Design Examples and Case Studies of

Program Modeling and Programming with

RTOS-2:

Lesson-2
CASE STUDY OF AN EMBEDDED
SYSTEM FOR AN ADAPTIVE
CRUISE CONTROL (ACC) SYSTEM
IN A CAR

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 1
Inc.
 Embedded Systems in a car

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 2
Inc.
 1. Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
System

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 3
Inc.
 Cruise control
Cruise control a system that takes
charge of controlling the throttle from
the driver and cruising the vehicle at
preset and constant speed.
may also maintain string stability in
case of multiple cars streaming through
highway and in case of VIP convoy

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 4
Inc.
 Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
Using an adaptive algorithm, ACC
system maintains constant speed and can
be added string stability feature in case
of multiple cars streaming on highway.
String stability maintaining inter-car
distances constant

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 5
Inc.
 ACC
Cruise control relieves the driver from
that duty and the driver hands over the
charge to the ACC
When (1) road conditions are suitable
(not wet or icy, or (2) there are no strong
winds or fog), or (3) car is cruising at
high speed and when there is no heavy
traffic.
The driver resumes the charge in adverse
conditions
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 6
Inc.
 Block diagram of the ACC system units

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 7
Inc.
 Control front-end panel
Switch cum Display for 'ON', for 'OFF',
'COAST', RESUME',
SET/ACCELERATE.
The driver activates or deactivates, the
ACC system by pressing ON or OFF,
respectively.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 8
Inc.
 Adaptive Control
An adaptive control algorithm used to
adapt to the current status of control
inputs
Parameters adapt dynamically
In place of a constant set of
mathematical parameters in the
algorithm equations, the parameter are
continuously adapted to the status at an
instance
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 9
Inc.
 Model for an adaptive control algorithm
adapts and function

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 10
Inc.
 2. ACC System Requirements

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 11
Inc.
 Purpose

Controlled cruising of car using

adaptive control algorithm for
continuous maintaining the car speed
and inter-car distances

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 12
Inc.
 Inputs

Present alignment of radar (or laser) beam
emitter.

Delay interval in reflected pulse with
respect to transmitted pulse from emitter

Throttle position from a stepper motor
position sensor.

Speed from a speedometer

Brake status for brake activities from brake
switch and pedal
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 13
Inc.
 ACC System Ports and tasks

Port_Align for a motor control for
steps up clockwise or anticlockwise on
a signal from task_Align, aligns radar
or UVHF transmitting device in the
lane of the front-end car

Port_ReadRange for measuring front
end-car range. Time difference deltaT
is read on a signal from task_Signal to
port device.
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 14
Inc.
 ACC System Ports and tasks

task_ReadRange to read using the Port
device_ReadRange circuit for the
computations of deltaT between the
transmission and reception instances. deltaT
1.5 105 measures the range rangeNow (=
present range or front-car distance d) of the
front-end car.

task_ReadRange to send message for
speedNow (= velocity v) to task_RangeRate
and transmits same to all other streaming
behind cars

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 15
Inc.
 ACC System Ports and tasks

Port_Speed to send speed to port
control function routine on receiving a
signal from task_Speed

Port_Brake to apply the brakes or
emergency brakes on an interrupt
signal, which runs service routine
ISR_BrakeControl

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 16
Inc.
 Signals, Events and Notifications

User commands given as signals from
switches/buttons. User control inputs
for ACC ON, OFF, Coast, resume,
set/accelerate buttons

Brake event (Brake taping to disable
the ACC system, as alternative to
"cancel" button at front panel)

Safe/Unsafe distance notification

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 17
Inc.
 Outputs

Transmitted pulses at regular intervals

Alarms

Flashed Messages

Range and speed messages for other cars (in
case of string stability mode)

Throttle-valve and Brake control

Output to pedal system for applying
emergency brakes and driver non-
intervention for taking charge of cruising
from the ACC system
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 18
Inc.
 Control front-end panel

Switch with display 'ON', for 'OFF',
'COAST', RESUME', and
SET/ACCELERATE.

COAST or RESUME switch to enable
driver handover or resumes the ACC
system charge

SET/ACCELERATE switch to set
cruise speed upwards or downwards
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 19
Inc.
 Control front-end panel

Switch with display glows to show
green or red as per the status when the
ACC activation

Alarms and message flashing unit
issues appropriate alarms and message
flashing pictograms

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 20
Inc.
 Functions of the system

Cruise control system takes charge of controlling
the throttle position from the driver and enables
the cruising of the vehicle at the preset constant
speed. A radar system helps in maintaining inter-
car distance and warns of emergency situations.

An alignment circuit aligns the radar emitter.
When driving in a hilly area, the emitter alignment
is must. A stepper motor aligns the attachment so
that transmitter beam of radar emits with the
required beam alignment for the given driving
lane and divergence so maintain the in-lane line of
sight of the front-end car. task_Align does this
function.
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 21
Inc.
 Functions of the system

Transmit modulated pulses emit at periodic
intervals and the delay period in receiving
its reflection from front-end vehicle

The measured delay deltaT at periodic
intervals

deltaT multiplied by 1.5 108 m/s (half of
light velocity) gives the computed distance
d (= RangeNow) of front end car at that
instance.
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 22
Inc.
 Functions of the system

The differences of d with respect to

safe dsafe and preset distances dset (in
case of maintaining string stability) are
cyclically estimated.

