Orbital Angular Momentum

In classical mechanics, conservation of angular momentum L is

sometimes treated by an effective (repulsive) potential
L2
2mr 2
Soon we will solve the 3D Schr. Eqn. The R equation will have an
angular momentum term which arises from the Theta equations
separation constant
eigenvalues and eigenfunctions for this can be found by solving the
differential equation using series solutions
but also can be solved algebraically. This starts by assuming L is
conserved (true if V(r))
dL
0 [ H , L] 0
dt

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 Orbital Angular Momentum
Look at the quantum mechanical angular momentum operator
(classically this causes a rotation about a given axis)

Lrp f z cos f

sin f 0

sin f cos f 0
p i 0
0 1

look at 3 components
Lx yp z zp y i ( y
z z
y )
L y zpx xp z i ( z
x x
z )
Lz xp y yp x i ( x
y y
x )
operators do not necessarily commute
Lx L y L y Lx [ Lx , L y ]
2 [( y
z z
y )( z
x x
z )
(z
x x
z )( y
z z
y )]
i 2 ( y
x x
y ) iLz
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 Side note Polar Coordinates
Write down angular momentum components in polar coordinates
(Supp 7-B on web,E&R App M)
Lx i (sin f
cot cos f
f )
Ly i ( cos f
cot sin f
f )
Lz i f
and with some trig manipulations
L2 2 [ sin1 (sin ) sin12 f 2 ]
2

but same equations will be seen when solving angular part of S.E. and
so L2zYlm L2z lm m ml2 2Ylm
L2Ylm 2 [ sin1
(sin
) ml2
sin 2
]Ylm
l (l 1) 2Ylm

and know eigenvalues for L2 and Lz with spherical harmonics being

eigenfunctions
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 Commutation Relationships
Look at all commutation relationships
[ Lx , L y ] iLz
[ Ly , Lz ] iLx
[ Lz , Lx ] iL y

[ Ly , Ly ] [ Lx , Lx ] [ Lz , Lz ] 0
or [ Li , L j ] i ijk Lk
ijk tensor 0any indices same
1, all different

since they do not commute only one component of L can be an

eigenfunction (be diagonalized) at any given time

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 Commutation Relationships
but there is another operator that can be simultaneously diagonalized
(Casimir operator)
L2 L2x L2y L2z
[ L2 , Lz ] L2 Lz Lz L2
( L2x L2y ) Lz Lz ( L2x L2y ) 0
u sin g :
Lx ( Lx Lz ) Lx ( Ly Lz Lx )
( Lz Lx ) Lx ( Ly Lx Lz ) Lx
Ly ( Ly Lz ) Ly ( Lx Lz Ly )
( Lz Ly ) Ly ( Lx Ly Lz ) Ly

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 Group Algebra
The commutation relations, and the recognition that there are two operators that can
both be diagonalized, allows the eigenvalues of angular momentum to be
determined algebraically
similar to what was done for harmonic oscillator
an example of a group theory application. Also shows how angular momentum
terms are combined
the group theory results have applications beyond orbital angular momentum. Also
apply to particle spin (which can have 1/2 integer values)
Concepts later applied to particle theory: SU(2), SU(3), U(1), SO(10), susy,
strings..(usually continuous)..and to solid state physics (often discrete)
Sometimes group properties point to new physics (SU(2)-spin, SU(3)-gluons). But
sometimes not (nature doesnt have any particles with that groups properties)

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 Sidenote:Group Theory
A very simplified introduction
A set of objects form a group if a combining process can be defined
such that
1. If A,B are group members so is AB
2. The group contains the identity AI=IA=A
3. There is an inverse in the group A-1A=I
4. Group is associative (AB)C=A(BC)
group not necessarily commutative
Abelian AB BA
AB BA
non-Abelian
Can often represent a group in many ways. A table, a matrix, a
definition of multiplication. They are then isomorphic or
homomorphic
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 Simple example
Discrete group. Properties of group (its arithmetic) contained in
Table 1 a b c
1 1 a b c
a a b c 1
b b c 1 a
c c 1 a b
Can represent each term by a number, and group combination is
normal multiplication 11
a i a a i i 1 b
b 1
c i

