ondon (England), city, capital of the United Kingdom.

It is situated in south-eastern England at the

head of the River Thames estuary. Settled by the Romans as an important shipping point for crops
and minerals, it gradually developed into the wealthy capital of a thriving industrial and agricultural
nation. The expansion in the 19th century of the British Empire increased Londons influence still
further. Since World War II the citys prominence on the international stage has diminished, but it
remains a flourishing financial centre and home to one of the worlds most important stock
exchanges. In addition, it is the foremost tourist destination in Britain, a centre of academic
excellence, and one of the cultural capitals of the worldwell deserving of the observation by
Samuel Johnson that: When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life.
The term City of London, or the City, is applied only to a small area known as the Square Mile
(2.59 sq km/1 sq mi) that was the original settlement (ancient Londinium) and is now part of the
financial and business district of the metropolis. The City of Londonand 32 surrounding boroughs
constitute the Greater London metropolitan area, which covers some 1,580 sq km (620 sq mi). The
13 inner London boroughs are Camden, Hackney, Hammersmith and Fulham, Haringey, Islington,
Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth, Lewisham, Newham, Southwark, Tower Hamlets, Wandsworth,
and the City of Westminster. The 19 outer boroughs are Barking and Dagenham, Barnet, Bexley,
Brent, Bromley, Croydon, Ealing, Enfield, Greenwich, Harrow, Havering, Hillingdon,
Hounslow, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Redbridge, Richmond upon Thames, Sutton,
and Waltham Forest.
Government and Administration
London is the seat of central government in Britain. The Houses of Parliamentthe House of
Commons (the lower house) and the House of Lords (the upper house)are located at Westminster.
Downing Street (home to the Prime Minister at No 10, and traditionally the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, at No 11), the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, the Treasury, and the Ministry of
Defence are concentrated around Whitehall. Various other government departments and public
bodies are also sited in central London. Within the Government, the Secretary of State for the
Environment has responsibility for the capital as Minister for London. The administrative structure of
the legal system, and the central offices of the main political parties, are also based in London.
Over 70 (out of 659) Members of Parliament are returned to Westminster from constituencies in the
Greater London metropolitan area, and the capital returns 10 of Englands 71 representatives to the
European Parliament. Unlike other major cities, there is no single body governing Greater London.
Prior to the late 1880s, when the London County Council (LCC) was established, the four counties
of Essex, Kent, Middlesex, and Surrey administered the area, together with the ancient City
of London and many smaller local authorities. In 1965 Greater London was created under the
jurisdiction of the Greater London Council. This council was abolished in 1986, and today each inner
and outer borough and the City of London itself has its own governing council. The borough councils
consist of councillors elected every four years, who in turn annually elect their presiding official.
Councils are responsible for the provision of most local services including education, housing, social
services, local planning, roads, refuse collection, recreation, and culture. They do not control the
police (except in the case of the City of London), fire service, or public transport. Londons
Metropolitan Police Service is the responsibility of the Home Secretary (a senior government
minister). London Transport is a statutory corporation whose remit is to provide transport for the
capital.
The City of London, the ancient heart of the city, has only about 5,000 residents (although well over
300,000 people work there each day). It is governed by the Corporation of the City of London. Among
local authorities, the Corporation is unique; it is the oldest in the country and operates on a nonparty-political basis. The ruling body is the Court of Common Council, and this consists of the Lord
Mayor, 24 aldermen, and 130 common councilmen. The Lord Mayor and two sheriffs are nominated
annually by the City guilds (livery companies representing trades and professions and dating back to
medieval times) and elected by the Court of Aldermen. Aldermen and councilmen are elected by
businesses in the Citys 25 wards. The Corporation fulfils the same functions as the borough councils
but has, for historical reasons, retained some other powers: it is responsible for the City of London
Police; is the health authority for the Port of London; is responsible for health control of animal

imports throughout Greater London (including Heathrow Airport); and is responsible for the Central
Criminal Court (the Old Bailey).
Population Patterns and Trends
In mid-1994 the population of Greater London was estimated at 6,967,500 (representing about 12
per cent of Britains overall population), with two thirds resident in outer London. Although the
population is no longer as large as in mid-century (peaking at about 8,346,000 in the 1951 census),
it has recently been increasing, rising at an average of 20,000 per year since 1984. Londons
population is heavily concentrated (at about 4,409 people per sq km/11,238 per sq mi) relative to
other metropolitan areas in the country.
