DOVER BOOKS ON ENGINEERING ‘Abbott and Even Down (S88). ‘ec, More oT Bast aur oF Rao Macs, Rtherord ‘Ais 51105) Arica ce Woes sao Booes, Hol Asley and Marten Lands (win) Duos us Poets Mca Bea. (65756) Aes, Raymond L. Bisping, Hol Atle and Robert aman (6835), ‘tw Prone or Fo Mono, Robert. Brody, (46-1) ‘Assur ches or Ges, are Buckingham (97124) aecomooae se trance Sony Chanel (64071X) ‘Ato er Mis Rene Dugan (52) Puosamasne Taso or Srucrns, Sermo EEmoN, tae Et ‘ioe ‘ina yo Ravn oF Nownean Yoconarne Meenas, Wil N. Pode, aan Kast Onaran. C168) Mera ng NE, rst Kr an Pook (4007.9) Wore Morsay ase Scam, Kal Gat (7450) Fu Mix Robert Granger S86, Daa Pass. W Haig (08%) ‘hope vo Sac, on Ear (588-2) aur Drsn Con nests Mon Hrs, (64281) Messe vise 1 P,DeaHartog (678) Th Pere Eon Msi Lean Sane to Drs Py Paras "acute, Thomoe I Highs 1188) sss Was SH Kol, (61088) crs Huson Sos spa Eanes Deen, To, Wa Foss rt aan np Reem, iano A Rov and Tress Mtkorn caters) Cconmig Vaaaus 0 Lara Teo 8 Ean, Whur TePage (e31250) ‘Taxzountacaen Sse Buwno illan .Ldy and Maro K, ‘Son (838%). sors oF VISTOL Fate, Barnes W: MeCornc, e (AD05) ‘Donen ArmDnvAN LM Mle Thomson 19903) ‘Nokia Bam: Downs RW Ogden (6480) ‘Urn Avs Saumns of Het a MSD M.D Mow thd A Nera Ovi (T8768). Arp Hao 90 AanowroUes, Ladi Prandtl and OG. Tess, Gas. ‘Tuer Proceso Cunmrsny Rescrne Row Sora, Daniel E Rosner @tts20) (onan en back Map)ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS LW. Liepmann and A. Roshko California Institute of Technology DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. ‘Mineola, New YorkCopy © 157, 1085 by H.W Leann Ro ‘gece copyright© 1005 by Amen nate of Pyss ‘ifs ees wee Pr Aen strona Copyright Boiogrophcl Nite ‘Thy Dove eho, at pb n 201, a marge xpi som othe wo ogy pale Ja Wey Sone, Nok, iT, wh te mio» ot Append a he cretion es Sar epg ie Pp [fit NE 8 eed ein of “eer att yn Library of Congres Cataloging Publication Dat ‘epann, HW Has Weng) 1014- let of ganic H.W. gpa and A. Rk hy pti: Now Ys: Wy, 107, ne Gai ar Toca agra ferences a ISaN osteo gt 1 Gar dynamin Asani. Rshh, A. (Ata HT, cies 15 201 Sos" ae snovoer00 Manure inthe Usted Saes of Americn Dover Plato ne 3 Fat Stet, Mine 1502 Editors’ Preface ‘The sim ofthe present volume isto modernize and extend the treatment ol compre id serodynamia which appeared in 1947 fn the GALCITY teres under the authorship of Hane W. Lipasn and Allen B, Puckett, ‘The new volume includes a review of many problems of high-speed aero dynamics which have secived incresed attention by engineers and sien= ‘its in the lat decade, The etre blve that nation to such exten- slo in the treatment of aeodyaaiae problems, the reader wl wea the {nlsin of the last chapter, containing a short presentation of the fda mental concepts of the kinetic theory of gases, and also the references in (Chapter 1 to ame problams in serothermochemstzy, auch athe le af ras action and digoclaion, Tt appears that catan fundamentals of ‘physis and chemical Kinetics are gaining more and more importance inthe Fld of seronastical enginerng. "This bok i intended mal for the we of studets in aeronautics, but ts hoped that it wil aso be usfl to practicing enginers and scientists ho work on problems involving the aerodynamics of compresble fs “Taronons vont Kina ‘Cuams B, Masa seein Accnmtia! abrir, Cari eta TealAuthors’ Preface Problems of fow of a compresible fu have been stu for along time, For instance, shock waves were iavestgnted in the last centr, some of the hodograph methods were studied areund 1900, and many featues of moze ow, supersonic ets et, were known at about the sume time, The fandamental formla for the theory of thin supersonic wings ‘ould ave been found in Lord Rayleih's “Theory of Sond" The interest Jn this ld, owever, was zstvcted toa very small group of people. On the one hand the unsolved problems interested ony w few physicists the ‘majority