Chapter 12 ~ 1800-1870
Section 1 The Industrial RevolutionThe Industrial Revolution began
in the late eighteenth century and turned Great Britain into the first
and the richest industrialized nation. A series of technological
advances caused Great Britain to become a leader in the production of
cotton, coal, and iron. After the introduction of the first steam-powered
locomotives, railroad tracks were laid across Great Britain, reducing the
cost of shipping goods. The Industrial Revolution spread to Europe and
North America. In the United States, the railroad made it possible to
sell manufactured goods from the Northeast across the country. The
Industrial Revolution had a tremendous social impact in Europe. Cities
grew quickly, and an industrial middle class emerged. The industrial
working class, meanwhile, dealt with wretched working conditions.
These conditions gave rise to socialism, a movement aimed at
improving working conditions through government control of the
means of production.
Section 2 Reaction and RevolutionAfter the defeat of Napoleon,
European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna to restore the old
order and establish stable borders. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and
Austria met regularly to maintain the conservative order. Meanwhile,
liberalism and nationalismtwo philosophies that opposed the old
orderwere on the rise. Many liberals were middle-class men who
wanted a constitution and a share in the voting rights enjoyed by
landowners. Liberals tended to be nationalists as well. In 1830,
France's upper middle class overthrew the king and installed a
constitutional monarchy. Belgium broke free of Dutch control. Revolts
in Poland and Italy failed. Economic crisis in 1848 brought a revolt of
the French working classes. This time, a Second Republic was formed,
under the leadership of Napoleon's nephew, Louis-Napoleon. Revolts
followed in Germany and the Austrian Empire. In each case the old
order was restored.
Section 3 National Unification and the National StateUnification
occurred at different times and in different forms throughout Europe
and in North America. The Crimean War destroyed the Concert of
Europe. A defeated Russia retreated from European affairs, and Austria
was isolated. Italian and German nationalists exploited Austria's
isolation. Both gained important territory in the Austro-Prussian War
and the Franco-Prussian War, and a unified Germany and Italy
emerged. Growing prosperity and expanded voting rights helped Great
Britain avoid revolution in 1848. In 1852, the French voted to restore
their empire. Louis-Napoleon became the authoritarian Napoleon III
and ruled until France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Austria
granted Hungarians the right to govern their own domestic affairs. In
Russia, Czar Alexander II freed the serfs and instituted other reforms.
When a radical assassinated him, his son, Alexander III, reverted to
repressive rule. The United States endured a costly civil war to settle
the conflict over slavery between the Northern and Southern states.
After two short rebellions, Canada won its independence from Great
Britain.
Section 4 Culture: Romanticism and RealismAt the end off the
eighteenth century, a new intellectual movement known as
romanticism emerged as a reaction to the ideas of the Enlightenment.
Romantics emphasized feelings, emotion, and imagination as sources
of knowing. Many were passionately interested in the past. They
developed a neo-Gothic style in architecture, and created literature,
art, and music that worshiped nature and was critical of science and
industry. Meanwhile, the Scientific Revolution revived interest in
science. The new age of science produced important ideas, such as
Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease and Charles Darwin's theory of
natural selection. The influence of the scientific outlook was readily
apparent in the work of the realist novelists and artists, who depicted
everyday life, including the lives of the poor, in realistic, and
unromantic, detail.
Chapter 13 ~ 1870-1914
Section 1 The Growth of Industrial ProsperityThe Second
Industrial Revolution introduced important new products, such as steel
and chemicals, and new sources of power, such as electricity and the
internal-combustion engine. These changes led to cheaper
transportation and made amenities such as electric lights widely
available. Higher wages and lower transportation costs made
consumer products more affordable, and industrial production rose
sharply. These changes occurred primarily in northern and western
Europe. Other parts of Europe remained largely agricultural. Industrial
workers seeking to improve their working and living conditions formed
socialist political parties and trade unions. Socialism was based on the
ideas of Karl Marx, a nineteenth-century thinker who blamed capitalism
for the horrible conditions of industrial workers. He predicted that
capitalism would be overthrown in a violent revolution. However, many
socialists sought change by non-revolutionary means.
Section 2 The Emergence of Mass SocietyBy the end of the
nineteenth century, a mass society emerged in which the concerns of
the majority of the populationthe lower classeswere central. Many
people moved to the cities. Despite crowded urban conditions, most
people after 1871 enjoyed an improved standard of living. Europe's
elite now included both aristocrats and a wealthy upper middle class.
