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MEX5272 Materials & Manufacturing
Engineering
OBJECTIVES
To give a basic overview in to Metrology
METROLOGY
METROLOGY
The branch of knowledge concerned with
measurements
EXERCISE
Why is Metrology important
in Production Technology ?
During manufacture of a product or
The science of measurements
component, measurements have to be taken in
various stages, during ( real-time), after (post
production) to ensure that the manufactured
product meets the required standard.
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FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES IN
METROLOGY
WHAT IS A MEASUREMENT ?
A procedure in which an unknown quantity
is compared to a known standard using an
accepted and consistent system of units
Length
Mass
Time
Electrical Current
Measurement
Quantity
Temperature
Numerical
Value
Light radiation
TERMINOLOGY
BRANCHES IN METROLOGY
Important parameters for satisfactory performance of
engineering components
Metrology
Scientific
Metrology
R & D work on
measurement
technique and
standards
Legal
Metrology
Units and methods of
measurements and types of
measuring instruments in
relation to mandatory technical
and legal requirements
Dimensional
Accuracy
Industrial
Metrology
Measurements
related to
activities in
industry
Geometrical
Accuracy
Standardization
Measurement of flatness
Standards of length
Measurement of parallelism
Length measuring
instruments
Surface
Accuracy
Measurement of
surface
texture finish
Measurement of straightness
Measurement of roundness
Measurements of
angles
Limits and fits
Limit gauges
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CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy
Precision
Calibration
Magnification
The ratio of instrument output to the
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Resolution
Smallest dimension that can be read
on the instrument
Sensitivity
Smallest difference in dimension that
an instrument can detect
input dimension
Linearity
Speed of response
The accuracy of the reading over the
instrument's full working range
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Stability
An instruments capability to maintain its
calibration over a period of time. Sometimes
referred to as Drift
Rule of 10 (Gauge makers rule)
An instrument or gauge should be 10 times more
accurate than the dimensional tolerance of the
SELECTION OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Apart from the above characteristics, following
factors also should be taken into account when
selecting a measuring instrument for a particular
job
Size and type of part being measured
Environment (Temp, humidity etc.,)
Operator skills required
part being measured. A factor of 4 is known as
the Mil standard rule
Cost of the instrument
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EXERCISE
ACCURACY & PRECISION
10 0.7
Accuracy
5 0.02
Degree to which the measured value
Comment on the applicability of using a steel ruler,
Vernier caliper and a micrometer to measure the
diameter and length of the above shown bar.
Dimensions are in mm
agrees with the actual value
Precision
the repeatability of a measurement
i.e. the closeness of agreement between the results of
successive measurements of the same parameter carried out
by the same observer, with the same measuring instrument, at
the same location at a short interval of time
MEASUREMENT
ERRORS
EXERCISE
Comment on the accuracy and precision of
the measurement
Actual value
Actual value
Actual value
Systematic Errors
Random Errors
Operator Errors
No. of measurements
Precise but not
accurate
No. of measurements
No. of measurements
Inaccurate and
not precise
Accurate and
precise
Application Errors
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SYSTEMATIC ERROR
EXERCISE
Description
An error in which, in the course of the number of measurements of
the same value of a given quantity, made under the same
conditions, with the same measuring instrument, remains constant
in absolute value and sign, or varies according to a known law
when the conditions change.
Indicate a systematic error on a graph similar to
the previous one
Cause
True value
Mainly due to instrumental errors such as, zero drift, non-linearity,
in accurate calibration, sensitivity change etc..
Examples
Error which occurs when taking measurements at 25 0C from a
steel ruler gauged at 0 0C.
RANDOM ERROR
Description
An error in which, in the course of the number of measurements of
the same value of a given quantity, made under the same
conditions, with the same measuring instrument, varies in an
unpredictable manner both in value and sign of the absolute value.
Cause
No of measurements
EXERCISE
Indicate a random error on a graph similar to the
previous one
True value
Mainly due to unidentified sources, such as changes in
environment, resistance inside measuring instruments etc...
