PROSPECT ON DESALINATION AND OTHER NON-ELECTRIC

APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY IN INDONESIA

Geni Rina Sunaryo
Center for Reactor Technology and Nuclear Safety
PTRKN-BATAN, Bldg. 80, Puspiptek Area, Serpong, Tangerang 15310, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
PROSPECT ON DESALINATION AND OTHER NON-ELECTRIC
APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY IN INDONESIA. As the standard of living
increases globally, the need for fresh water and industrial products are also increasing; they
require energy for production and hence, the demand for energyboth electric and non-electric,
is also increasing. This trend also happens in Indonesia as an archipelagic country. In an effort
to meet the current and future water and energy demands, Indonesia is now planning to utilize
nuclear power for not only electricity but also producing fresh water through desalination
process named Nuclear Desalination. Feasibility and option studies have been carried out by
Indonesian National Nuclear Energy Agency, locally called Badan Tenaga Nuclear Nasional
or BATAN since 1995, and also in collaboration with Korean Atomic Energy & Research
Institute (KAERI) since 2002. The study concluded that it would be technically feasible to
build desalination plants on selected sites pending further economic assessments. BATAN
also has a duty to study the future Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) that can be coupled to various
industrial processes. From the literature study it seems that HTGR (High Temperature Gas
Cooled Reactor) is the promising one because of its huge range steam temperature. Beside
that study, BATAN also has (1) developed a small scale Mechanical Vapor Compression
system to study and establish vital parameters that will affect system performance, water
chemistry, corrosion, scaling, evaporation, condensation, and choice of materials and (2) basic
research on hydrogen production through the Iodine Sulfur (IS) process.
Keywords : Desalination, Nuclear Power Plant (NPP), HTGR

INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a huge archipelagic country, extending 5,120 km from east
to west and 1,760 km from north to south encompassing as many as 18,000
islands of which about 6,000 are inhabited by 215 million people. Water is a
central input for agricultural production. Potential water resources are
rainwater, groundwater and surface water. The amount of water in Indonesia
fluctuates by season and is distributed differently among the regions.
Naturally, the rainfall varies significantly depending on locations and seasonal
changes (wet and dry seasons). About 60% of the inhabited regions receive
plenty of annual precipitations in the range of 2,000 to 3,500 mm, whereas
some areas see greater than 5,000 mm and some less than 1,000 mm.
In addition to these generous rainfalls, Indonesia is endowed with not
less than 5,590 rivers flowing over 5,500 billion tons of water per year
(or 5,500 km/year) [1].

33

Indonesia may appear to have an abundant supply of water and be free

from water shortage problems. In reality, there are some main problems
facing in Indonesia i.e. rising water demand, lack of upland/upstream land
management, erosion - related degradation, population growth that affect the
water pollution, inefficient irrigation water management that cause
uneconomic or over - use of irrigation water and extreme climatic change that
can give rise to flood and drought disaster. The other serious problem in
Jakarta is over - pumping of groundwater without considering discharge
capacity that has created intrusion of sea water and groundwater pollution.
Since that, Jakarta inhabitants consume more and more mineral water.
The cost of mineral water is between Rp.1000 to Rp.1500 per bottle (500 to
600 ml) compared to the cost of premium (engine fuel) at Rp. 4500/litre.
Therefore, selling drinking water has become 'big business' even more
profitable than selling engine fuel (premium/benzine). In some areas
(for example in mountain regions), private companies monopolize water
sources, preventing local inhabitants from continuing to draw water from the
source. We must extend drinking water ethics to include both groundwater
and water from other sources. The case of Jakarta demonstrates how people
living around estuaries also depend on rivers and surface water for their
drinking water supply. The last one is weak water user associations that have
reduced the effectiveness of irrigation water management at the on - farm
level. To illustrate, it is reported that of 39,000 existing or newly - created
water user associations, only 11,000 units (28 percent) were in fact developed
enough to function properly. Therefore, the demand on water supplies
increase by 200% in the next 15 years (See Table 1), therefore desalination is
considered to be the promising method to solve this problem [1,2]
Table 1. Indonesia water potential total water, Surface Water and Ground
Water Availability [1,2].
Island(s)

