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Two-wire and four-wire circuits are used for data communication. Two-wire circuits use two conductors, with one for transmission and the other as the return path. They support simultaneous two-way transmission. Four-wire circuits have separate pairs for transmit and receive to strengthen signals over long distances. Data synchronization ensures consistency across multiple copies of data by tracking changes from source to destination. Network components like terminals, multiplexers, and concentrators help facilitate data transmission and reduce the number of physical connections needed.

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42 views

Teeepp

Two-wire and four-wire circuits are used for data communication. Two-wire circuits use two conductors, with one for transmission and the other as the return path. They support simultaneous two-way transmission. Four-wire circuits have separate pairs for transmit and receive to strengthen signals over long distances. Data synchronization ensures consistency across multiple copies of data by tracking changes from source to destination. Network components like terminals, multiplexers, and concentrators help facilitate data transmission and reduce the number of physical connections needed.

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stephen2buizon
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© © All Rights Reserved
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DATA COMMUNICATIONS

RESEARCH CASE STUDIES


-TWO-WIRE VS FOUR-WIRE CIRCUITS
*Two wire -A two-wire circuit has two insulated electrical conductors. One
wire is used for transmission of the information. The other wire acts as the return
path to complete the electrical circuit. Two-wire circuits are generally deployed in
the analog local loop, which is the last mile between the subscriber and the
subscriber's first point of access into the network. two-wire circuit is characterized
by supporting transmission in two directions simultaneously, as opposed to four-wire
circuits, which have separate pairs for transmit and receive. In either case they are
twisted pairs. Two wire devices are typically preferred when available. They
eliminate the need for separate power runs and the associated power distribution,
circuit protection etc. to the device. As stated previously, they also often allow the
use of a single power supply to power several loops, single-ended connection to
input cards, and typically more inputs per card, decreasing the cost per point. Some
devices, typically analyzers etc., may only be available as four wire devices, so you
don't get a choice.

*Four wire A four-wire circuit has two pairs of conductors. That is, it has
two sets of one-way transmission paths: one path for each direction and a
complementary path to complete the electrical circuit. Four-wire circuits are used
where there is distance between the termination points which requires that the
signal be strengthened periodically. So, for example, four-wire circuits connect the
various switches that make up the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Fourwire circuits are also used with leased lines, where a customer may be connecting
locations of its own that are separated by distance. Also, all digital circuits are
provisioned on a four-wire basis.
There are two types of four-wire circuits: physical four-wire and logical fourwire. In physical four-wire you can actually count four wires. In logical fourwire, physically there are only two wires, but you derive the four individual paths by
splitting the frequency. Half of the frequency band carries the transmit signal, and
the other half carries the receive signal. So you can't always tell just by looking
what kind of circuit you're dealing with; the application dictates the type of circuit it
is.
A 4-wire device may actually need to be located remote from the process, or
additional precautions taken depending on the area classification of the process
area, if the device is not available suitable for that particular area. Where the same
type device (with equivalent specs.) is available as either 2-wire or 4-wire, the 2wire device is typically preferred. There are other reasons to choose 4-wire devices
depending on the particular installation. One case may be where there are a cluster
of instruments at a particular location somewhat remote from the control system
and it may be important to isolate supply power from the devices locally. An

alternative in this instance though may also be to use 2-wire transmitters with a
local common loop power supply. A lot depends on what is standard in a particular
plant and what is available from approved manufacturers. For the measurement or
control signal itself, current signals are typically preferred over voltage signals,
when available, due to concerns over voltage drop in long cable runs and the
potential to be affected by surrounding noise sources. Depending upon the size and
layout of your system, you may also want to consider the use of Hart
communications to your devices or one of several Fieldbus systems now available.
Hart and the field busses like Devicenet, Profibus, Foundation Fieldbus etc. typically
allow for remote configuration and diagnostics, not available with stand-alone
devices.

-Synchronization
Data synchronization is the process of maintaining the consistency and
uniformity of data instances across all consuming applications and storing devices.
It ensures that the same copy or version of data is used in all devices - from source
to destination.
Data synchronization is enabled through specialized software that tracks data
versions as they are created and utilized. The process is implemented in distributed
systems where data elements are routed between several computers or systems.
Each computer may modify original data versions, depending on requirements.
Data synchronization ensures that regardless of data modifications, all
changes are merged with the original data source.
Data synchronization is also used in data mirroring, where each data set is
exactly replicated or synchronized within another device.