Examples
Error which occurs when taking measurements micro balances in
changing environments
No of measurements
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OPERATOR ERROR
Description
EXERCISE
Comment on the error indicated
An error in which occurs due to the fault of the operator.
Cause
Due to misreading of instrument, lapses in memory, boredom ,
inadequate knowledge in handling the instruments etc
True value
Examples
When taking a same reading over a long period of time.
No of measurements
APPLICATION ERROR
Description
An error in which occurs due improper selection and measuring
technique for measurements.
Cause
Lack of knowledge of handing and selecting measuring instruments
for a particular application
CALIBRATION
Operations carried for the purpose of determining
the values of errors in measuring instruments are
collectively termed Calibration
Adjustments
Gauging
Examples
scale graduation
When using a screw gauge to measure the thickness of the soft
sheet of metal strip the force exerted by the anvil on the surface
of the metal may cause faulty reading .
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LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
Fundamental quantity
STANDARDS OF LENGTH
How is it done?
Comparing the unknown quantity with
a with a standard on a appropriate
device.
LENGTH
Linear distance between internal or
external surfaces, points etc.
Against what ???
What is the system of units???
HIERARCHY OF STANDARDS
THE IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD GREAT
BRITAIN PRIMARY STANDARD
Standard of length is a metal bar
Primary
Ref. Std.
Transfer Std
Secondary Ref. Std.
Working Std.
Length is defined by the distance
between two lines on the bar
Bronze bar of 1 section, 38 long
and the datum lines are
engraved at 620F
Gauges, Instruments & Equipment used for
measurements
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THE IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD
GREAT BRITAIN
THE PROTOTYPE METER
FRANCE PRIMARY STANDARD
Meter One ten-millionth of the
distance between the north pole and
the equator
Marked (scratches) on a PlatinumIridium bar kept under controlled
conditions
THE PROTOTYPE METER
FRANCE
THE PROTOTYPE METER
FRANCE
1650763.73 wave length of the orange
radiation of Krypton isotope 86
Path traveled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/299792458
of a second
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WORKING STANDARDS
SLIP GAUGES & LENGTH BARS
Line standards
Distance between two engraved/marked points
Steel rulers
Measuring tapes
End standards
Distance between two parallel faces
Slip gauges
Length bars
SLIP GAUGES
SLIP GAUGES
Made out of hardened high Carbon
steel
BS 4311 : 1968 provides 5 grades
of gauge block sets
Rectangular sections of 9mm x
30mm up to size of 10mm and 9mm
x 35mm for larger sizes
Calibration grade
Grade 00
Grade 0
Can be used individually or as a
combination of several (Wringing)
gauges
Grade I
Grade II
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SLIP GAUGES
SLIP GAUGES
Eg : Using Set M46/2 buildup 58.434 mm
Eg : Set M46/2
Size mm
Increment mm
2.001 2.009
0.001
2.01 2.09
0.01
2.1 2.9
0.1
1-9
1.0
10 - 100
10.0
No. of pieces
9
9
9
9
10
FEELER GAUGE
58.434
Eliminate the last decimal place 2.004
Eliminate the second decimal
place
2.03
Eliminate the third decimal
place
2.40
Eliminate the remaining
whole number
2.00
Remainder
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FEELER GAUGE
This is a set of thin steel strips held
together in a holder
The accuracy will be not good as the
gauge blocks
Range of thickness from about
0.030mm 0.6mm can be found
The gauges can be combined to form a
variety of sizes
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EXERCISE 1
EXERCISE 2
What is the common feature found on
both slip gauges and feeler gauges in
the context of measurement?
How would you then measure an
intermediate sizes?
These are fixed size pieces of
equipment, and the intermediate sizes
have to be obtained by combination of
several blocks or sets.
By using measuring equipment that are
capable of taking variety of sizes, ie.