Java
Lesser Sunda
Celebes
Sumatra
Borneo
Mollucas+Papua
Indonesia

Area

Population

Millionkm2
0.133
0.086
0.187
0.471
0.535
0.492
1.905

Million
113.6
10.8
13.5
40.1
10.2
3.9
192.2

Water
Resource
(mill.m3/yr.)
187,000
60,000
247,000
738,000
1,008,000
981,000
3,221,000

Water Demand

Water Resource

(mill.m3/yr.)
2000
2015
83,378
164,672
13,827
42,274
25,555
77,305
25,298
49,583
8,204
23,093
589
1,886
156,850
358,813

(Thousand m3/yr.)
Per-km2
Per-capita
1,406
1.6
698
5.5
1,321
18.3
1,567
18.4
1,884
98.8
1,994
251.5
1,690
16.8

In an effort to meet the current and future energy demands, Indonesia

initiated and carried out Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) programs in the early
1990s, although they had been suspended following the epidemic economic
crisis in Asia on 1997. Nevertheless, other activities, such as IAEA Extra
Budgetary Programs, have continued in order to develop the knowledge and
operational experiences on the existing three Indonesian research reactors,
34

thereby building grass-root knowledge on NPP for future constructions.

Indonesia is now planning to utilise nuclear power and the first plant will be
built in Muria Area on 2016 (Ujung Lemah Abang, Ujung Watu and Ujung
Grenggengan). The introduction of NPP in Indonesia is to reach an optimum
energy mix considering cost, environment, and to relieve the pressure arising
from increasing domestic demand for oil and gas. The Presidential Decree
Number 5 year 2006 on National Energy Policy specified the share of new
and renewable energy, especially: biomass, nuclear, hydro, solar and wind in
the national energy mix should reach more than 5% in the year 2025.
Feasibility and option studies have been carried out by Indonesian
National Nuclear Energy Agency, locally called Badan Tenaga Nuklir
Nasional or BATAN concluded technically feasible to build desalination
plants on selected sites pending further economic assessments [3]. The other
important program is to evaluate the appropriate desalination that would be
applied to Muria site. The concept design and basic plant diagram is
described somewhere [4].
Presently about 30% of the worlds primary energy is used for
electricity production, and approximately 2/3 of this energy is thrown away
as waste heat. Therefore, direct use of heat energy is more desirable from an
energy efficiency point of view and the optimizing the nuclear heat for both
electric and non electric applications are applied. Experience in co-generation
of nuclear electricity and heat has been gained in Bulgaria, Canada, China,
Hungary, Kazakhstan, Russia, Slovakia and Ukraine.
BATAN also start doing study on both electric and non electric
application of nuclear power and will be described in this paper.

TYPE OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

Various types of reactors are designed with different ranges of inlet
and outlet coolant temperatures, and hence will be useful for different
applications. Table 2 shows the range of coolant temperatures for different
reactor types.
Table 2. Temperature Capabilities of Reactor Types [5].
Reactor Type

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Water Reactor (BWR)
Heavy Water Reactor (HWR)
Liquid Metal-cooled Reactor (LMCR)
High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor
(HTGR)

Typical Primary Coolant Inlet

& Outlet
Temperatures (oC)
280 320
278 288
250 295
390 540
500 950

35

A nuclear plant can provide steam with temperature start from 100oC
which can be used for district heating or desalination and 1000oC for very
high temperature industrial applications. Table 3 shows the characteristic
parameters of steam that could be produced by various reactor types. Water
reactors can provide steam in the range of 250 to 300oC at about 5 to 7 MPa
pressure, while liquid metal and gas cooled reactors can generate steam at
higher temperature and pressure. LMFBRs can provide steam at
approximately 500oC and gas cooled reactors at somewhat higher
temperatures [5].
Table 3. Typical Steam Production by different Reactor Types [5].
Nuclear Power Plant
PWR (U-tube SG)
PWR (Once-through SG)
BWR
PHWR
CANDU PHWR
Phenix LMFBR
THTR-300
Fort St.Vrain HTGR

Steam Parameters
Pressure (MPa)
Temperature (oC)
6.5
280
6.9
312
5.5
270
5.6
271
4.7
260
16.3
510
18.1
530
17.3
541

From that feature it is known that HTGR is a potential one to be used

for non-electric applications. Its heat energy range is possible to be used for
hydrogen and methanol productions, enhance oil recovery, coal liquefaction
and desalination process.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT SUPPLY