considered the subject closed and uninteresting. ‘On the other Ind, the applications of gaiynamics were almost entirely restricted to ‘lists and steam tarbine design and thus interested only «small number "The Tntadrton to Aerodynamics faComprarie Fld by 8, Puckett snd the seaior author appeared in 1947. "That book, developed from war tealning courses taught bythe author, was intended to fais a ebereat account of the topics from gasdynamics which were of prime interest for ‘eronaticalappllation at that tine, For a numberof year now, it ha ‘ben apparent that a new edition, with revision and extension of that ‘atrial was nse. At the time of pblicatio, the book was practically the nly English textbook onthe sujet, but a numberof exellent books ‘have appened since thea, and some rudients of compresble uid flow ‘am now be found in many elementary did mechanics tet Tea therefore decide to abandon a revision ofthe erga text and Instead to rewrite the book completly” The choice af mate today is ‘uch more dificult thas it wasat the tine the Induction ppered, After some consideration it was decided to spl the mates into evo independent ‘yolumes. One ofthese the present one, includes the Frvamental material ‘of gasiyamies but goes no further into aplleation than what i necesary tollustate the theory. Wehope this willbe flloved eventually by anather ei AUTHORS PREFACE volume in the GALCITY series, more advanced and specaied, with rials emphasis on the aeronautical and eile els. ‘Thus the preent volume is inendel to cover the fundamentals of ene ynanics. Even so the choice of material was not easy. Forte book to ‘be uptodate without being excessively larger and more expensive than the rignal one, it was necessary to anit some topics and methods Which are les interesting now than they were ten yeas ago, ‘Thee ae now mostly of casa and historical intrest, or of special ites in some research problems. Their omisin doesnot aller the sim ofthe Doak, to provide 1 working understanding ofthe eset ofp flow. Compared othe Fniavacton the present vlume sate more vanced, Hoowever, we fel that this completely inline withthe yeneral tread in Dhysiy and enginering education snd thatthe present volume fits into the ‘fuentional program at about the same pont that the Fraction Sted tthe time it appeared. The book is agua intended to form the founda tion fora study of the specalined Ieratre and should yive the necessary ‘background for reading orginal papers onthe ebject. Tt ent Intend to ‘bea handbook in any sense ofthe word. We havent attempted to include All posible approaches and methods; neither have we attempted to inchde ‘complete materi in tables, gaps, and eharte for speci ue in engineering design. Tes often stated thatthe inclusion of such material wil make ‘book “practical” for enghering us. We believe that this isnot so but ‘that an inchon of sach mater would make the book very “Snipesti” and very rapidly dated, ‘The choice of «specie conSgerntion, auch as ‘ptimum wing wind Luana, ora shock te, i governed bya large num ber of stringent constraints, General pracpes wn extents canbe given ina textbonk sch as the present ne but the applinton of thee to 8 specific design must be left to the designer. ‘Thus the omission of specie ‘exign data reflects hgh opinion of engineering design, nat the contrazy “The exercves which re given atthe end of the book ae mainly intended to demonstrate the use of the terial in the text and to otlne sional ‘abject, result and equations Simple umerial problems have been Almost entirely omitted. We fel that thee problems are best mde up by the instructor or even by the student himself Tn the tet they mould have taken up much space with comparatively litle help to either insrctor or student. Tn othr wars the function and competence of the Jstrctr regarded in quite the sume way a that ofthe designe, “The general prerequisites