Variable size measuring equipment
Comment on the accuracy of these
types of equipment
Accuracy will be less than that of the Fixed
type equipment
ENGINEER'S RULE
ENGINEER'S RULE
The sizes are indicated by fine lines
scribed on a steel strip. (Line standard)
An accuracy about 0.25mm can be
obtained
The main cause of error is the Parallax
error i.e., incorrect positioning of the
eye in relation to the mark being used
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VENIRE CALIPERS
VENIRE CALIPERS
An instrument using End
measurement standard working on
the Vernier principal
Can take readings up to an accuracy
around 0.02 mm
VENIRE CALIPERS
VENIRE CALIPERS - ADVANTAGES
A large range of sizes can be
measured by one caliper
The wearing parts are the jaws and
usually these are hardened.
Therefore, provided that the jaws are
undamaged the loss of accuracy due
to usage is low
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VENIRE CALIPERS - LIMITATIONS
OTHER TYPES VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE
Cannot measure very small
measurements
The jaws are comparatively light and
may spring out of alignment if too
much pressure is applied
OTHER TYPES VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE
MICRO-METER
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MICRO-METER
End measurements
COMPARATORS
What is the common feature that can
be found in the measuring equipment
studied so far?
Both external and internal
The measurements are made
without to any other datum
Readings up to 0.001 mm
Measures in themselves
COMPARATORS
Sometimes, it is necessary to know
the variation of size, rather than the
actual size or to find out how much the
dimensions of a given component
differ from that of a known datum
COMPARATORS
What is a Comparator?
A device that compares the size of a part
with that to which is set , and does not
directly indicate the actual size.
Comparators can be used for the
above task
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COMPARATORS
Types of comparators
Classification can be made according to
the type of magnification devices that are
employed
Mechanical comparators
Electrical comparators
Optical comparators
Pneumatic comparators
MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
The order of magnification possible
with these types of comparators are
around 1000
In mechanical comparators the
magnification of the small movement
of the stylus is accomplished by use of
gears, leavers or a combination of
both.
MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Employs mechanical means for
magnifying the small movement of
the measuring stylus
Advantages being self contained,
robust design and no requirement of
no external power to operate.
Disadvantages being loss of accuracy
over a long period of time due to wear
of moving parts
MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Dial Gauges
Two types
Plunger type
Lever type
Readings up to 0.001mm
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OPTICAL COMPARATORS
MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Other types
Sigma comparators
Venwick comparators
Mikrokator comparators
Sigma
Mikrokator
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
INDIRECT METHODS
Angular Measurements
Fixed type angular gauges
Taper gauges
Plug gauges
Direct
Indirect
Ring gauges
Bevel Protractors
Fixed
Variable
Angle templates
Angle gauges
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INDIRECT METHODS
SINE BAR
How do we measure ???
Adjustable type angular gauges
Sine bars
SURFACE TEXTURE
What is surface texture?
WHAT IS SURFACE TEXTURE?
Surface irregularities
Surfaces of any manufactured component (machined)
consist of :
Importance
Form errors (Geometric errors)
Evaluation
Surface texture (Surface finish)
Measurement
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FORM ERROR
Form errors are generally not considered for measurement of
KINEMATICS' FAULTS
Slide-way wear
Worn out chuck
Worn out cutter spindle
Worn out bearings
Faulty machine alignment
Faulty machine settings
surface texture since its wave length is considerably higher
than that of surface texture quantities.
Cause
Due to general kinematic faults in machine tools
DETECTION
(MEASUREMENT)
SURFACE TEXTURE
Definition
Dial gauges
Straight edge
Sprit levels
Repetitive and/or random deviations from
nominal surface that forms the 3-D
topography of the surface
Defined by 4 elements
Roughness
Waviness
Lay
Flaws
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ROUGHNESS
WAVINESS
Roughness refers
Waviness refers to
to the small, finely
much larger
spaced deviations
spaced deviations
(irregularities)
(irregularities) than
from the nominal
roughness.
surface.
