SOLID MODELING

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 CHARACTERISTICS SOLID MODELING
Solids models are known to be complete, valid,
and unambiguous representations of objects.
A complete solid is one which enables a point in
space to be classified relative to the object, if it is
inside, outside or on the object.
This classification is called as spatial
addressability or set membership classification.
A valid solid should not have dangling edges or
faces, then only it will allow interference
analysis, mass property calculations, finite
element modeling and analysis, CAPP, machine
vision, and NC part programming.

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 SOLID MODELING APPROACHES IN CAD PACKAGES
All commercial CAD packages offer one or
both of two different solid modeling
approaches:
1) Primitives based
2) Feature based

UNIGRAPHICS (EDS Technologies), CATIA

(Dassault Systems), I-DEAS (Structural
Dynamics Research Corporation) offer both
approaches.
SolidWorks (Dassault Systems), Pro/Engineer
(Parametric Technology Corporation).

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 PRIMITIVE BASED SOLID MODELING
This approach allows designers to use
predefined shapes (primitives) as building
blocks to create complex solids.
Designers must use Boolean operations to
combine the primitives
This approach is limited by the restricted
shapes of the primitives.
A, B and C are primitive solids.
A = Block
C
B = Cylinder
B C = Cylinder
ABC=D :Boolean operation; Create block A and
A subtract two cylinders from it using primitives approach.
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D = Final solid
 FEATURE BASED SOLID MODELING
This method is more flexible because it allows the construction of more
complicated objects and more elaborate solids more readily than the
primitive based modeling.
Feature based modeling is in fact a generalization of primitives approach.
Boolean operations are still used, but are hidden from the user. For
example, creating a protrusion on the face of a cube is a Boolean union
and creating a cut in the cube is a Boolean subtraction. These operations
are must for creation of the final solid.
* Create a rectangle
* Subtract two circles
* Extrude the resulting feature
* The required solid is obtained
Alternatively,
* Create a rectangle
* Extrude the rectangle to create the block
* Selecting the top face of the block as
sketching plane, draw two circles
* Create through cuts by extrusion to
obtain the final solid
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 SOLID MODELING
Geometry and topology
Solid entities
Solid representation
Fundamentals of solid modeling
Half-spaces
Boundary representation (B-Rep)
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
Sweeps
Solid Manipulations
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 Geometry and topology
Geometry is the actual dimensions that define
the entities of the object. It is also sometimes
called as metric information.
Topology (sometimes called as combinatorial
structure) is the connectivity and associativity of
the object entities.

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NON-UNIQUENESS 8
 SOLID ENTITIES
APPROACH ENTITIES

Primitives based Solid primitives (block,

approach cylinder, cone, sphere,
wedge and torus)
Feature based approach Sketches

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 Solid primitives

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 Another Example of
Regularized Boolean
Operations

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 Solid representation
A physical object divides an En (n-dimensional
space) into two portions:
Interior
Exterior
which are separated by the object boundary.
Object = Set of points S in E3.
Boundary = bS.
Exterior complement of S is = cS.
Objects interior = iS.
S=bS iS
The universal set of points
W = S cS = iS bS cS

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Geometric Closure:
Defined as kS = iS bS.
Ideally, therefore, ks=S.
But the geometric closure may some times
be not equal to S. When kSS, there is
said to be incompleteness and ambiguity.

+ =

iS bS kS
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Desirable properties of solid models:
1) Rigidity: Shape of the solid model is invariant
2) Homogeneous 3-Dimensionality: No dangling
portions, no isolated portions, solid boundaries
are in contact with the interiors
3) Finiteness and finite describability: The two are
different; a (P, R, H) set describe a finite
cylinder but may have infinite faces to describe
4) Closure under rigid motion and Boolean
operations: Should produce valid solids
5) Boundary determinism: Boundary must clearly
determine the solid

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Concept of Regularized Set of points (r-set):
r-sets are curved polyhedra with well-
behaved boundaries and hence possess
the following properties:
It is a closed regular set no dangling
portions
It is a semi-analytic set does not oscillate
infinitely fast anywhere in the set; for
example sin(x)<0 is a semi-analytic set but
sin (1/x)<0 is not because the latter
oscillates infinitely as x->0.
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Representation Schemes:
A representation scheme usually operates on r-sets to produce valid
solid models. For example, a CSG scheme maps valid primitives
into valid solids via boolean operations.
They are relations that map a valid point set into a valid model
Classification: A representation scheme can be (1) unambiguous,
complete and unique, (2) unambiguous, complete but not unique, (3)
ambiguous, incomplete and non-unique
(2) A representation scheme is unambiguous and complete but not
unique if more than one model can represent the object.
(3) A representation scheme is ambiguous and incomplete if one
model represents many objects, which is true with wireframe
models.
Formal properties of representation schemes that are useful:
Domain: geometric coverage of the scheme
Validity: producing valid solids
Completeness or unambiguousness: to support analysis and other engg
applications
Uniqueness: positional or permutational
Information Properties:
Conciseness
Ease of creation
Efficacy: accessibilityI/C:
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toRegalla
downstream applications
Srinivasa Prakash 17
 A C