of the ook are sch that it can be wed as & textbol in venir and first graduate courses. At the California Entitte of ‘Technology, part af the subject matter ir ven in an Introductory couse and part in mae advanced, graduate cour, A working knowledge of {Ose Arena! attr, Cali Tit of Teco AvrnoRs resrace ‘ caleulus dnd elementary concepts of physics is assumed, Here and there 1 stare” artice of more advanced scope i inserted, but these do not ‘evoualy let the continuity ofthe tet and can be omitted a fie reading. ‘References in the text are usually made only where @apecic,receat per hasbeen wed, Reference to work that hts Heome “lassie!” ave ot bee yateratcally given, Ali of suggested veding i neladed atthe ‘dof the book. We apoogie forthe unystematic way in which references fe given inthe text and for the obviows ominsons and inconsisteni in ‘rhith this result” Any author who is part of an active and cowely kit ‘esearch group tends toward the oulok a interest ofthe group. Since ‘were o exceptions, there isa certain predomiaance of GALCTT material Jn some parts ofthe book ‘During he work on the manuscript we have Beaeited from contact with many caleagues.Speifeally we Wish to expres our appreciation 1 Z. Blevs, J.D, Cale, E- W. Graham, P. A, Lagestom, and C. B. Milian. ‘Much of the material in Chapter 5 developed frm discussions wits Dr. P ‘Wegener. We ate allo indebted to Dr, W. D. Hayes for hi cxitcal and ‘conrrotive review of an ety manuscript and to Mr, Brdord Starterant for his cael and competent proofreading and checking. Mrs. Beverly Cottingham and Ms. Alrae Tingley have contebuted greatly to the prepare- tion and completion of the manusrpt. HW. Lxenucans A Resta fom,Contents CHAPTER 1, CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS Tumwooreiaae Sees Vanna or Sane {Dee Pe Pons Tae mama are Raver Proce Pree Cue ‘hat Gears or Enwors, Tet Seas Law ‘it Caromeas Egsanon of State Tate Bnew aso Pra Eereanry Renvocry Rasaove oor tn Tnuseom Proce (CLAPPER 2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMICS ‘ur Commies Eouaon ‘et ewer Eouaron Resa Camunone Busty Egearon et Rowen tor ‘Stem of Soon; Sues Ness ‘Tee Amatuoary Reason Rests Yow ve Exit Eycanon ‘Benoa Equiion; Dee Prout Tow a Consra Atwe ‘Tee Noma Shock Haamons ron 4 Peer Gs CLAPTER . ONEDIMENSIONAL FAYE MOTION ‘ar Poors Snook Wave Ome Dacnonae lennon Eqcanons SEUSUENE SEE econ saenesensese& cowrenrs {Tue Acoure Egsaons rorianon ov Acs Wares ‘Ter Sean on Sone Prose a Pare Yet 4 Sova Wave inueas” Soo Tae lneytone Wares op Pee Aun (Gammy Bxasaon Ware CHAPTER 4 WAVES IN suPERSOMIC FLOR niger Son Wat oe mae bam ¢ Mar Lines aime! Paro Amir ‘Wau Ontgce Sua Sermon Conran ny Tone Suet ao Nome Raton Inetcno oF Shoces orm Suet Faster Derscns Soc Soak anunon Tasony or Ss ‘Te Monee Pass Cine Sema Po ‘CuLAPrER 5. FLOW 1 DUCTS axD Wino TUNNELS Tam or Coane oF Vane Ams Noms Row Nott Sac Racone Barer or Satone Tear {ew Paosseincr ap Wi Tovase. Dero ‘Ware Tomas Cousens CHAPTER 6 atETHODS OF MEASUREMENT gessezess BERS Eesesceeras BESS & ry covrewrs a 462 Sri Presne wm ft Mu Newnes oye Peasns Mason ie 1 Sone Pcie Consomnrons rt 18 Tie Stasow Merron ta SM eaansce Marmon i 15. Mew Zemwne nereonees is ( Iesmanoutrs Teorege 1s ‘i Duc Massiewenr or See Paco Hm 0 Horne Pro i (30 Shock Tear haraoweeanon m CHAPTER 2. THE EQUATIONS OF FRICTIONLESS SLOP 12 Noramow i 13 Tee Baoanon or Oormnere 1 Th Tee Mower Eqeano ae 15 Tet Ermer Eguamon ms 3 Snuryve mn Bercy Hove ro aS Rows oF tte Bqsnows oF Moron m0 CHAPTER 0, SMALLPERTURBATION THEORY 12 Danae or mut Parnarion Bxvinon Ps 35 TreDocnsonar Plow Pasr 4 WaveSuaras Wat me Ne Ware War m Smut Pua a CHAPTER 9. BODIES OF REVOLUTION. SLENDER BODY THEORY 54 Gummi, Coomanans ae 55 Domary Comnmone mLEee - corres covrerrs . 