There are five primary areas of industrial heat applications: food
processing, paper industry, chemical industry, petroleum and coal processing,
and primary metal industries. Industrial process heat is mainly used in the
form of steam at appropriate temperature and pressure conditions.
The demand is usually steady and there is no seasonal variation and hence
quite suitable for supply by nuclear power. The only problem is that the
source must be nearby as heat loss in transit is considerable. There are three
cases of commercial use of nuclear process heat in Canada, Germany and
Switzerland. This is shown in Table 4. The application to the heavy water
production facility in Bruce, Canada was the largest use of nuclear process
heat and it has operated very successfully for over 20 years. The six other
industries the Bruce complex provided process heat were plastic film
manufacturing, ethanol plant, apple juice concentration plant, alfalfa

36

dehydration, cubing and pelletizing plant, a greenhouse, and an agricultural

research facility.
Table 4. Nuclear Plants providing Commercial Process Heat [5].
Country

Plant
Name

Start
of
Operation
Reactor Heat

Power
MWe

Heat
Delivery
MWt
25

Switzerland

Goesgen
PWR

1979

1979

970

Canadaa

Bruce-A
CANDU

197787

1981

4x848
4x860

Germany

Stade
PWR

1983

640

Interface
Temp C
Feed/
Return
220/100

5350

30

Distance
to
Industry
Km
1.75

Nearby
industrial
complex

190/100

1.5

Application

Cardboard
Factory
Heavy
water
production
and 6 other
industries
Salt
refinery

a Unit 2 of Bruce A was taken out of service in 1995, units 1,3 and 4 were
taken out of service in 1998. They are expected to start up in 2003.
Table 5. Temperature Needs of Various Types of Industrial Process [5].
No

Industrial Process

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Home and building heating

Desalination
Vinyl Chloride production
Urea synthesis
Process Steam
Paper and pulp production
Oil refining
Oil shale and oil sand processing
Crude oil desulphurization
Petroleum refineries
Production of synthetic gas and Hydrogen
from natural gas or naphtha
Steel making via direct reduction
Iron industry
Production of styrene from ethyl-benzene
Production of ethylene from naphtha or ethane
Hydrogen production by thermo-chemical
reaction
Coal processing
Coal gasification

12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Approx.
Temperature Range
(Centigrade)
100 170
100 130
100 200
180 280
200 400
200 400
200 600
300 600
300 500
450 550
400 800
500 1000
600 1600
600 800
700 900
600 1000
400 1000
800 1000
37

The other various industrial processes are shown in Table 5. They vary
from low temperature applications for home and building heating to high
temperature industrial process of coal gasification. District heating systems
from nuclear power plants have been operated reliably in many countries,
particularly in Eastern Europe. Fuel synthesis industry also has been coupled
with the nuclear power that can generate high temperature heat. Beside that,
hydrogen production, coal gasification and production of other fuels also can
be coupled with nuclear power plants. There are more than 150 reactor-years
of operating experience with nuclear desalination, particularly in Japan
and Kazakhstan.
Some important processes will be described below.
Desalination
Nuclear desalination can be described as production of potable water
from seawater or brackish water in a facility in which a nuclear reactor is
used as the source of energy for the desalination process.
The possibility of using nuclear energy for desalination of seawater
was realized as early as the 1960s and has evolved over the past 50 years to
large-scale commercial processes. The major commercially available
processes are of two kinds: (a) thermal processes, where heat is used to
vaporize and distill fresh water from saline water; these are multi-stage flash
distillation (MSF), multiple-effect distillation (MED), and vapor compression
(VC), and (b) membrane processes where suitable membranes are used for
the separation of salts such as the mechanism of reverse osmosis (RO). There
are also other minor processes such as freezing and solar evaporation.
Globally about 26 million m3/d of fresh water is produced by desalination
(including both brackish and seawater plants). The maximum is produced in
Saudi Arabia, about 21%. The U.S. produces approximately 17%, 80% of
which is achieved by membrane processes.
Experience with nuclear desalination now exceeds 150 reactor-years.
Table 6 gives a list of the nuclear plants, which have been used for
desalination of water; it also provides information about the reactor types,
desalination technologies employed and the fresh water capacity of the plant.
It should particularly be noted that there was no incidence of radioactive
contamination of the water produced.

38

Table 6. Experience in Nuclear Desalination Plants [5].

