimalstories.
StuffedanimalsbecamethecharactersinA.A.Milne'sWinniethePooh(1926)andTheHouseatPooh
Corner(1828),whichareillustratedadmirablybyErnestShepard.

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Thesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturysawanexplosionofchildren'sliterature,bothintermsofquantity
andquality.Children'sliteraturehistoricallyhasbeenmoreopentowomenasauthorsandillustrators
becauseithasbeenconsideredlesssignificantthanadultliteratureandbecausepublishershaveregarded
womenasmorecapableofteachingandraisingchildren.Children'sliteraturealsobegantosegmentitselfin
termsofsocialclassaspennydreadfuls,ordimenovels,wereproducedfortheworkingclassandmorehigh
mindedliteraturewasproducedforthemiddleandupperclasses.
TheVictorianeraisconsideredagoldenageforbookillustrationandpicturebooks.Inthefirsthalfofthe
nineteenthcenturymostchildren'sbookswereillustratedwithwoodcutsorprintedonwoodblocksandthen
handcolored,butlaterinnovationsinprintingallowedforthewidespreaduseofcolor.Bythe1850sthe
mastercolorprinterEdmundEvansworkedwithsomeofthemostcapablepicturebookillustratorsofthe
ageincludingRandolphCaldecott,WalterCrane,KATEGREENAWAY,BeatrixPotter,andRichardDoyleto
producebrilliantpicturebooksandillustratedtexts.

ContemporaryChildren'sLiterature
Twentiethcenturychildren'sliteraturewasmarkedbyincreaseddiversityinbothcharactersandauthors.
Earlierpopularchildren'sbookssuchasJoelChandlerHarris'sUncleRemus,HisSongsandHisSayings
(1880)HelenBannerman'sTheStoryofLittleBlackSambo(1899)HughLofting'sTheStoryofDr.Dolittle
(1920)JeandeBrunhoff'sHistoiredeBabar,lepetitlphant(1931),translatedbyMerleHaasfromthe
FrenchasTheStoryofBabar,TheLittleElephant(1933)andRoaldDahl'sCharlieandtheChocolate
Factory(1964)havesincebeenjudgedracist.Mostchildren'sliteraturepriortothetwentiethcentury
embodiedawhiteideologythatwasreflectedinboththetextandillustrations.Fromthe1920son,therehave
beenattemptstoprovideamoremulticulturalapproachtochildren'sliterature.W.E.B.DuBois'sThe
BrowniesBook(19201921)wasthefirstAfricanAmericanchildren'smagazine.Itfeaturedstories,poems,
andinformationalessaysbyauthorssuchasLangstonHughesandJessieFauset.Overtimepublishers
becamemoreconcernedwithmulticulturalismandissuesofdiversity.NotableAfricanAmericanwriters
suchasArnaBontemps,LucilleClifton,MildredTaylor,VirginiaHamilton,andJohnSteptoeandAsian
AmericanwritersincludingLaurenceYep,AllenSay,andKenMochizukihaveforeverchangedtheonce
allwhiteworldofchildren'sliterature.
Ontheotherhand,children'sliteraturehasbecomemoresegmentedintermsofageappropriateness.Inthe
1940sMargaretWiseBrown,inspiredbytheeducationtheoriesofLucySpragueMitchell,thefounderofthe
BankStreetCollegeofEducation,begantoproducepicturebooksintendedforchildrenunderagesix.
Brown'sbestknownpicturebooksfortheveryyoungareTheRunawayBunny(1941)andGoodnightMoon
(1947),bothillustratedbyClementHurd.Mitchellalsopromotedstoriesthatreflectedtherealworldin
collectionssuchasherHereandNowStorybook(1921).Thisnewfoundinterestinagespecificmaterialled
tothecreationofthewidelyusedDickandJanereaders(19301965)developedbyWilliamS.Grayand
ZernaSharpanddistributedbyScottForemanandCompany.DR.SEUSS'sTheCatintheHat(1957)was
writtenasacreativealternativetosuchbasalreaders,althoughitwasalsodesignedasacontrolled
vocabularybook.