24 Mam core = cuarren va. EFBCES OF VISCOSITY Axo coNoucrIriTy 25 Semone how ed 133 Rea freee a Be Vase Seno He S Rt Hatter penn caer how m 2, Seca S BS rect umf bron Yoo & Bin ie ana Str = star oomurtsm coc = 3H Si as Ce = eS Mv ms ee Far Pe % 32, Steer De’ = ep Cake tat Semana soon 2k Yr Rwermn me Sermon How 2 3S feteacner Sreror sr bom ie Aocane fe Serie ser Eman FA er irene = 2s Gener Scere = vay an tn = Be Git Fig rn San Bo 7 Reon & EM boomer Ltr Peas Ome rvs Rar Fae s Ei Romi Swe Wan = ie 1B To ma = ClAeTeR 1. THE SIMRLANIFY RULES OF McSPE=D FLOR Be Sees eniarlse mene 7 S82 Festuca: Lm Ram, Pane so Gomer IEW Goo ow o 4 Dace ot ES i 5 tay, stom: Taine Paw. vor Kis Ram CHAPTER. coveteTs Row cases cas Soe ow = nen = Pattie 5 Anno we Seam La = 1S ern ecm 5 Ki tic" nouan one Sea Fa {eRe cma = 16) Tits oS or Re = cuarren n. reasome rior 1s, he Movas Saucon = ‘chee mo {ee Te rome at Ge EA tele dae 2 16 nanos a rie Powe Rasaon Tae BA ear Ms Ree = 1 Marva ent Cet = BE Betws ow hr Wom 3 a {eb Sat aw on ats Ro Car = 1S Thame Faw Past Soom TwoDosesonas Saree Tae Qe Ao en ms hs ‘eit Rete Bsc of Damm or mon ae Bee woe cour g 1 flr Sor ar = cuarren x. a usraoo oF cuanscrenstcs am eens Inriovecnion ca = rmente Faaon = {er coms anon = som Cumin Tarmrone 7 Sm 2 lure aus = “ ‘son So Fo a 1 i Tsar ye rn Sone ow = ‘uy Somes Ror = XH Roy Pus cs Soo Row ° Scene or = We Pacer ett Pw os ‘eat Pane = et aa en te Fain Pron to ti 3 cums Sas sro me = | 1 ras Stowe Ge 2 Shermer ans am Were EY E okte St at 3APPENDIX covrenrs or | | | | CHAPTER Y Concepts from ‘Thermodynamics 44 Introduction “The base of any physical theory ita set of experimental results, Fimm those special primary observation, general principles are abtacted, which ‘canbe formulate in words orn mathenaticl equations. These principles fe then applied to corelat and explain a group of physical phenomena and to predict new oes, ‘The experimental bass of thermodynamics is formalized in the so-called principal lava. ‘The law of conservation of enery, which themsodynamce {hues with mechanic, eletrodymamic, ee is oe of these peacpal avs. eintroduces the concept of intemal exergy of system. The other principal lume of thermodynamic intzoduce aud define the properties of entropy and temperate, the two concept which are pactiular and fundamental for ‘enmodynaics. "The principles ini down ia these ondamneatl we apply othe relations between equim states of mater in bulk, For inate, thermody amis yields th relation between the spcisc hats at constant pressure fd at constant volume; i ates the temperature dependence ofthe vapor Dresure to te tet het of evaporation; pves upper bounds for the Uftceney af eytic pretence, Fluid machanie of pores! Side, e, Buda without viscosity and heat conlctivity, is an extension of equlbriam thermodynamics to moving Aids. The Kael energy ofthe fad bas no tobe conabeed in adaton {to te internal energy which the Gud poseates when at est. The ratio of ‘this Kinetic energy per unit mask tothe intoral energy pee unit mass i 8 ‘Sharactrist dimensioalos questi of the flow problem and inthe simplest ‘aes dretly proportional tothe equate ofthe Bach number. Themna- ‘yous reals are taken over to petet fd How almost dec. Fluid machi of rst ids goes beyond clases! thermodynamics. The tcansport proces of momentum and heat are of primary interest hee, And system through which morentum, Beat ater, et, are beng Wass. Dore isnot ina state of thermodynamic equibrinm, except in some rather {evil cae, such as uriform dow of matlerUbough xed system. ‘Bat, even though thermodyaacs not fly and det pliable to2 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS al phases of veal ld lw, ii often extremely hulp in eating the nti ‘tod inal conditions. This complet of problems is best iustratd with = simple emple- Assume a closed, Mea-insulting container divide into ‘oro compurtsents by a daghmm, ‘The cnpertnens contain the sae gus but at diferent pressures fy sd pa, ad iferenttemperatutes 7 and Ts. Tf the diaphragm is