Caused by:
Caused by:
Machining process : feed rates, chatter
Material characteristics
Machine or work deflections
Vibration
Forces or temperatures sufficient enough to cause warping
Heat treatment
ROUGHNESS & WAVINESS
ROUGHNESS &
WAVINESS
Surface texture is the combined effects of
Waviness and Roughness
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LAY
(DIRECTIONALITY)
POSSIBLE LAYS OF A
SURFACE
Lay is the
predominant
direction or surface
pattern
Caused by:
Action of the cutting tool (Manufacturing method)
FLAWS
(DEFECTS)
Flaws are the
random irregularities
which occurs on the
surface
IMPORTANCE
Improved performance
Less friction on mating surfaces hence high
efficiency
Can be used as a QC parameter
Wear resistance property
Examples:
Cracks
Scratches
Appearance
Used as datum for measurements
Craters
Holes
Tears
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SURFACE ROUGHNESS
PARAMETERS
EVALUATION
How do we quantify the above qualitative
parameters??
Depending on the characteristics of the profile they
quantify..
Roughness
Amplitude Parameters
Determined solely by peak or valley heights or both,
irrespective of horizontal spacing
Spacing Parameters
Determined solely by the spacing of the irregularities
along the surface ( Spacing of local peaks)
Hybrid Parameters
Amplitude
Parameters
Spacing
Parameters
EXAMPLES
Amplitude Parameters
Centre Line Average CLA ( Ra)
Hybrid
Parameters
Determined by amplitude and spacing in combination
CENTRE LINE AVERAGE (CLA)
Arithmetic average value of the departure of the whole
of the profile. (Arithmetic average of the absolute
values of the roughness profile ordinates)
Ten point height of irregularities (Rz)
Line of profile peak/valley
Spacing Parameters
Spacing of local peaks (s)
Spacing of profile irregularities (sm)
RMS parameter of roughness (Rq)
Hybrid Parameters
Profile bearing length ratio (tp)
Sampling length (l)
i
Ra Z x dx
l0
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TEN POINT HEIGHT OF IRREGULARITIES
Average distance between the five lowest valleys and five
highest peaks within the sampling length
SPACING OF PROFILE
IRREGULARITIES
The mean distance between the more prominent irregularities
of the effective profile
MEASUREMENT
MIRO-INTERFEROMETER
Surface inspection by
comparison methods
Reflection
Arm
Touch inspection
Visual inspection
Scratch inspection
Reference
Arm
Miro-interferometer
Direct measurements
using instruments
Imaging
Leg
Test Arm
Transmission
Arm
Stylus probe instruments
Profile meter
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MICRO-INTERFEROMETER
IMAGE
STYLUS PROBE INSTRUMENT
TOLERANCE
LIMITS & FITS
the allowable deviation from a standard,
eg: the rage of variation permitted in
maintaining a specified dimension in a
machined piece
Webster
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TOLERANCE AS APPLIED IN MANUFACTURING
Allowance for specific variation in the size
and geometry of a part
WHY IS IT NECESSARY?
It is impossible to manufacture a part or
component to an exact size or geometry.
Since variation from the drawing is
inevitable, acceptable degree of variation
must be applied.
Large variation may affect the functionality
of the part.
Small variations may affect the economy of
the part.
CONSEQUENCES
HOW IS TOLERANCE SPECIFIED?
Cost generally increases with Smaller
(tighter) tolerances.
Parts with Smaller tolerances often require
special methods of manufacture.
Parts with Smaller tolerances often require
greater inspection and call for rejection of
parts .
Tolerance
Dimensional
Limits specifying the
allowed variation in
each dimension
(length, height, width
etc) are specified on
the drawing
Geometrical
Allows for specification for
the geometry of a part
separate from its size
GDT (Geometric
Dimensioning &
Tolerancing) uses special
symbols to control the
different geometric features
of a part
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DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCING
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
Definition
(GD&T) is a method of defining parts based
the total amount by which a specified dimension
on how they function, using standard ANSI
symbols.