The middle class expanded to include a wide range of professions.
Increased leisure time also allowed the middle class to serve as a
model of family life and proper social etiquette. Many women now
found jobs as low-paid white-collar workers. Feminists began to
demand equal rights and full citizenship, including the right to vote.
Most Western governments began to set up primary schools to train
children for jobs in industry. Society became more literate and enjoyed
new mass leisure activities.
Section 3 The National State and DemocracyBy the late
nineteenth century, progress had been made toward establishing
constitutions, parliaments, and individual liberties in the major
European states. In practice, however, the degree of democracy
varied. Political democracy expanded in Great Britain and France, while
regional conflicts in Italy produced weak and corrupt governments, and
an anti-democratic old order remained entrenched in central and
eastern Europe. In Russia, working-class unrest led to the Revolution of
1905. After the American civil war, the slaves were freed, but the South
remained dominated by white supremacists. American cities grew, and
unions campaigned for workers' rights. The United States also gained
several offshore possessions. Canada gained new provinces, amid
lingering distrust between English- and French-speaking peoples. In
foreign policy, European powers drifted into two rigidly opposing
camps. Crises in the Balkans only heightened tensions between the
two camps.
Section 4 Toward the Modern ConsciousnessGroundbreaking
scientific discoveries of the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth
centuries forced a rethinking of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Some
of these ideas had a major social impact. Albert Einstein's and Sigmund
Freud's works defied the orderly view of reason. Charles Darwin's
description of life as a biological struggle for survival led to the Social
Darwinism of Herbert Spencer and others. Extreme nationalist
ideologies also borrowed from this line of thinking. Europe had a long
history of anti-Semitic persecution. The spread of threatening anti-
Semitic activity in France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary led many
Jews to emigrate. Some went to the United States. Others went to
Palestine, where Zionists were trying to restore Jewish life. Writers,
artists, and musicians rebelled against traditional literary and artistic
styles and created new ones that sometimes shocked critics with their
audacity.
Chapter 14 ~ 1800-1914
Section 1 Colonial Rule in Southeast AsiaThe nineteenth century
saw the emergence of a new imperialism in Asia and Africa. By
establishing overseas colonies, Western powers saw an opportunity to
improve their access to both raw materials and new markets for their
manufactured goods. Racism, Social Darwinism, and humanitarian and
religious goals all helped Westerners justify colonization. Virtually all of
Southeast Asia came under the control of Great Britain, France, and the
United States. Only Thailand stayed independent. Colonial powers
ruled either indirectly, relying mainly on local elites, or directly by
sending a governor. While some local people profited from the colonial
arrangement, most suffered from the harsh conditions of plantation
work. Resistance movements sought to protect local economic and
religious interests but were crushed by the colonial powers. Later,
Western-educated elites led resistance movements with a new goal
national independence.
Section 2 Empire Building in AfricaEuropean control over Africa
began with British annexations in West Africa. After 1880, great power
rivalries prompted France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, and Italy to
begin seeking territory in Africa. In Egypt, an Ottoman army officer
named Muhammad Ali set up an independent state and began
modernizing the country. Great Britain's interest in the Suez Canal led
to the establishment of a British protectorate. Belgium and France
staked claims to lands around the Congo River in central Africa, while
Germany, despite the reluctance of Bismarck, claimed territories in
West and East Africa. British involvement in southern Africa led to the
Boer War against the descendants of seventeenth-century Dutch
settlers and the establishment of the Union of South Africa.
Resentment of the colonial powers led to the emergence of nationalist
movements, especially as a new class of educated middle-class
Africans began to point to the hypocrisy and discriminatory nature of
colonial rule.
Section 3 British Rule in IndiaThe British controlled India at first
through the British East India Company, which had its own forts and
soldiers. A revolt led by Indian soldiers prompted the British to appoint
a British viceroy to rule the country. The British developed India
economicallybuilding railroads and creating an education system for
the upper class. Yet Indians paid a high price for British rule. British
manufactured goods destroyed local industries. The abuses of tax
collectors and the superior British attitude and lifestyle caused many
Indians to resent the British. The Indian National Congress led calls for
reform. A Muslim League formed to represent Muslim concerns. The
most prominent anti-British movement was led by Mohandas Ghandi, a
Western-educated lawyer who advocated non-violent resistance as a
way to gain independence. Tense relations with the British led to an
Indian cultural revival.