The arrival of immigrants has contributed considerably to the variations in population figures, and
the capital is the most ethnically diverse region in the United Kingdom. Ethnic minority communities
account for over a third of the population in the boroughs of Brent, Hackney, Newham, and Tower
Hamlets.
The Urban Landscape
London straddles the River Thames, 80 km (50 mi) upriver from its mouth at the Nore, where the
English Channel joins the North Sea. Most of London, including its central districts and the majority of
its famous landmarks, lies to the north of the river. The original settlement that gave London its
name was the Roman fort of Londinium, founded in the first century AD. The City of London is on the
site where this stood, and the description of the Roman town as a busy emporium for trade and
traders by the Roman historian Tacitus seems equally apt today. St Pauls Cathedral stands on the
western edge of the City, and the Tower of London, the Norman fortress built by William the
Conqueror to defend his new lands late in the 11th century (and now listed as a conservation site in
the World Heritage List), lies to the south-east. Spanning the river to Southwark (west
of Tower Bridge) is London Bridge, a modern replacement of the only bridge over the Thames
in London until the 18th century.
To the east and north-east of the City are the predominantly working-class districts of the East End,
home to successive waves of immigrants from Ireland, continental Europe, and the former British
Empire. Lively and industrious, the East End continues to have many thriving small businesses. The
area known as Docklands comprises (on the north bank of the Thames) the districts of Wapping and
Poplar, the Isle of Dogs, the Royal Docks, and (to the south of the Thames) Surrey Docks. Docklands
is the site of a massive inner city regeneration project. West of the City lie the ancient Inns of Court
(Lincolns Inn, Middle Temple, Inner Temple, and Grays Inn), the legal district occupied by barristers
and firms of solicitors; and Fleet Street, once the home of Britains national press (which has now
relocated to other parts of the capital). Further to the north-west is Bloomsbury, the haunt in the
1920s of a renowned group of literary intellectuals (the Bloomsbury Group), thanks to its proximity
to London University and the BritishMuseum.
The West End is a large area of central London to the west of the City, containing most of the bestknown theatres and shopping districts. To the south, following the river as it takes a southward bend,
is the administrative core of London and the centre of government: Whitehall, the Houses of
Parliament (officially called the Palace of Westminster), St Jamess Palace (London home of the Prince
of Wales), and Buckingham Palace (the London residence of Queen Elizabeth II). The West End also
contains Hyde Park, Londons largest open space, which leads west to the districts of Knightsbridge
and Kensington, both fashionable residential areas with such attractions as Harrods department
store, the Royal Albert Hall, and the South Kensington museums. South of the river, upstream from
the Houses of Parliament, lies Lambeth Palace, home of the Archbishop of Canterbury; nearby is the
South Bank Centre, the arts and theatre complex. Beyond lie other residential districts with historical
associations, such as Dulwich, Clapham, Wimbledon (one of Londons earliest settlements),
and Greenwich (home of the Royal Naval College, the restored Cutty Sark tea clipper, and the Prime
Meridian at the Old Royal Observatory).
Economy

Economic activity in London contributes almost one sixth of Britains non-oil gross domestic product
(GDP). In mid-1995 the total number of people employed in the capital was 3.1 million (compared
with over 3.5 million in 1981). About 85 per cent of Londons employment is now in service
industries, notably in financial and business services which, at almost 750,000, may be the largest
such concentration in any city in the world. Other service sectors supporting significant levels of
employment include public administration (central and local government and other official agencies),
retail and wholesale distribution, hotels and catering, education and health services, and transport
and communications. Manufacturing makes up an important, though relatively small, part of
the London economy.
The financial and business services sector makes up over a third of the capitals GDP. London is one
of the three main global financial centres (with New York and Tokyo) and is noted for having a larger
number of international banks than any other financial centre; a banking sector that accounts for
about 20 per cent of total international bank lending; one of the largest international insurance
markets; the largest centre in the world for trading overseas equities; the worlds largest foreign
exchange market; one of the worlds biggest financial derivatives markets; the greatest
concentration of international bond dealers; major markets for transactions in commodities; and a
vast range of ancillary and support services (legal, accountancy, management, property, computer,
and advertising consultancy). The Big Bang deregulation of financial markets in 1986 allowed
changes in the structure of the industry that created conglomerates operating across all markets
(although many specialists still exist). The insurance sector includes general insurance companies as
well as life assurance companies and societies. It is less focused on London than is banking, but still
generates a considerable share of financial and business services employment in the capital. Lloyds
of London, an incorporated society of private insurers (which has had some highly publicized
financial problems in recent years), accounts for about half of the international insurance market that
is based in London.