Concentricity Symbol
is permitted to Vary
Feature Control Frame
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
SPECIFICATION OF DT
EXERCISE 1
Bilateral
20 0.5
2.505
2.495
200.5
0.5
20.05
19.95
1. Express in the form
2. Tolerance?
Unilateral
2000.5
3. Type?
0.005
X ?? 2.50.005
|( -0.005) (0.005)| = 0.01
Bilateral
20.05
20.00
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EXERCISE 2
EXERCISE 3
2.50.010
0.005
1. Type?
Bilateral
1. Type?
|( -0.005) (0.010)| = 0.015
2. Tolerance?
2.50.0
0.005
2. Tolerance?
Unilateral
|( -0.005) (0.0)| = 0.005
2.510
3. Express in limit form
2.495
Tolerances
2.50.001
0.005
1. Type?
2.495
APPLICATION
EXERCISE 4
2.500
3. Express in limit form
Unilateral
2. Tolerance?
|( -0.005) (-0.001)| = 0.004
Single
Component
MuliComponent
2.499
3. Express in limit form
2.495
In unilateral tolerance variation can be only in
one direction. That is either Negative or Positive
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SINGLE COMPONENT (PARTS)
DEFINITIONS
Basic Size
Single
Component
The size to which the tolerances are
applied
Nominal Size
The general size
Shafts
Holes
Limits of size
The two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which the
actual size should lie
Convention to
designate all external
features of a
component or part
Convention to
designate all internal
features of a
component or part
DEFINITIONS
Minimum limit of size
The smaller of the two limits of size. Sometimes referred as the
Lower limit as well
Tolerance
The algebraic difference between the Maximum and Minimum
limits of size
Deviation
Maximum limit of size
The greater of the two limits of size. Sometimes referred as the
Upper limit as well
DEFINITIONS
Lower Deviation
The algebraic difference between the Minimum limit of size and
the corresponding Basic size
Zero Line
In the graphical representation of limits and fits, the straight line
to which the deviations, limits are refers is know as the Zero
line. This is the line of Zero deviation and often refers to the
basic size
The algebraic difference between a size ( actual, basic ,
maximum etc)
Upper Deviation
The algebraic difference between the Maximum limit of size
and the corresponding Basic size
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SHAFTS
INTERCHANGEABILITY
Basic Size
Minimum Material Condition
Minimum Limit of Size
Tolerance
Maximum Material Condition
Maximum Limit of Size
L. D
U. D
Line of Zero Deviation
Limits & Fits for
Muli-components
DEGREE OF INTERCHANGEABILITY
If from a batch conforming to the same
dimensions, surface finish and material
From a batch of 1000 components only
properties, anyone can be selected in
750 managed to assembled and perform
random to be used in place of another, with
the intended task. What would be the
equal probability that the selected part will
DOF?
75%
assemble and function satisfactory, then
the parts in the batch are said to be
interchangeable.
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ZERO INTERCHANGEABILITY
TYPES OF DOIS
DOI
Zero
Universal
As a result when components are made
to suit
Local
Components are fitted by a skilled
mechanic often in a fitting room
Subsequently, if a replacement is
needed, it must also be machined to suit
and then fitted as above
UNIVERSAL INTERCHANGEABILITY
LOCAL INTERCHANGEABILITY
When factors affecting the
interchangeability of a component are
specified by a drawing, the
components are said to have a
universal interchangeability
When the interchangeability of a
component is controlled by workshop
practices and not simply by confirming
to drawings, the components are said
to have a local interchangeability
That is, by making components
confirming to a specific drawing, it is
possible to manufacture them
independent of skill, tooling or knowledge
within a particular work-shop
That is, a set of tools and gauges are
made so that repeated adjustments or
refinements can be made for each
components or during production
checking that will confirm to the
required standard within the workshop
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DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS
Allowance
Deviation
The specified difference in dimensions between mating parts. ( ie
the difference between the Hole dimension and the Shaft
dimensions).
The algebraic difference between a size and the corresponding
basic size
Upper Deviation
NOTE: Sometimes referred as;
The algebraic difference between the maximum limit size and the
corresponding basic size
o Functional dimension
o Sum dimension
Lower Deviation
Fit
The algebraic difference between the minimum limit size and the
corresponding basic size
The range of looseness of tightness that can result from the
application of specific combination of allowance and tolerance
in designing of mating part features of an interchangeable
system
BS 4500: (I.S.O. SYSTEM OF LIMITS & FITS)
Fundamental Deviation
U. D
Max .L .S
L. D (F. D)
Min .L .S
L. D
Line of zero deviation
Min .L .S
(F. D)
U. D
Max .L .S
That one of the two deviations which is conveniently chosen to
define the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the zero
line
Basic size
DEFINITIONS
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MORE DEFINITIONS.