Types of Synchronization

Process Synchronization: The simultaneous execution of multiple threads or


processes to reach a handshake such that they commit a certain sequence of
actions. Lock, mutex, and semaphores are examples of process
synchronization.

Data Synchronization: Involves the maintenance of data to keep multiple


copies of data coherent with each other, or to maintain data integrity. For
example, database replication is used to keep multiple copies of data
synchronized with database servers that store data in different locations.

Synchronization forms the basis of the execution of multiple threads


asynchronously in a multithreaded application. It provides the means to achieve
the sharing of resources such as file handling, network connections and memory
by coordinating threads and processes to avoid data corruption.

The term is used in the context of multithreaded applications where the


resources to be shared across multiple threads have to be controlled, which
otherwise can lead to an unpredictable and undesirable outcome. The .NET
framework provides synchronization primitives using the multi-threaded
applications controlled without any race conditions.
Synchronization is designed to be cooperative, demanding that every thread
follow the synchronization mechanism before accessing protected resources for
consistent results. Locking, signaling, lightweight synchronization types, spinwait
and interlocked operations are mechanisms related to synchronization in .NET.
-Network Components (Terminal, Multiplexer, Concentrators)
-Terminal
*A device that enables you to communicate with a computer. Generally, a
terminal is a combination of keyboard and display screen. Terminals are sometimes
divided into three classes based on how much processing power they contain:
-intelligent terminal: a stand-alone device that contains main memory and
a CPU.
-smart terminal: contains some processing power, but not as much as an
intelligent terminal.
- dumb terminal: has no processing capabilities. It relies entirely on the
computer's processor.
*In data communications, a terminal is any device that terminates one end
(sender or receiver) of a communicated signal. In practice, it is usually applied only
to the extended end points in a network, not central or intermediate devices. In this
usage, if you can send signals to it, it's a terminal.
* In telephony, the term Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is used to describe
the computer end of the DTE-to-DCE (Data Communications Equipment)
communication between a computer and a modem.
Terminals and workstations are the devices the user interacts with. At the
sending end, these devices convert text, graphics, and speech into electronic
signals. These signals must eventually be reconverted from electronic form back to
the original form (text, graphics, speech) if the destination is another user. If the
destination is simply a computer or a server, then the signals remain in electronic
form. Regardless of whether a terminal or a workstation is used, a network
interface card (NIC for short) is required to physically connect the terminal or
workstation to the network. In personal computers (the most common type of
workstation), a network interface card is an expansion board that works with the
network operating system to control the flow of information over the network.
-Multiplexer

A multiplexer (MUX for short) is a line sharing device that bundles small
streams of slow-speed traffic together and places them on a single high capacity
high speed line. At the receiving end, another multiplexer unbundles the traffic so
that individual messages can be delivered to the appropriate locations. The sharing
of a single line between many users results in cost savings since the multiplexer
obviates the need for separate lines from the point of origin to the point of
destination for each user. All that is needed is a separate line from each user to the
multiplexer which then uses a single line to transmit messages originating from
multiple sources. In this manner, multiplexers permit the efficient transmission of a
series of messages while maintaining a separation between each of the messages.
If a company has thousands of employees that need to be connected to the
Internet, multiplexers can be used to reduce the number of physical connections
directly to the Internet -- many users may simply be connected to the Internet
through a multiplexer.
Two common multiplexing methods are frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
and time division multiplexing (TDM). FDM is used with analog systems (rather than
digital systems). Signals from multiple devices are modulated using different
frequencies and then stacked together for transmission over the single line. TDM is
used with digital systems. In TDM, signals from each device are divided into one-bit
time frames. These time frames from all devices are then interleaved together such
that the individual signals are merged into a single multiplexed signal.
-Concentrators
Concentrator is a device that acts as an efficient forwarder of data
transmission signals. A remote access hub is sometimes referred to as a
concentrator. The term aggregator is also frequently used with approximately the
same meaning. As generally used, a concentrator is a device that acts as an
efficient forwarder of data transmission signals. A remote access hub is sometimes
referred to as a concentrator. The term aggregator is also frequently used with
approximately the same meaning. A typical concentrator or remote access hub is a
device that handles incoming dial-up calls for an Internet (or other network) pointof-presence and performs other services. A concentrator or hub may be able to
handle up to 100 dial-up modem calls, support a certain number
of ISDN connections, and support leased line and frame relay traffic while also
functioning as a router.
A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for the
connection of terminal, computer, or communication devices. It can be a central
point where cables converge.

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