The speedometer measures the speed
and task_Speed compute error in preset
speed and measured speed

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 23
Inc.
 Functions of the system

All estimated differences are cyclically sent as
input to an adaptive algorithm, which adapts the
control parameters and sends computed output to
vacuum actuator of the throttle valve in car.

task_Algorithm for computations

task_Throttle initiates the control output functions
for this action.

Interrupt service routine ISR_ThrottleControl does
the critical functions of throttle control.

The car decelerates and accelerates as per setting
of throttle valve orifice at an instance.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 24
Inc.
 Functions of the system

The brake is controlled when the safe
distance is not maintained and warning
message is flashed on the screen.

task_Brake initiates the critical functions of
brake control.

Interrupt service routine ISR_BrakeControl
performs the brake critical functions

When battery power becomes low, the ACC
system deactivates after issuing alarm and
flashing messages (notifications).
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 25
Inc.
 Design metrics

Power Source and Dissipation: Car
Battery operation.

Resolution: 2 m inter-car distance.

Performance: Safe distance setting
75 m to 200 m. No overshooting of
controlled output for the throttle

Process Deadlines: Less than 1 s
response on observation of unsafe
distance of front-end car.
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 26
Inc.
 Design metrics

User Interfaces: Graphic at LCD or
touch screen display

Extendibility: The system is
extendable to maintain string
stability of multiple cars in a row.

Engineering Cost: US$ 50000
(assumed)

Manufacturing Cost: US$ 600
(assumed
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 27
Inc.
 Test and validation conditions

Tested in dense as well light traffic

conditions

Tested on plains, hills and valley roads

All user commands must function

correctly

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 28
Inc.
 3. Detailed functioning in Adaptive
Cruise Control (ACC) System

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 29
Inc.
 Functioning of ACC System
Retrieve the front end-car distance
information from a radar or UVHF
attachment at the front string wheel.
A stepper motor aligns the attachment so
that transmitter of radar maintains the
line of sight to front-end car. The radar
system maintains string stability and
warns of emergency situations.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 30
Inc.
 Functioning of ACC System
Get road speed from Speedo-metric
section of DAS unit.
Get acceleration from engine section

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 31
Inc.
 Functioning of ACC System
Run adaptive algorithm to calculate and
send control signals to stepper motor
actuator at vacuum-valve
Orifice opening of vacuum valve
controls electro-pneumatic throttle valve.
Receive new throttle position by stepper
motor position sensor.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 32
Inc.
 Functioning of ACC System
Get inputs of brake switch status for
monitoring brake activities.
Send output to pedal system when
applying emergency brakes
Driver intervenes on taking charge of
cruising from ACC.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 33
Inc.
 Functioning of system by
synchronization of tasks in ACC

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 34
Inc.
 4. Classes and class diagram

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 35
Inc.
 Class diagram for ACVM Part-1

Reset

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 36
Inc.
 5. Hardware Architecture

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 37
Inc.
 Hardware

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 38
Inc.
 ACC hardware

A hardware system in automotive
electronics has to provide functional
safety.

Important hardware standards and
guidance at present are following:

(a) TTP (Time Triggered Protocol), (b)
CAN (Controller Area Network) (c)
MOST (Media Oriented System
Transport), (d) IEE (Institute of Electrical
Engineers) guidance standard exists for
EMC (Electromagnetic Magnetic Control)
and functional safety guidance
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 39
Inc.
 ACC hardware

A microcontroller runs the tasks and ISRs
except task_Algorithm.

Internal RAM/ROM, ROM/Flash for
RTOS codes for scheduling the tasks.

CAN port interfaces with the CAN bus at
the car.

A separate processor with RAM and
ROM for the task_Algorithm executes the
adaptive control algorithm

Speedometer
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 40
Inc.
 ACC hardware

Stepper motor based alignment unit

Stepper motor based throttle control unit

Transceiver for transmitting pulses
through an antenna hidden under the
plastic plates.

LCD dot matrix display controller,
display panel with buttons

Port devices Port_Align, Port_Speed,
Port_ReadRange, Port_Throttle and
Port_Brake
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 41
Inc.
 6. Software Architecture

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 42
Inc.
 RTOS VxWorks used as alternative to
OSEK-OS
OSEK OS standard is reliable
compared to VxWorks or MUCOS.
To demonstrate RTOS use in the ACC
application, let us adapt VxWorks
alternative for coding instead of
OSEK-OS by adhering to the OSEK
guidelines
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 43
Inc.
 RTOS
Use BCC 1 type of tasks, as done in
VxWorks application in Example
11.2.
Define each task of different priority
and activate it only once in the codes.
Use no message queues, mutex or
counting semaphore.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 44
Inc.
 RTOS
No in-between creation and deletion of
tasks.
Semaphores as event flags only with no
run-time deletion or creation of these.
Task can consist of three types of
objects, event (semaphore), resource
(statements and functions) and devices
including port devices.
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 45
Inc.
 RTOS
Use MISRA C rules in coding.