Plant Name

Ikata-1,2 (Japan)
Ikata-3 (Japan)
Ohi-1,2 (Japan)
Ohi-3,4 (Japan)
Genkai-4 (Japan)
Genkai-3,4
(Japan)
Takahama-3,4
(Japan)
Kashiwazaki
(Japan)
KANUPP
(Pakistan)
BN-350
(Kazakhstan)

Reactor
Type

Desalination
Process

PWR
PWR
PWR
PWR
PWR
PWR

Gross
Power
(MWe)
2x566
890
2x1175
2x1180
1180
2x1180

MSF
RO
MSF
RO
RO
MED

Water
Capacity
M3/d
200
2,000
3,900
2,600
1,000
1,000

PWR

2x870

MED

1,000

BWR

1100

MSF

1,000

PHWR

137

RO

454

LMR 150
(till 1999)

150
(till 1999)

MSF & MED

80,000
(potable)

The desalination costs range from $0.40 to $1.90 per m3 of fresh water
produced. From current exist nuclear desalination, it was generally found that
(a) MSF processes cost higher than RO and MED processes, (b) RO and
MED processes costs are in general comparable, (c) RO is economically
more favorable for less stringent drinking standards, and (d) desalination
costs are higher for smaller reactors.
Nuclear desalination is a matured technology that can be installed in
many nuclear plants to provide fresh water to solve regional water shortage
problems and various research and construction project studies are still being
performed in several countries. The desalination capacities in the world
increase double each decade and many efforts are now primarily directed
towards reducing production cost of desalinated water through innovations
and technological enhancements.
Table 7. Nuclear Desalination Operating Experience [5].

Starting Year
Reactor Type
Capacity
(m3/day)
Average salinity

Japan

Kazakhstan

Pakistan

1978
LWR
100-3900

1973
LMR
80,000
(design 120,000)
13,500

2000
PHWR
454

35,000

24,000

39

of intake water
(mg/l)
Average
temperature (oC)
Radioactive leak
Water
Production
during
NPP
shutdown
Failures
types
Availability

Product
use

17

None
Water Production
during NPP
shutdown Halted, no
need for water. No
backup source
and Nothing reported

2
None
Continued by
fossil boiler

24

Corrosion
and
erosion of tubes and
pump blades
85%

~50%
Not operated once
the storage tank is
filled.
water In plant use for In
plant
&
steam cycle
municipal
use,
including drinking
water

None
None

Not
reported

In plant
use

Coal gasification
Coal gasification is a process conversion of solid coal into a gaseous
fuel like the natural gas. It requires very high temperatures.
The efficiency of coal fire plants will also be improved by coal gasification
because it can remove environmental pollutants such as particulates like
sulfur-dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The process is quite energy intensive;
one unit of gasified coal may require about 1.7 units of energy in solid coal.
High temperature gas-cooled reactors can play a role here.

Coal Liquefaction
The coal liquefaction is a process conversion of solid coal into liquid.
The process can be divided into two processes, i.e. direct and indirect. (1)
Direct process is the process of decomposing high molecular structural of
coal into lower structural of artificial petroleum with catalyst in a hydrogen
donor solvent at very high temperature and pressure. Direct coal liquefaction
is considered to take place into two consecutive steps: conversion to a soluble
form (dissolution or depolymerization) and reduction in molecular weight
and removal of heteroatom, which is often called as upgrading process. (2)
Indirect process is the production of hydrocarbons from carbon monoxide
40