Tourism is another vital service sector within the London economy. London is one of the worlds
major tourist destinations and a leading conference venue, attracting over 23 million visitors
annually. Of these, 13 million are from outside the United Kingdom. Tourist expenditure in London in
1994 reached 6.1 billion (US$9 billion), and overseas visitors accounted for 85 per cent of this
spending. Over 200,000 people work in tourism-related industries within the capital. There are about
480 hotels in London, approximately a third of which are located in Westminster. Tourist attractions
include the many museums, art galleries, monuments, historic buildings, gardens, churches, and
shopping facilities. The most popular attractions are the British Museum (with over 6 million visitors
in 1994-1995), the National Gallery, Westminster Abbey (where the sovereign is crowned), Madame
Tussauds waxworks, and the Tower of London.
Manufacturing remains a significant part of Londons economy, accounting for some 13 per cent of
output, but has been declining for many years. In general, heavy industry in London has been
disappearing since the war, and between 1982 and 1994 the numbers employed in manufacturing
almost halved to approximately 328,000 (about 10 per cent of total employment). Printing and
publishing remains one of the most healthy industries and accounts for over a quarter of Londons
manufacturing employment. This reflects Londons role as an administrative, financial, and media
centre, placing heavy demands on printing. Other important manufacturing sectors include electrical
and electronic engineering; food, drink, and tobacco; and chemicals and synthetic fibres. Generally,
manufacturing industries are more concentrated in outer, rather than inner, London, and five
outer London boroughs (Barking and Dagenham, Enfield, Ealing, Hounslow, and Waltham Forest)
have about 20 per cent of their output in manufacturing.
Transport
Transport is essential to the operation of a city such as London. Its very development was
significantly affected by the advent of the railways, and more recently the construction of roads
(particularly the orbital M25 motorway) has influenced patterns of settlement and economic
activity. London has one of the most extensive urban railway systems in the world; in addition to the
Underground railway, there is a network of suburban railways covering London and the surrounding
region. Most of the passenger-carrying Underground lines in central London were built before 1914.
Suburban extensions were added before and after World War II. The most recent line, the Jubilee,
opened in 1979 and in the 1990s was extended eastward to Stratford. The Docklands Light Railway

connects the City of London with Docklands and other east London destinations. Most travel is done
by rail and Underground, although there is also considerable commuting by car, particularly in the
outer boroughs. London has about 18,000 licensed taxis.
Railway services from London to Paris or Brussels through the Channel Tunnel run from the terminal
at Waterloo station.
London has three main airports. Heathrow, about 25 km (15 mi) west of London, is the worlds
busiest airport for international passengers and is Britains most important airport for passengers
and air freight (handling about 55 million passengers and over 1 million tonnes of freight in 1996).
Gatwick (south of London) is Britains second-busiest airport in terms of passenger traffic, and
Stansted (to the north-east, in Essex) is the sixth-busiest. London City Airport, based in the
rejuvenated Docklands area, links Docklands and the City to continental Europe.
The Port of London, covering about 150 km (93 mi) of waterway along the Thames to the east coast,
is the largest port in Britain in terms of total tonnage of cargo handled and in terms of non-fuel
traffic. The total tonnage handled in 1995 was about 52 million tonnes.
Museums and Art Galleries
Londons museums and art galleries contain some of the most comprehensive collections of objects
of artistic, archaeological, scientific, historical, and general interest.
The British Museum in Bloomsbury is one of the biggest and most famous museums in the world. Its
collections range from Egyptian and Classical antiquities through Saxon treasures to more recent
artefacts.
The Victoria and Albert Museum in South Kensington is an assembly of fine and decorative art
collections from all over the world. There are magnificent examples of porcelain, glass, sculpture,
fabrics and costume, furniture, and musical instruments, all set in a building of Victorian grandeur.
Nearby are the Museum of Natural History and the Science Museum. On the other side of London, in
the City itself, is the Museum of London, which has exhibits dealing with the development of the
capital from its origins to the present day.