Use disable interrupts when a task or
function enters critical section and
enable interrupts when leaving
critical section

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 46
Inc.
 7. Tasks and their class, priority, action
and IPCs

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 47
Inc.
 Class BCC1 task_Align

Priority 101

Action Waits for the Reset cycle to
start and send signal to Port_Align

IPC pending: Event signal (s) Reset

IPC posted: Align

Input: deltaStep, Step

Output: Step to Port_Align

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 48
Inc.
 Class BCC1 task_Read-Range

Priority 103

Action Disable interrupts, get signal from
Port, activate a radar flashing, records
activation time, gets time of sensing the
reflected radar signal and finds time
difference, timeDiff. and Enable interrupts

IPC pending: Align

IPC posted: Range

Output: deltaT
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 49
Inc.
 Class BCC1 task_Speed

Priority 105

Action Event Port_Speed starts a
timer, counter start message and wait
for the 10 counts for the number of
wheel rotations.

IPC pending:

IPC posted: Speed

Output: speedNow

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 50
Inc.
 Class BCC1task_Range-Rate

Priority 107

Action calculates rangeNow, get
preset front car range and stringRange
from memory and compare. Get vset set
cruising speed and compare it with
current speed speedNow.

IPC pending: Speed

IPC posted: ACC

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 51
Inc.
 Class BCC1task_Range-Rate

Input: avgTireCircum, time-Diff,

deltaT, stringRange, CruiseSpeed, and
N_rotation

Output: range-Error, speed-Error,
range-Now, speed-Now

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 52
Inc.
 Class BCC1task_Algorithm

Priority 109

Action (i) Get errors of speed and
range and execute adaptive control
algorithm. (ii) Get errors of other
vehicles through Port_RangeRate. (iii)
Get other vehicles Port_Brake status.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 53
Inc.
 Class BCC1task_Algorithm

(iv) Get present throttle position. (v) Send

output, throttleAdjust to Port_Throttle. (vi)
Send signal to Port_Brake in case of
emergency braking action needed. (vii)
Port_Brake transmits the action needed to
other vehicles also.

IPC pending: ACC

IPC posted: Reset

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 54
Inc.
 Class BCC1task_Algorithm

Inputs: range-Error, speed-Error, All

Port_RangeRate values and
Port_Brake statuses and VehicleID

Outputs: throttle- adjust and
emergency for brake and throttle
respectively

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 55
Inc.
 8. Multiple tasks and their
synchronization model

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 56
Inc.
 Synchronization model of ACC system tasks

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 57
Inc.
Semaphores taken and given in cyclic order...
Task_Alignment takes SemReset at
cycle start and gives SemAlign
Task_Read Range takes SemAlign at
start and gives SemRange
Task_Speed gives SemSpeed

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 58
Inc.
Semaphores taken and given in cyclic order...
Task_RangeRate takes SemSpeed
taken at start and gives SemACC
Task_Algorithm takes SemACC
taken at start by and gives SemReset

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 59
Inc.
 9. Coding using C and VxWorks RTOS

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 60
Inc.
 ACC software for use in automobile

First be certified from organization
authorized to issue that certification. We
have seen that OSEK OS standard is
required.

Only those VxWorks or MUCOS functions
which are adhering to OSEK must be used.

Software coding IEC 61508 part 3 and
MISRA C version 2 (2004) specifications of
safety standards and coding language must
be used.
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 61
Inc.
 MISRA C

MISRA stands for Motor Industry

Reliability Association.

MISRA C specifies a collection of
rules to be used while coding in C

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 62
Inc.
 Important rules and coding standard MISRA C

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 63
Inc.
 MISRA-C

is a standard for C language software

and defines the guidelines for
automotive systems for using C.

MISRA-C version 2 (2004) specified
141 rules for coding and gave a new
structure for C.

Details at [Link]

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 64
Inc.
 Coding using VxWorks Adapted to
OSEK-OS Features

Refer Example 12.2 in Section 12.3.6

Note: At each step, explanation for the
set of statements given there.

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 65
Inc.
 Summary

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 66
Inc.
We learnt

Case study for ACC

Functioning and requirements

task_Align, task_Read-Range, task_Speed,
task_Range-Rate and task_Algorithm

ISRs

Class diagrams

Hardware and software

Tasks synchronization model
Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,
2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 67
Inc.
 End of Lesson-2 of chapter 12 on
CASE STUDY OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM
FOR AN ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL
(ACC) SYSTEM IN A CAR

Chapter-12 L02: "Embedded Systems - Architecture,

2008 Programming and Design" , Raj Kamal, Publs.: McGraw-Hill, 68
Inc.