MORE DEFINITIONS
Clearance
Limit System
The difference between the size of Hole and the Shaft, before
assembly, and when this difference is positive.
System of Standardized tolerances and deviations.
Clearance = Hole - Shaft
Fit System
Hole - Shaft > 0
System of fits comprising shafts and holes belonging to a specific
limit system
Hole > Shaft
Interference
The difference between the size of Hole and the Shaft, before
assembly, and when this difference is Negative.
Interference = (- Clearance)
Hole - Shaft < 0
Hole < Shaft
CLEARANCE FIT
TYPES OF FITS
The shaft will always be smaller than the hole which it
is going to fit
Fits
Maximum Clearance
Max .L .S
Min .L .S
Interference
Min .L .S
Transition
Max .L .S
Clearance
Basic size
Minimum Clearance
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INTERFERENCE FIT
CLEARANCE FIT
The shaft will always be larger than the hole which it
Clearance will always be positive. (ie. Clearance >0)
is going to fit
The fit will always give a negative clearance
Cmax > Cmin> 0
The minimum interference = The negation of the
This types of fits allows rotation or sliding between the
maximum clearance
mating parts
Imin = - ( Cmax ) = - ( Hmax Smin )
Similarly, the maximum interference
Imax = - ( Cmin ) = - ( Hmin Smax )
INTERFERENCE FIT
INTERFERENCE FIT
Clearance will always be Negative. (ie. Clearance <0)
Imax
Cmax < Cmin < 0
Imin
Max .L .S
transmitted.
Min .L .S
Basic size
Min .L .S
Max .L .S
For components where motion, power has to be
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TRANSITION FIT
SYSTEM OF FITS
A fit resulting the maximum clearance to take a positive
value while the minimum clearance gives a negative
value.
Cmin <0
Systems
Cmax >0
Max .L .S
Min .L .S
Basic size
Min .L .S
Max .L .S
Hole Basis
INSPECTION
System of fits in which the
different clearances and
interferences are ascertain in
associating various shafts with a
single hole ( or, possibly, with
holes of different grades but
having always the same
fundamental deviation)
Shaft Basis
System of fits in which the
different clearances and
interferences are ascertain in
associating various holes with a
single shaft ( or, possibly, with
shafts of different grades but
having always the same
fundamental deviation)
GAUGING
Inspection is a procedure in which a product or
Gauging determines whether the part
part characteristic, such as a dimension is
characteristics meets or not meet the design
examined to determine whether or not it
specification, ie. The parts passes or fails the
conforms to the design specification
inspection
- Gauging is usually faster than measuring
- Does not give a actual value of the
characteristic of interest
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INSPECTION METHODS
Depending on the quantities of products/parts
involved and the method of feedback used from
INSPECTION METHODS
Complete Method
This method is used when the quantities involved are
very small and the cost of gauging is not justified
the inspection department to the manufacturing
department, methods can be broadly classified
as,
Complete Method
Statistical Quality Control
Use of Limit gauges
LIMIT GAUGES
Statistical Quality Control
This method is used when the quantities involved are
large and feedback is necessary regarding the
machines
Use of Limit gauges
Every component is inspected with the aid of a limit
gauge which indicates whether the dimensions being
checked are within the limits specified
LIMIT GAUGES
A limit gauge (or a pair of limit gauges) consists of
GO and NOT GO gauges
Limit Gauges
GO gauge
A GO gauge should pass over or through a correct
feature. It checks the maximum material condition of
the part
NOT GO gauge
A NOT GO gauge should not pass over or through a
correct feature. It checks the minimum material
condition of the part
Checking External
Dimensions
Snap Gauges
Checking Internal
Dimensions
Plug Gauges
Ring Gauges
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GAUGES FOR EXTERNAL DIMENSION
Snap Gauges
Gauges for Internal Dimension
Plug gauges
Limit Gauges.
~ END ~
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