or can represent by matrices and use normal matrix multiplication

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
1
0
,a
1
,b
0
,c
1
1 0 1 0

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 Continuous (Lie) Group:Rotations
Consider the rotation of a vector


r' f r r r ' Rr

| r ' || r | length same

r' r f r near identity

R is an orthogonal matrix (length of vector doesnt change). All 3x3

real orthogonal matrices form a group O(3). Has 3 parameters (i.e.
Euler angles)
O(3) is non-Abelian R(f ) R( ) R( ) R(f )

assume angle change is small

cos f sin f 0 1 f 0

Rz (f ) sin f cos 0 f 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 fz fy

R fz 1 f x small angles
f fx 1
y

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 Rotations
Also need a Unitary Transformation (doesnt change length) for
how a function is changed to a new function by the rotation

( r ) changes to ( r )

( Rr ) ( r ) or ( r ) ( R 1r )

U R (f ) ( r ) ( r ) unitary

(r f r )

U is the unitary operator. Do a Taylor expansion

( r f r ) ( r ) (f r ) ( r )
i
(r ) (f r ) p ( r )


( r ) f ( i r p ) ( r )

U R 1 i f L

the angular momentum operator is the generator of the infinitesimal

rotation
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 For the Rotation group O(3) by inspection as:
1 fz fy

R fz 1 fx U R 1 i
f L
f fx 1
y

one gets a representation for angular momentum (notice none is

diagonal; will diagonalize later)
0 0 0 0 0 1

Lx i 0 0 1 L y i 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0
0 1 0

Lz i 1 0 0
0 0
0

satisfies Group Algebra

[ Li , L j ] i ijk Lk

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 Group Algebra [ Li , L j ] i ijk Lk

Another group SU(2) also satisfies same Algebra. 2x2 Unitary

transformations (matrices) with det=1 (gives S=special). SU(n) has n2-
1 parameters and so 3 parameters U U 1

Usually use Pauli spin matrices to represent. Note O(3) gives integer
solutions, SU(2) half-integer (and integer)
0 1 0 i
Lx

1
Ly

i
2
0 2
0
1 0
Lz

0
2
1

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 Eigenvalues Group Theory
Use the group algebra to determine the eigenvalues for the two
diagonalized operators Lz and L2 Already know the answer

Have constraints from geometry. eigenvalues of L2 are positive-

definite. the length of the z-component cant be greater than the
total (and since z is arbitrary, reverse also true)

The X and Y components arent 0 (except if L=0) but cant be

diagonalized and so ~indeterminate with a range of possible values

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 Eigenvalues Group Theory
Define raising and lowering operators (ignore Planks constant for
now). Raise m-eigenvalue (Lz eigenvalue) while keeping l-
eiganvalue fixed
L Lx iL y
for SU ( 2 ) matrices
0 1 0 i
L 1

1
i

i
2
0 2
0
0 1

0
0
0 1 0 i
L 1

1
i

i
2
0 2
0
0 0

1
0

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 Eigenvalues Group Theory
operates on a 1x2 vector (varying m) raising or lowering it
1
0 1 s 1
, ms 1

0
L
0
0
2 2

0
s 2 1
1 1
, ms
0 0 2

L
1
0

L L 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

0





0





0 1
0 0 0
0

L 0 L
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1





1





0 1 0 0 0 1
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 Can also look at matrix representation for 3x3 orthogonal (real)
matrices
Choose Z component to be diagonal gives choice of matrices
L Lx iL y
1 0 0

Lz 0 0 0
0 1
0

1 1

Lz m m m Lz 0 1 0 ,
0 0

0 0 0 0

Lz 1 0 1 , Lz 0 1 0
0 0 1 1

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 Can also look at matrix representation for 3x3 orthogonal (real)
matrices
can write down L+- (need sqrt(2) to normalize) and then work out X
and Y components L Lx iL y
0 1 0
1 0 0
L 2 0 0 1
0
0 0

Lz 0 0 0
0 1
0

0 0

0
L 2 1 0 0
0 0
1

1 0 0 1 0 0

L 0 0 , L 1 0 , L 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0

L 0 1 , L 1 0 , L 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0

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 Can also look at matrix representation for 3x3 orthogonal (real)
matrices. Work out X and Y components
L Lx iL y
1 0 0