and hydrogen in the presence of Fischer-Tropsch catalyst. The process itself

is defined by adjusting the composition of catalyst, hydrogen/carbon ratio and
operating conditions, therefore variety of products can be obtained.
Moreover, the other products such as methanol and acetone can also be
produced by using different catalyst.
Coal liquefaction can be one possible solution for future energy in
Indonesia, particularly in the transportation sector; the R&D is being carried
out by BPPT.
Fuel Synthesis
Gas-cooled reactors can generate very high temperatures, which could
be used to create new synthetic fuels for energy. This will be an innovative
application of nuclear energy and can considerably expand its use. This is
because the transportation sector is responsible for about a quarter of the total
energy use and almost 99% of this is currently supplied by organic fuel.
Nuclear power can penetrate this large market through use of electric cars
and production of synthetic fuels such as methanol, ethanol and their
derivatives; nuclear power can also be used for coal gasification, oil
extraction and hydrogen production. All of these are being seriously
considered in the 21st century. However, the infrastructure for use of these
fuels needs to be created first, particularly in the case of environmentally
ideal hydrogen fuel.
The feasibility of nuclear application for production of more organic
fuel really depends on the economics. So long as fossil fuel, particularly oil
and gas, are available at low prices, nuclear will not be a preferable option.
Only dual use, where nuclear electricity can compete in the market, could
make these applications worthwhile.
Hydrogen is one of the energy that can be storage able, transportable,
can be used in transport systems, home, industry, and the most important one
is a clean and inexhaustible energy. Therefore, hydrogen is named by clean
energy or environmentally clean and renewable energy source on large
scale. Hydrogen is considered to be the one that can replace all the positions
of fossil fuels. The most interesting one is the raw material this process is
water which relatively clean, a hundred per cent free carbon element.
Hydrogen is used in the chemical industry for producing ammonia, plastic,
foodstuffs, rubber and pharmaceuticals and also as a reducing agent in the
metallurgical and scrap-metal recovery industry.
There are many methods for producing hydrogen such as by
thermolysis, thermo chemical cycle, electrolysis, photolysis and
bioproduction by using bacteria. However, electrolysis and thermo chemical
cycle are the promising one and has a good prospect in the future.
Hydrogen economy has received renewed interest because of new
developments in HTGR technologies. Several paths to hydrogen production
41

are being considered: decomposition and gasification of fossil fuel such as

steam reforming of methane and carbon dioxide reforming of methane; and
decomposition of water, namely, low-temperature electrolysis, and
combination of electricity and heat for high temperature electrolysis. These
are briefly described below.
Steam Reforming of Methane
In this method Methane (CH4), a main component of natural gas and
water react at temperatures of 600800oC to produce hydrogen and carbon
monoxide and dioxide. The steam reforming system can be easily coupled to
a HTGR, which can provide the necessary heat and high temperature.
Considerable R&D work has been carried out in Germany for the steam
reforming of methane including performing experiments in a pilot plant,
EVA-I and EVA-II. Currently work is in progress in JAEA for the HTTR, in
China for the HTR-1015 and in Russia.

CO2 Reforming of Methane

The basic CH4 and CO2 reaction for this process (with no addition of
steam) produces CO and hydrogen. The reforming process requires high
temperature (800900o C) and high energy input, both of which can be
provided by HTGRs. The Desalination & Other generated CO and H2
mixture (syngas) can be used directly as fuel for electricity generation
(e.g., by fuel cells).

Electrolysis process
Water electrolysis at ambient pressure and temperature of 7090oC is a
common method for production of high purity hydrogen. However, it has
been found that the demand for electricity decreases with increase of
temperature. That is the electric energy required is much reduced for the
electrolysis of steam at higher temperatures (800oC and above). High
temperature electrolysis is a reverse reaction of the Solid-oxide Fuel Cell,
where water is decomposed in the solid polymer electrolyte to hydrogen and
oxygen. This method is at an early stage of development.
About 1% of worldwide hydrogen demand is produced by this
process, but the cost is more expensive than that fossil fuels. JAEA is
developing the ceramic cell for this purpose.