removed suddenly, a complicated system of hock ad expansion wavea ocr, and nally subides due to viscous daping ‘Thermodynamics predicts the prere and temperatute in this fal sate easily. Pid mechanics of «veal Hid shoud tackle the far more difclt lack of computing the pressure, temperate ele a8 fanetion of te and location within the container. |For large tne, presare and temperatre vel approach the thermodynamizally given value, Sometimes we nec! ‘nly thse final, equlxium values and hence can make very good wse af ‘thermodynamic reasoning even fr problem that involve sel id fw. "In fui mechanics of low-speed flow, thamodynanic considerations are ot mended the heat content of the fd ie then so lage compared to the “lnetic energy ofthe ow thatthe temperate remains neal constant even ifthe whole Kinetic energy is transformed into het. In modern high-speed flow problems, the oppoite can be true. The inte energy can be large compare to the heat content of the moving ga, and the varation in temperature ean become very lage indeed.” Cone” ‘quent the importance of thermodynatnie concepts has become stedily ffouter. The chapter therfore incades material that it mere advanced od no needed forthe blk of the later chapters. Ariles that ate starred fan be onited at fist reading without ls of contin. 442 Thermodynamie Systems |A thermodynamic sytem Is & quantity of matter spared from the “surrounding” rte “eronment” by an endnure. ‘The systems studied sth the lp of measurements arid outs ected in the suroundings Ts Uhermometerisrtd into w sytem form part ofthe surovndings Work done by moving piston measured by, ty the extension af peng or the movement of weight nthe suroundings,” Heat transfered to the ‘system is measured allo by changes inthe suroundings, eg. eat may be transfered by an electrical heating ol, ‘The cectic power meatred i the surroundings. The enclosure does not necasully consist af «solid boundary lke the walls of a yeaa. Tt i ony necessary thatthe eclenare forme cet face ad thats proper are defined evenynhere. An exlsire nay ‘ranamit heat or bea beat insulator. Ttmay be deformable and this xpabie of tananiting wark tothe stam. Te may alo be xpabe of tant ‘nase, Every real wal as any one ofthese properties to certain degre. CONCEPTS FROM THERMODYNAMICS a ‘There donot exis perfecty rg wall for example, and sniley there is no perfect hst inate. However, it is conveaint to ase an Heald ‘enconue, contig of parts which have welleined properties such ‘ompete het insaltin, ete. or our purposes iti sulicent to dea with fds only, ‘The aysteme hat we sal cone hee are (a) A simple, anageneous system composed a a single gas o i (8) A homogenenon mixture of ges. (@) A heterogeneous aystem composed ofthe quid and gscous phase of single substance 19. Vavabes of State ‘Ha pte islet alone fora cnt log tine that neat and no mars andre fo it no work x done on ug hs tng Witveach sect equlium, Allmecronoplealysnanrble quan Wil Lec independent of te. Forex the prewar py the value rand temperature canbe eas edn clit nat pend "Yrs that depen only won the tte ft syst ae called wri sil of ants and V are evidetly sich vse, and hee to are they fami metic, For «compete terodjeale do Shomol caption we neal er arb state fen to mean Ths Mina result ofexperience hat the pant of yt snot ons fnction ode vlume, Ane vale of Ste, the tempera, has to beno- dace Fore sinpesyten, p= are) ay Following R, H. Fowler, on states the “seoth law of thermodynamics": “Thee exatsa vatible of tate the temperature Two sytem that sein thermal contac, Le, separated by en enlosre that transmits heat, ae in eulbrinm nly if @ the same in both Consequently, with the lp of Eq. we can use the presse ad the ‘volume ofan atitary syrtom a « thenatmetr Whe we discus the exchange of work or heat between a system and its surrounding, we find the ned for avaible of sate, the internal eneey, tmhich