Lz 0 0 0
0 1
0

0 1 0

Lx 1
2 ( L L ) 1
2 1 0 1
0 0
1
0 i 0

Ly i
2 ( L L ) 1
2 i 0 i
0 0
i

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 Can also look at matrix representation for 3x3 orthogonal (real)
matrices. Work out L2 0 1 0

Lx 1
2 ( L L ) 1
2 1 0 1
L Lx iL y 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 i 0

Lz 0 0 0 Ly i
2 ( L L ) 1
2 i 0 i
0 0 0
0 1
i

L2 L2x L2y L2z

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

1
2 0 2 0 2 0
1
2 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
2 0 0

0 2 0 2 Identity [l ( l 1) 1 * 2]
0 2
0

L2
i LT
i Li

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 Eigenvalues
Done in different ways (Gasior,Griffiths,Schiff)
Start with two diagonalized operators Lz and L2.
lm LZ l m m ll mm
lm L2 l m l 2 ll mm

where m and l are not yet known

Define raising and lowering operators (in m) and easy to work out
some relations
L Lx iL y L2 L L L2z Lz

[ Lz , L ] L [ L2 , L ] 0

[ L , L ] 2Lz

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 Eigenvalues
Assume if g is eigenfunction of Lz and L2. ,L+g is also an
eigenfunction
L2 ( L g ) L ( L2 g ) l ( L g )
( L2 , L commute )

Lz ( L g ) ( hbarL L Lz ) g

L g L mg ( m 1)( L g )

m for operators L

new eigenvalues (and see raises and lowers value)

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 Eigenvalues
There must be a highest and lowest value as cant have the z-
component be greater than the total
L g H 0 L g L 0

For highest state, let l be the maximum eigenvalue

Lz g H lg H (re min der : L2 g H lg H )

can easily show

L2 g H ( L L L2z Lz ) g H
( 0 2l 2 2l ) l 2l (l 1)

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 Eigenvalues
There must be a highest and lowest value as cant have the z-
component be greater than the total
L g H 0 L g L 0

repeat for the lowest state

L2 g L ( L L L2z Lz ) g L
( 0 2l 2 2l ) l 2l (l 1)

Lz g L l g L l 2l (l 1)
equate l l (l 1) l (l 1) l l

eigenvalues of Lz go from -l to l in integer steps (N steps)

N
l int eger or half int eger
2
l 0, 12 ,1, 32 .......( SU ( 2) only )
m l ,l 1,l 2.....l 1, l ( 2l 1 terms )

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 Raising and Lowering Operators
can also (see Gasior,Schiff) determine eigenvalues by looking at
L l m C (l , m ) l m 1
L l m C ( l , m ) l m 1

and show
C (l , m) (l m )( l m 1)
C (l , m) (l m )( l m 1)

note values when l=m and l=-m

very useful when adding together angular momentums and building
up eigenfunctions. Gives Clebsch-Gordon coefficients

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 Eigenfunctions in spherical coordinates
if l=integer can determine eigenfunctions Ylm ( , f ) , f l , m
knowing the forms of the operators in spherical coordinates
Ylm
LzYlm mYlm
i f

LYlm eif ( i cot )Ylm
f
solve first Ylm F ( )eimf

and insert this into the second for the highest m state (m=l)

L l , l 0 0 eif ( i cot )Yll
f

eif ( i cot ) F ( ) eimf
f

eif eilf ( i cot (il )) F ( )


ei ( l 1)f ( l cot ) F ( )

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 Eigenfunctions in spherical coordinates

solving ei ( l 1)f ( l cot ) F ( ) 0

gives F ( ) (sin )l Yll Ae ilf (sin )l

then get other values of m (members of the multiplet) by using the

lowering operator
L eif
( i cot )
f
LYll ( l m )( l m 1)Yll 1

will obtain Y eigenfunctions (spherical harmonics) also by solving the

associated Legendre equation
note power of l: l=2 will have

sin 2 ; cos sin ; cos 2

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