42

Thermo chemical cycle

This is a process that having operated temperature lowers than 1000oC.
There are thousands of thermo chemical cycle have been proposed in USA,
Europe and Asia, but only few per cent of those cycles are continuously
studied to bench-scale and pilot plant. Among these cycles, the Sulfur family
(Iodine Sulfur (IS) cycle and Mark cycle) and bromine family (University of
Tokyo (UT)-3 cycles) are the promising one.
One mechanism that is being considered seriously for hydrogen
production is thermo-chemical water splitting by the Iodine-Sulfur (IS)
process. The IS process was originally proposed by the General Atomic
Company in early 1970s and is very promising because it involves only a
few reaction steps. In this process Hydrogen- Iodide (HI) is produced by a
cyclic chemical reaction chain utilizing Iodine, sulfur dioxide and water; HI
is then decomposed to produce hydrogen, releasing Iodine to the chemical
reaction chain. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is generated in the process, which is
vaporized and decomposed at a temperature of about 800 to 900oC to sulfur
dioxide, water and oxygen. The oxygen is released and sulfur-dioxide and
water is returned to the reaction cycle. Laboratory scale experiments at Japan
Atomic Energy Research Institute have demonstrated the feasibility of the IS
process with continuous generation of hydrogen from water with recycling of
the process material. An energy efficiency of 47% has been achieved in
this process.
The IS cycle consist of 3 steps of reactions as follow
+ 2HI
I2 + SO2 + 2 H2O = H2SO4
+ I2
2HI
= H2
H2SO4
= H2O
+ SO2 + 0.5 O2
The UT-3 cycle consist of 4 steps of reactions as follow:
+ H2O
= CaO
+ 2 HBr
CaBr2
= CaBr2+ 0.5 O2
CaO
+ Br2
Fe3O4
+ 8 HBr
= 3FeBr2
+ 4 H2O + Br2
+ 4 H2O
= Fe3O4
+ H2
3FeBr2
The present hydrogen production plant in Indonesia is in Balik Papan
and Dumai with production capacity of 68,000 and 79,000
MMSFC.(Lemigas, 1994) One of the activity that BATAN doing now is the
basic research on separation product hydrogen with Iodium gas.
This research is supported by the government under incentive program now.

43

BATAN ACTIVITIES
From the explanation above, it is understood that HTGR is the
promising future type of NPP that can be coupled with various type of
industrial process which need heat as an energy source, to enhance the its
heat efficiency. BATAN starts to study the non electric application of
nuclear power plant from more than 10 years ago. The chosen nuclear power
plant for that purpose is also HTGR. Many theoretical and literature studies
have been done. At present, the type of technological study that has been
doing by BATAN is desalination and hydrogen production.
The present status for desalination study is the development of a small
scale Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC).

Vapour (60oC
approx.)
Vacuum Chamber
e.g. 50kPa(abs) to
facilitate
vaporisation
Compressor
(heating)

Clean
Water

Heat Exchangers

Brine

Seawater

Figure 1. Simplified Concept Diagram (a) and prototype Model (b).

A small scale MVC is shown in Figure 1. The production rate of water
is 0.5 m3/day. Power consumption is estimated to be 322 kWh/m3.
Desalination efficiencies have been studied in terms of heat exchanger
capacities and fresh water production rates. See Figure 1. The capacity of the
main heat exchanger is found to be dominating the system performance and
directly affects the product throughput. That is, any increase in heat
exchanger size is realized by a greater gain in fresh water production.
Increase in brine preheater size also shows great return up to a certain
desalination throughput, 0.1 kg/s, after which, the net gain is significantly
retarded although continues to increase. On the other hand, little performance
gain is observed when the fresh water preheater capacity is increased. This is
yet to be tested to validate the design upon completion of system
44

construction. Effects of demister densities also have been studied. Although

it did not change flow patterns, power consumption increased from 300 to
500 kWh/m3 as the demister density was changed from 200 to 930 kg/m3.
The present status for hydrogen production is a basic study on IodineSulfur Thermochemical process to enhance the process efficiency.

CONCLUSION
HTGR is the promising future type of nuclear reactor for Indonesia
because it has very high outlet temperature from the primary cooling (950oC)
that can be utilized for various industrial processes. The purpose of multi
used heat is to enhance the heat efficiency. The probable industries that have
been studying at present for its coupling are coal liquefaction, hydrogen
production and desalination. These industries need a proper temperature and
pressure, therefore to prevent the heat loss in transit, the probable industries
are considered better to be built nearby the NPP.

REFERENCE
1. MACHBUB, Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Air Berwawasan Lingkungan pada
Pengembangan Wilayah.
2. PANGESTI, Pengelolaan dan Pemanfaatan Sungai Menyongsong
Abad 21 (2000).
3. S. H. KIM et. al, International Journal, Nuclear Desalination, Volume 1,
No. 4 (2005).
4. GENI RINA SUNARYO and PURADWI ISMU WAHYONO, Prospect
on Desalination by Nuclear Energy in Indonesia, Conference on NonElectric Applications of Nuclear Power: Seawater Desalination, Hydrogen
Production and other Industrial Applications, held in Oarai, Japan, April
16-19, (2007).
5. DEBU MAJUMDAR, Desalination and other Non-Electric Application
of Nuclear Energy, Workshop on Nuclear Reaction Data and
Nuclear Reactors Physics, Design and Safety, Trieste, February 25
March 28, (2002).

45