meesares the energy stored inthe system. The fst lw of tro. ynamicy introdcen , a wl be see ater. Purthermove we sal nt neceazy to introduce n variable of sate S, the entropy, which, for example, is need to decide wheter a state i in fable equilibrium. The svnd Tow of thomodspamics introduces $ and (eines it proper.EEE Err 4 ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS Fora simple system Band S ae functions off, V8. Bu, sac pcan be expressed by V and sing Bq 1 its aulicient to write: B= BY.) 2) s=s0,9) as) Relations tke Bas. 14, 12 and 13 are ale aqatons of at. Specially 1g, I iscalle the “thermal equation of sate"; Bq. 1-2, the “are equa lion of state” A speci mbstance is characterised hy ie equations of state. The for of thee equations cannot be obtained from teem ‘ams but aze obtained from measurements or ele, for ptiaar mole ‘ar model, fom statistical mestanks or Kine theory. “Any variable of states uniquely defined fr any equirium state of the system. For example, a sytem changes from ove state of equilibrium, sy A to another state By then fp ~ Bs lndependent of the process by ‘which the change ceared. ‘Th important consequences of this property of the vaiables of state will become evident Inter ‘One distinguishes between intense and extensive variable of sate. A arable is ale exe if ts vale depends on the mas of the system, ‘The mass fof system aU anextenie quantity, and sare, V, an. or example the internal energy’ H of certain mass of gu doled i the man is doubled the energy of a ystem tht conats of weveral pats equal othe sur of the energies of the pars. Varibles of state that do ot depend upon the total mass ofthe system sre called flouise variables and are type intensive variable, For very extensive viable ike Ewe can intoduce an intensive vars the ‘energy per unit mass or specie energy. Simlsiy we can define a specie volume », specie entropy s, ete. Specie quantities il be denoted by Tower cate Iter, 14 The Pirst Principal Law Consider fui contained in a eat-ingulating encore, which slso ‘contains. parle whel that can beset into motion by falling weight. The ‘reaure ofthe system sept constant, The tesoperatue# and the volume ‘are measured iil (atte), The weigh allowed to drop «known distance, and @ and ¥ are measured again afer the motions in the esters Ihave died down and a new state of equibiam B has bon established, Tn this waya certain arount of wack, equal tothe decreas in potential energy of the weight, ha bon dane onthe sytem, Conservation of enerty ques that this work i stored within the system, Hence there exit & Sanction (0) such that Bee wn concxPTs FRow THERMODYNAMICS 5 1 sala posible to use work to produce an lets current and to apply ‘his work to the system inthe form of beat given of by aheting coll Hoth ‘ofthese experiments were pesformed by Joule in hs casi studies o the ‘echanicl equivalent of heat. A ven mount of work done on the stem ‘yes the same diferenc in internal eneegy regardless ofthe rate at which the work i done and regal of how i is tnsmited. ‘One can furthenmae fax the eopdan of camplete heat insulation and lw alo the pesnge of certain amount of heat Q through the enclrie ‘Qean be define clorialy by the change in temperature of» given mas of ‘rater, or one ean ate Joule’ experiments to deine Q entirely in mechanical terms, Tes important, however, to dain Q and 17 in tems of changes ‘meneued inthe surroundings ‘We can thot formulate the rst aw ‘There exists vane of state, the intemal energy. If 2 system i transformed from a state of equim 4 to another one, B, by a process in which certain amount of work WV ix done bythe strondings and & ‘tan qusalty of heat Q lever the surroundags, the diference fa the “internal energy of the gystem Is equal tothe sum of @ and W, By~Ba=0+W pas) {Ris often convenient to dacs simple delized enlout, the eylnder- plston arrangement of Hig. i. ‘The