WhileLotharMeggendorferdevelopedthemovablepicturebookattheendofthenineteenthcenturywith
tabsandpullouts,popupbooks,shapedbooks,andtactilebooksdidnotachievewidespreadpopularityuntil
thetwentiethcentury.ThebestknownofthesebooksisDorothyKunhardt'sinteractivePattheBunny
(1940).Morecontemporarytexts,suchasJanPienkowski'spopupbooksHauntedHouse(1979)andRobot
(1981),blurthedistinctionsbetweenbookandtoy.Boardbooksareavailableforinfantsandtoddlerssome
ofthemostimaginativearetheseriesofRosemaryWells'sMaxbooks,beginningwithMax'sRide(1979),
whichprovidecompellingstoriesforpreschoolers.
Whilemanytwentiethcenturychildren'stextsappealedtoandexploredthelivesofolderchildren,most
criticspointtoMaureenDaly'sSeventeenthSummer(1942)andJ.D.Salinger'sTheCatcherintheRye
(1951)asthebeginningofadolescentliteratureasagenreseparatefromchildren'sliterature.Morerecently,
middleschoolliteraturehasemergedasadistinctivecategory.TextssuchasBeverlyCleary'sRamonaseries,
whichbeganwithBeezusandRamona(1955),LouiseFitzhugh'sHarriettheSpy(1964),andJudyBlume's
problemnovels,suchasAreYouThereGod?It'sMe,Margaret(1970),haveattractedreaderstoooldfor
picturebooksbutnotreadyfortheadolescentnovel.
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SERIESBOOKSremainalarger,butcontested,segmentofchildren'sliterature.Booksthatfollowthesameset
ofcharactersorrepeatanestablishedformulahavebeenanimportantpartofchildren'sliteraturesincethe
nineteenthcenturywiththepublicationofHoratioAlger'snovels,whichfeaturepluckyboyswhogofrom
ragstoriches,orMarthaFinley'sseriesonthepiousbutpopularElsieDinsmore.Earlyinthetwentieth
centuryEdwardStratemeyer'ssyndicateofanonymouswriterswrotebooksformultipleseriesundervarious
pseudonyms,includingtheNancyDrewseriesasCAROLYNKEENE,theHardyBoysseriesasFranklinW.
Dixon,andtheTomSwiftseriesasVictorAppleton.Whilelibrariansandcriticshavetendedtodismissthe
repetitivenatureofseriesbooks,someseriesbookssuchasLauraIngallsWilder'sLittleHouseseries,begun
withLittleHouseintheBigWoods(1932),andC.S.Lewis'scollectionChroniclesofNarnia(19501956),
whichstartedwithTheLion,theWitch,andtheWardrobe(1950)havebeenrecognizedasoutstanding
worksofliterature.Nonetheless,mostseriesfictionsuchasL.FrankBaum'sOzseries,begunwith
WonderfulWizardofOz(1900)R.L.Stine'sGoosebumpsseries,begunwithWelcometotheDeadHouse
(1992)andAnneMartin'sBabySittersClubseries,begunwithKristy'sGreatIdea(1986)havebeen
embracedbyolderchildrenbutgenerallydismissedbyadultsandcriticsasinsubstantial.
Mediaadaptationofchildren'sbooksasfilmsorasTELEVISIONserieshasbecomeanincreasinglyimportant
aspectofchildren'sliterature.PopulartelevisionserieshavebeenbasedonbookssuchasWilder'sLittle
HouseseriesandMarcBrown'sArthurAdventureseries,begunwithArthur'sNose(1976).WaltDISNEYhas
dominatedthefieldoffilmadaptationofchildren'stextsintocinema,beginningwithSnowWhiteandthe
SevenDwarfs(1937),thefirstfeaturelengthanimatedfilm.Bestknownforanimatedfilmsbasedonfairy
tales,Disneyhasproducedanumberofliveactionfilms,suchasMaryPoppins(1964),basedonP.L.
Travers'sMaryPoppins(1934),aswellasanimatedfeaturesbasedonCarloCollodi'sLeavventuredi
Pinocchio(1882)andT.H.White'sTheSwordintheStone(1939).AsisthecasewithVictorFleming'sfilm
TheWizardofOz(1939),basedonL.FrankBaum's1900novel,orAlfonsoCuaron'sfilmALittlePrincess
(1995),basedonFrancesHodgsonBurnett's1905novel,filmadaptationsoftenchange,ifnotrevise,the
originaltext.Thiscomplicatesthemeaningofachildren'stextwhenchildrenaremorefamiliarwithatext
throughviewingamediaadaptationthanthroughreadingthebook.