B
b

C A

a B

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Most commonly used representation schemes:

1) Half-Spaces
2) B-Rep (boundary representation)
3) CSG (Constructive Solid Geometry)
4) Sweeping
5) Analytic Solid Modeling
6) Cell decomposition
7) Octree Encoding
8) Spatial Enumeration
9) Primitive instancing
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 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOLID MODELING

Set Theory
Regularized Set Operations
Set Membership Classification

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Set Theory:
Roster representation of set:
D = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Read: D is equal to the set of elements 0, 1,
2,

Descriptive representation of set:

D = {x: x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Read: D is equal to set of elements x such
that x equals to 0, 1, 2,
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Set Theory:
cP = {x: x P}
P Q = {x: xP or xQ}
P Q = {x: xP and xQ}
P - Q = {x: xP and x Q}
Q - P = {x: xQ and xP}
Commutative law: P Q = Q P
Associative law:
P (Q R)= (P Q) R
P (Q R)= (P Q) R
Distributive law:
P (Q R)= (P Q) (P R)
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REGULARIZED SET OPERATIONS:
S is a regular set if and only if
S = kiS = closure of (interior of (S))
When no boundary is used for the set (then
it is called an open set), then
S is a regular open set if and only if
S = ikS = interior of (closure of (S))
P * Q = ki (P Q ); P * Q = ki (P Q )
P * Q = ki (P Q ); c*P = ki(cP)
In all above equations, (*) denotes
regularization.
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 If the given two sets are already regular
sets, then there is no need to apply ki
operations to regularize.

S S
i k

iS S=kiS

S S
k i

kS S=kiS

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 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-Rep)
One of the two most popular and widely used
schemes (the other being CSG)
Based on the concept that a solid is made of a
set of faces, which are subsets of closed and
orientable surfaces
A closed surface is one that is continuous
without breaks.
An orientable surface is one where it is
possible to distinguish two sides by using the
direction of the surface normal to point inside or
outside the solid model.
Each face is bounded by edges and each edge
is bounded by vertices
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Euler Operations and Euclidean
Calculations:
Topology is created by Euler operations
Euler operations can be used to create, manipulate,
edit the faces, edges, and vertices of a boundary
model
Euler operations, similar to Boolean operations,
ensure the validity (closedness, no dangling faces or
edges etc.) of B-rep models
Geometry is created by the Euclidean
calculations
Geometry includes coordinates of vertices, rigid
motion and transformation

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 Elements of B-Rep models: Types of Objects
Two types of objects:
1) Polyhedral objects
Consist of plane faces and straight edges
2) Curved objects
Consist of curvilinear general surfaces and
general curvilinear edges

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Elements of B-Rep models:
Faces: Face is a closed, orientable and bounded
(by edges) surface.
Edges: Edge is a bouded (by two vertices) curve.
Vertices: Vertex is a point in E3.
Loops: Loop is due to a protrusion or blind hole on
a face. It is counted for that face. Thus it may be
termed as a 2-D hole.
Boundary Hole: A blind hole. Results in loop on
the boundary face it is open to.
Interior Hole: A hole lying inside and having no
boundary on the surface of the solid
Handles: Handle is a through hole in the solid. It
may be termed as a 3-D hole. The number of
handles in a solid is called as genus.
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 EULER OPERATIONS
Euler in 1752 proved that polyhedra that are
homomorphic to a sphere, that is their faces are
non self-intersecting and belong to closed
orientable surfacse, are topologically valid if they
satisfy the following Euler-Poincare Law
equation:
F E + V L= 2(B G)
F= Number of faces
E= Number of edges
V= Number of vertices
L = Inner loops on faces
B= bodies
G = genus (handles)
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 A tetrahedron is the simplest:
A cuboid is a simple solid:
F=4
F=6
E=6
E = 12
V=4
V=8
In this case F + V - E = 2.
In this case F + V - E = 2.

The given solid is simple:

F=8
E = 18
V = 12
In this case F + V - E = 2.

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 POLYHEDRAL OBJECTS
Four different classes:
1. Simple polyhedra
2. Polyhedra having loops
3. Polyhedra having boundary (blind) holes
and interior holes
4. Polyhedra having through holes or handles

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 Examples:

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 Set Membership Classification
M[X, S] = (X in S, X on S, X out S)
Where M[.] = membership function
X = candidate set
S = reference set
Applications: line/solid intersection to shade or
calculate mass property calculations of solids
via ray tracing algorithms; solid/solid interaction
for interference checking
The implementation of classification depends on
the representation methodology. Popular are:
1) B-Rep used for representation of X and S
2) CSG used for representation of X and S

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 B-Rep

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 CSG
L in R = (L in A) (L in B)
L on R = ((L on A) (L on B)) ((L in A) &
(L on B)) ((L on A) & (L in B))
L out R = L - (L in R) (L on R)

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 L in A
L on A
L out A

L in B
L on B
L out B
L in R

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The complete set membership classification for this CSG problem:

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 HALF SPACE FORMAL DEFINITION
A half-space is that portion of
an n-dimensional space
obtained by removing that
part lying on one side of an
(n-1)-dimensional hyperplane.
For example, half a Euclidean
space is given by the three-
dimensional region satisfying
x >0, ;
while a half-plane is given by
the two-dimensional region
satisfying x >0 ,

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 Set based definition of half-space:
A half-space is defined as a regular point set in E3 as
follows:

H P : P E 3 and f ( P) 0
where
P point set in E 3
f ( P) 0 defines the surface equation of the
half - space boundaries .

f(P)

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Most widely used half-spaces:
Planar half - space :
H P : P( x, z ) E 3 and z 0
Cylindrica l half - space :
H P : P( x, y, z ) E 3 and x 2 y 2 R 2
Spherical half - space :
H P : P( x, y, z ) E 3 and x 2 y 2 z 2 R 2
Conical half - space :
H P : P( x, y, z ) E 3 and x 2 y 2 [tan / 2 z ]2
Toroidal half - space :
P : P( x, y, z ) E 3
H 2 2
and x y z R2 R1 4 R R z
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 1

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 Unbounded Half-spaces

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 n
S H i
i 1

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Another example of half-space modeling of
solids: bracket

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Another example of half-spaces modeling of
solids: solid fillet

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 A DISJOINT SOLID
A solid having more than one body is
called as disjoint solid. Thus a hollow
sphere, a cuboid with internal hole, a solid
having two pieces that are completely
disconnected etc. are examples of disjoint
solids.
Can you create a disjoint solid in
Pro/Engineer?

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 SIMPLE POLYHEDRA
When L=G=0, B=1, then the solid satisfies
the following equation and is called as
simple polyhedron.
FE+V=2

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SOLIDS THAT ARE NON-HOMOMORPHIC
TO A SPHERE (OPEN SOLIDS)
Open solids satisfy the following version of
Euler law:
FE+VL=BG
In this equation B refers to an open body
which can be a wire, an area or a volume.

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 Open solids

WIRE OPEN POLYDRA LAMINA OPEN POLYDRA

SHELL OPEN POLYDRA OPEN POLYDRA (OBJECTS)

HAVING NO TOP FACE
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 CURVED POLYHEDRA
Simplest curbed polyhedra are cylinder
and sphere.

F = 3; E = 3; V = 2

F = 1; E = 0; V = 1
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 CURVED POLYHEDRA
If the curved objects are represented by storing the equations of
curves and surfaces of edges and faces, the resulting boundary
scheme is called as exact B-Rep scheme.
Alternatively, one may use faceted B-Rep (also called as tesselated
representation), in which each curved face is divided into planar
facets. Increasing the number of facets increases accuracy of
display but takes more time.
Faceted representation is not good for CNC machining because the
machine hardware will do one more level of interpolation resulting in
errors.

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DATA STRUCTURE FOR B-Rep
SOLIDS
TOPOLOGY GEOMETRY
Model
Body
Genus
Face Underlying surface
equation
Loop

Edge Underlying curve

equation
Vertex

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 CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY (CSG)
Principle: A physical object can be divided into
a set of primitives that can be combined in a
certain order following a set of rules (Boolean
operations) to form the object.
Primitives themselves are valid CSG models.
Each primitive is also a solid considered to
have been built by a B-Rep process of
combining faces from edges, edges from
vertices.
Topology is created by r-set Boolean
operations that combine primitives.
Validity check for CSG solids is much simpler
than B-Rep solids because each primitive is
already a valid solid.
For example when you combine a hat-head by
Union of a cylinder, cone and a sphere, a valid
hat-head would be produced if just each of
them have positive dimensions.

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 Data Structure for CSG Solids:
CSG Trees

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 Data Structure for CSG Solids: CSG Trees
How to divide a given solids into primitives?
OP7
OP3
OP3 n = Total nodes

OP7 P4
OP7
P5

P3
OP1 OP1
P3
nL + nR = 2n 2
P2
P1
P2
P1
Perfect Tree:
nL = n R = n 1
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 SOLID/SOLID INTERSECTION
The problem is often basically a surface/surface
intersection
Any parametric surface of a solid can be
represented in a polynomial form and quadratic
form as:
Ax2+By2+Cz2+2Dxy+2Eyz+2Fxz+2Gx+2Hy+2Jz+K=0
F(x,y,z) = [V]T[Q][V] = 0 -> quadratic form
[Q] takes appropriate 4*4 matrix form for each of
planar, cylindrical, spherical, conical and other
surfaces
Intersection results then can be obtained by solving
[V]T([Q1] [Q2])[V] = 0

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 NEIGHBORHOOD INFORMATION

A L A

P B B
L

IN R ON R

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 SWEEPING

A point set is swept along a directrix.

1. Translational sweep: Along a straightline
directrix
2. Rotational sweep: axi-symmetric rotation
3. Non-linear sweep: along a curve directrix
4. Hybrid sweep: More than one directrix
5. Invalid Sweep: Produces dangling faces

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 End of the module
Thank you!
Any Questions?

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