einer walle ae assumed rigid. We Y 7) 7A. Pin 11 Cyndie agent, can amime them to be hea insulting o capable of eat trnsmisin, ‘depending om the pecs chat we wih to stad. Work ean be done by the suroundings only by the displacement of the plata. W is defined a in rmechancs in terms of force vector anda displacement dr, wa fe 0‘ RLEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS ‘The fore actog os the piston i parallel tothe placement; thus, iato- ducing the pessve pan the piston surface area A, we bave wa frssrn—foar a with the convention tha V i positive the volume ofthe ayn increase This not dificult to sow that Eq, 16 leads to Bq. 17 even in the cae of prenures acing ona deformable encloeare of any shape. (Sher forces an be Intedced alo this is dane later in dnctsng the exations of motion ‘ofa real fi in Chapter 13.) Fora amall change of state, we can write Eq. 15 in difereatl form, ae ag+ aw as) or, wing Ba 17, aE» ag pav (1) Bguation 18s can also be written for unit mas dem dg ~ pan des) Now Bis variable of stat, whereas Q and 7 depend om the proces fel lowed In changing the ste. ‘This smetines nated by weg nd 89 fsa of 7 and dQ. We sal not flow this castom here 15 erverile and Reverible Processes A chang of tat of pte pol only by proces for which ak=0+W ‘The fist lw dae not rete the parle process any farther. ‘Now in the pale whtelexpexinnt of Jol tx evident imposible to reve the det of the proce Ope casot induce the Welt txenct the energy AE from the sam ad ot the weg. "The ren iver Tes vey ean to nd besa sitatins, abd indeed ail nal oy “sponte” proces a7 rei TE one scenes that reverie presi Becrmes evident tht the deviation of the system fom eqn daring the ross is of primary inportance. A ‘tion tke the sng of ld, sudden beating, etna caren in theyatem. ‘The tern rent resto the fs of goatty ie est, mash momentum A creat of eat Bows fhe ext Gat em perature difeence; a cent of mass ovo, if thre exist diferent foocmntation of one componmt; a cent of moment dows, i the ‘it difeences in wey. 4 spi iin ae of quit fi foo erent. & proces eding tom on stat to anothers roel the system renin rng CONCEPTS PROM THERMODYNAMICS 7 the whole proces in equlibriumsi.e ifthe work Wand the beat Q are added In auch a way that no carens are produced, Such an ial reversible Brocesscan actually be cou approximated in an expeiment. For ex- Ample instead of uring the paddle wheal, F could be transfered to aa in- ulate aystem by alow daplacement of piston sn that the preaare and temperature remain unilem within the aystem durag the whole proces (rere 19 gives simple and instructive rample af an reversible proc =) "Th changes of state dca here ea from oe stale condition of the rystam to another. Ttinaften much mare convenient to amide prosaies that proceed at a steady rte. This ia true for many measurements in ‘thermodynamics and is esentil for Auid mechanics. Thus, instead of ‘dig with a padle whet in a closed “calorimeter,” as in Joe's exeri- ‘ment, we may condor hea-inalated dct Jn which Bd Sows at steady rate trough a turbine whee orf ‘The eyster const now of ‘tan mas of ful which passes Cough the fan. Tastead of dealing with a ‘sytem befor and after the motion ofthe pale whet, we now deal withthe Aud upstream and downsteam ofthe fan, Our definitions of te dyna equllbriam canbe extended to this case ely, or tect com ‘ron with thermodynamic process like Joule’ experiment, we have to requite the fd to flow very slowy so that its netic energy is nelle, Th the next chapter we shall drop this restriction and extend the same ‘onsidetion to highaped fui fw. 16 Perfect Gases TEs convenient to introduce at thi stage the concept of a perfect gas. A pefot gas isthe simplest working id in thermodynamics and hence is ‘very uefa in the detaled study of thermodynamic process. For applica- tions to nerodyramics, the concept is even more important since we