Sincethe1960s,anincreasingnumberofwelldesignedpicturebookshavebeenproduced.Suchbook
illustratorsasMauriceSendakwithWheretheWildThingsAre(1963),ChrisVanAllsburgwithJumanji
(1981),andAnthonyBrownewithGorilla(1983)havecreatedhighlyimaginativepicturebooks.Talented
graphicdesignerssuchasEricCarlewithTheVeryHungryCaterpillar(1969),LeoLionniwithSwimmy
(1963),andLoisEhlertwithColorZoo(1989)haveprovidedboldnewapproachestocreatingpicture
books.
Despitetherecenttrendofcategorizingchildren'sliteraturebyage,anincreasingnumberofadultshave
begunreadingchildren'sbooks,blurringtheboundariesbetweenchildren'sandadulttexts.J.K.Rowling's
HarryPotterseries,begunwithHarryPotterandtheSorcerer'sStone(1997),haswideappealwithboth
childandadultreaders.FrancescaLiaBlock'spostmodernfairytales,suchasWeetzieBat(1989),andthe
darklyironicASeriesofUnfortunateEventsseriesbyLemonySnicket,whichbeganwithTheBad
Beginning(1999),bothhavestrongadultreadership.Picturebookshavealwaysbeenashowcasefor
designersandillustratorstodisplaytheirtalents.IncreasinglysophisticatedpicturebookssuchasDavid
Maccaulay'sBlackandWhite(1990)orthepostmodernrevisionsoffairytaleswrittenbyJonScieszkaand
illustratedbyLaneSmithinTheStinkyCheeseManandOtherFairlyStupidFairyTales(1992)appealas
muchtoadultsastochildren.Contemporarychildren'sliteraturecontinuestobeahighlyinnovativeand
challengingfield.Aschildren'sliteraturehasbecomeanincreasinglyfinanciallyprofitablebusiness,more
successfulwriterswhohavefirstestablishedthemselvesaswritersforadults,suchasCarlHiassen(Hoot
[2002])andMichaelChabon(Summerland[2002]),arechoosingtowriteforchildren.
Seealso:ABCBooksJuvenilePublishingMovies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Avery,Gillian.1965.NineteenthCenturyChildren:HeroesandHeroinesinEnglishChildren'sStories1780
1900.London:HodderandStoughton.

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Avery,Gillian.1994.BeholdtheChild:AmericanChildrenandTheirBooks.Baltimore:JohnsHopkins
UniversityPress.
Bader,Barbara.1976.AmericanPicturebooksfromNoah'sArktotheBeastWithin.NewYork:Macmillan.
Carpenter,Humphrey,andMariPrichard,eds.1984.TheOxfordCompaniontoChildren'sLiterature.
Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.
Darton,F.J.Harvey.1932.Children'sBooksinEngland:FiveCenturiesofSocialLife.Cambridge,UK:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
Green,RogerLancelyn.1964.TellersofTales:BritishAuthorsofChildren'sBooksfrom1800to1964.New
York:FranklinWatts.
Hunt,Peter,ed.1995.Children'sLiterature:AnIllustratedHistory.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Hunt,Peter,ed.1996.IntentionalCompanionEncyclopediaofChildren'sLiterature.NewYork:Routledge.
Hrlimann,Bettina.1959.ThreeCenturiesofChildren'sBooksinEurope.Trans.anded.BrianAlderson.
Cleveland,OH:WorldPublishingCompany.
Jackson,MaryV.1989.EnginesofInstruction,Mischief,andMagic:Children'sLiteratureinEnglandfrom
ItsBeginningto1839.Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress.
Muir,Percy.1954.EnglishChildren'sBooks.London:B.T.Batsford.
Silvey,Anita,ed.1995.Children'sBooksandTheirCreators.Boston:HoughtonMifflin.
Thwaite,MaryF.1963.FromPrimertoPleasureinReading.Boston:TheHornBook.
Townsend,JohnRowe.1974.WrittenforChildren:AnOutlineofEnglishLanguageChildren'sLiterature.
NewYork:J.B.Lippincott.
Watson,Victor,ed.2001.TheCambridgeGuidetoChildren'sBooksinEnglish.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
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