The National Gallery in Trafalgar Square contains one of the finest mixed collections of paintings in
the world. Next door is the National Portrait Gallery, whose collection includes more than 9,000
portraits. The Tate Gallery, situated on the Embankment between Chelsea and Westminster, houses
the largest collection of British painting from the 16th century to the present day. In 1987 an
extension opened to house the paintings bequeathed to the nation by J. M. W. Turner. There are plans
to establish a new Tate Gallery of Modern Art in Southwark, near the reconstructed Shakespearean
theatre, the Globe.
Other important collections in the capital include the Imperial War Museum, the National Army
Museum, the Royal Air Force Museum, the National Maritime Museum, the Wallace Collection (of
paintings, furniture, arms and armour, and objets dart), Sir John Soanes Museum (founded by the
architect of the Bank of England in the City), and the London Transport Museum. The Queens Gallery
in Buckingham Palace has exhibitions of pictures from the extensive royal collection.
The Theatre Museum displays the history of the performing arts, while the Museum of the Moving
Image traces the history of film and television.
The British Library, the national library of Britain, has a collection of more than 150 million separate
items. Publishers must deposit in the Library a copy of everything they publish.
Performing Arts
London is one of the worlds leading centres for theatre, and there are about 100 theatres in the
capital. These include the three auditoriums of the Royal National Theatre in the South Bank Centre;
the two auditoriums in the London base of the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Citys Barbican
Centre; and the Royal Court Theatre in Sloane Square, home of the English Stage Company, which

stages work by new playwrights. The largest concentration of commercial theatres is in the West
End, around Shaftesbury Avenue, Charing Cross Road, and the Strand.
In 1989 the partial remains of the Globe Theatre, where Shakespeare acted, and the Rose Theatre,
where his plays were performed during his lifetime, were excavated on the south bank of the Thames
in central London: a modern reconstruction of the Globe Theatre, near its original site, was unveiled
in 1996.
The principal concert halls in central London are the Royal Festival Hall in the South Bank Centre
(next to which are the Queen Elizabeth Hall and the Purcell Room, which accommodate smaller-scale
performances), the Barbican Hall, the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington, the Wigmore Hall, (behind
Oxford Street); and St Johns Church in Smith Square, Westminster.
The leading symphony orchestras in London include the London Symphony, the London
Philharmonic, the Royal Philharmonic, the Philharmonia, and the BBC Symphony. There are also
several London chamber orchestras and choirs. The Royal Opera and the Royal Ballet, which rank
among the worlds finest companies, perform at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. Seasons of
opera in English are given by the English National Opera at the London Coliseum. English Festival
Ballet (founded as London Festival Ballet) performs at the Royal Festival Hall, and the Rambert Dance
Company provides regular seasons of modern dance in the capital.
There is a wide range of cinemas throughout London. The National Film Theatre on the South Bank,
administered by the British Film Institute, annually mounts the London Film Festival.
Highly respected music, dance, and drama colleges in London include the Royal Academy of
Dramatic Art, the Royal College of Music, the Royal Ballet School, and
the London Contemporary Dance School.
Parks
Two thirds of London is intensively built up, yet the capital is well endowed with parks and open
spaces. Hyde Park, adjoining Kensington Gardens, was formerly known as the lung of London.
Regents Park, to the north of the West End, is surrounded by elegant buildings designed by John
Nash for the Prince Regent (hence its name) and contains the Zoological Gardens (the London Zoo).
Other important open spaces in London, some of them royal parks, include Green Park, St Jamess
Park, Hampstead Heath, Holland Park, Battersea Park, Parliament Hill Fields, and Primrose Hill. In
outer London there are some extended green areas such as Richmond Park, Bushey Park, Kew
Gardens (incorporating the famous Royal Botanic Gardens), and Greenwich Park.
Education
London University was founded in 1837 and is the largest university in Britain, comprising many
prominent colleges, institutes, and schools. These include the medical schools attached to Londons
teaching hospitals (such as the ancient foundations of Guys, St Thomass, and St Bartholomews),
and other renowned centres of educational excellence, including University College London; Kings
College; the Imperial College of Science, Technology, and Medicine; and the London School of
Economics and Political Science. Other universities located in the capital include the City University,
the University of East London,
the University of Greenwich, Kingston University, London Guildhall University, Middlesex University,
the University of North London, South BankUniversity, Thames Valley University, and
the University of Westminster. The Royal College of Art, next to the Royal Albert Hall, awards
postgraduate degrees.