deal ‘there almost exclusively with gates, and often under conditions where they se nearly pete. Measarements of the themal properties of mses show that for Sow laos the thermal equation of state approaches the same form for all tes, amely, pom RO) a9) or, in terms ofthe density» = 1/ 9 pRO-+ 6) ‘Hace yi a characteristic temperate which tums out to be the some for i gave, and in character constant for spartan. Tis tefl to define an "ea” o "perfec gs which satisfies Ba, 19’ ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS exactly. More precy, a. 19 defines a fomily of perfect ges, one for {ich value of R Any fu at low enough deny approaches & pees gs, ith particular value of ‘Since Gy is found tobe the same fo ll ass, one can define «new, more convent temperature 7, re sh and then replnce Bq. 19 by po oRr dovto) Tis caled the abate mpeatre, Tis possible to show that 7, which is here defined a6 ys temperature, has manning forall thermodynamic systems. ‘The sale andthe zo plat of T are determined from the scale td zero point of the thermometer used to measured. Thus inthe Cnt- irae sale one finds “ nase sod in the Fahreneit cle y= 459.090" ‘Thus the absolute temperature Tcan be writen T= 6427816 degrees Centigrade absolute or Kevin (°K) T= 0+ 459.69 degrees Fabeabeit absolte or Rankine (°8) Ras define in Eq, 110 has the dimensions (velocy)*/tempernure, Tt is rated to the vay of sound in the gas, R32, as willbe en i a ‘fw emit Eq 10 fora given mins A by puting» = 4/7, we ave pv = RT. (108) ‘A stad ofthe beavia of diferent gases Je very early to the concept that ‘uses are composed of molecules aud tha the characteristic parameter of the family of perfect gases defined by Eqs. £10 and 1100 isthe mass of thee molecules, Ths Hay 1106 can be waiten in terms of «dimensionless ‘mass aio A/m = y where m denotes the mas of one asmaecule. Written {in thi reduced or “inary” form, the family of B10 can be reduced to singe one: ” xr (308) smhere lisa anise constant, he so-called Boltzmann constant, Instead ‘fm, the mass of a molecl, one often uses the “molecular weight” min po CONGHPTS PROM THERMODYNAALICS ° ‘elative sits sch that My = 32, Tn terms of m one ba: wy Weer 110) e ae) Am, and Ris called to aniosl ge constant, One casio use ss onit of mass te mle and thus make p= Ln Ey 10e. V then becomes ‘the mae sotome. We shall not use the moe in the following ails but shall continue to refer to unit mas, and alinat aay shall we the pecect. ‘1s low inthe form p= pT (Eq. 110). "The internal energy o' peclect gas Bie «function of temperature oly, En ED) au) ‘Equation 1-1 canbe taken as the rent of experience. We shall se lates, however, that iis abo a diet consequence of Ea, 110. (Often a gas is called “calorcally erect” fa. 1-11 simpies further to (ua) Equation 112 does not follow directly from Bq. 140 by pur theemodyoamic reasoning. For certain ranges of temperature ican be atid by exere ence, and it alo follows from statistical mechanies (Chapter 14) "To jadge the degre to which real gases are approximate by Bas 140 ‘and Hf, we mast sn afew word boat the equations of tate fea! pss, (We shall return once more to this subject in Artie 118.) ‘vey real gas canbe liquid. ‘The highest temperature at which this is posible is alld the erika lemperature Te the corespondig presse and Aleoity are called eritzalpresire abd eric! deny ye These cual ‘aiabes are characters of «gs; they depend upon the intermoleclar fares, ‘An equation of sate for ral gases must therfore involve at Ist two prumeters besides for example T, ad This the casein the fase ‘an der Waals equation of state which can be used to eatimste he appro tion in considering ral gases at moderate densi, tobe perfect. The san der Wea equation is Ee cone -7 cas) 2 Sam Tes plat oH unc n 1sy th nry eond olywp o08 uve omen Fors gl paso age naan ot pron dint ne or min Ey 142. Themen ther eee va RTs ane