Section 4 Nation Building in Latin AmericaAfter the Napoleonic
Wars, Spanish and Portuguese authority in Latin America became
weak. A slave revolt in Hispaniola was the first of many successful bids
for independence. Many Europeans favored the restoration of Spanish
control, but the American Monroe Doctrine and British naval power
discouraged European intervention. Caudillos, or strong leaders backed
by military force, took power throughout Latin America. American
settlers in the Mexican state of Texas gained independence and, later,
American statehood. Great Britain, and later the United States, became
the dominant foreign power. In the Spanish-American War, the United
States gained control of Cuba and Puerto Rico. American investment
and military intervention in Latin America grew. Revolution in Mexico
produced a new reformist constitution. However, the new professional
sector in Latin American society was generally conservative and allied
itself with landholding elites.
Chapter 15 ~ 1800-1914
Section 1 The Decline of the Qing DynastyRapid population
growth, food shortages, peasant unrest, and corruption and
incompetence all contributed to the decline of the Qing dynasty. The
Empress Dowager Ci Xi ordered the emperor executed and blocked
reform efforts. Mounting external pressures only weakened China's
ability to address its internal problems. Japan, Russia, and other
nations laid claim to Chinese territories. When rebellions in China
threatened Western interests, Western nations responded with military
force. They also challenged Chinese sovereignty by establishing
spheres of influence inside the country. To stabilize relations among the
Western nations, the United States declared an Open Door Policy. This
gave all Western nations equal trading privileges in China.
Section 2 Revolution in ChinaAfter the Boxer Rebellion, Empress
Dowager Ci Xi embraced some reforms. However, an emerging new
elite was impatient with the slow pace of change. Meanwhile,
increased taxes led to further unrest in the countryside. A young
radical named Sun Yat-sen called for a military takeover and the
replacement of the Qing dynasty by Sun's Revolutionary Alliance party
as preparation for democratic rule. After the death of the empress,
Sun's party launched an uprising and installed a military general as
president. However, the old political and social order remained
entrenched, and China soon lapsed into civil war. The presence of
Europeans in China during the nineteenth century had brought
changes to the Chinese economy. Cultural changes followed,
particularly in China's cities. China was flooded with Western books,
paintings, music, and ideas. Intellectuals often displayed contempt for
the Chinese past and advocated a new culture based on the Western
model.
Section 3 Rise of Modern JapanUnder military pressure, Japan
agreed to establish diplomatic ties with the United States. Similar
treaties followed with other Western nations. Samurai warriors
responded by forcing the shogun from power. The Meiji Restoration
ended the shogunate and restored the emperor as a figurehead. Under
a new constitution, most power was in the hands of the executive
branch. Meiji reformers transformed land ownership, tax laws, the
military, and the education system. Aristocratic privilege was
abolished, women gained new rights, and Japanese took jobs in
industry. However, industrial working conditions were often deplorable.
Pressure built for an expansion of political rights, including women
suffrage. Japan, meanwhile, expanded its territory much as the
Western industrial nations had done. This led to wars with China and
Russia in which Japan took control of Korea and Sakhalin. Relations with
the United States were marked by mutual suspicion.
Chapter 16 ~ 1914-1919
Section 1 The Road to World War ICompetition over trade and
colonies led to the formation of two rival European alliancesthe Triple
Entente of Great Britain, France, and Russia; and the Triple Alliance,
consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Repeated crises
over Serbian claims on the Austro-Hungarian region of Bosnia revealed
the dangers inherent in these alliances. Austria-Hungary, as well as
numerous other European governments, confronted challenges from
minorities that wished to establish their own national states. Strikes
and violent actions by Socialist labor movements also threatened
European governments. Many states responded with increasing
militarism. The assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria-
Hungary by a Bosnian Serb militant set off a chain of diplomatic and
military decisions that led all of the great powers of Europe into World
War I.
Section 2 The WarMost people in 1914 believed that the war would
end quickly. The picture changed, though, as trench warfare between
France and Germany turned into a stalemate and casualties mounted
throughout Europe. Italy switched sides, and the Ottoman Empire
joined the war on the side of the Triple Alliance. The war broadened
further when German colonies came under attack and the British
encouraged Ottoman provinces in the Middle East to revolt. The United
States entered the war in 1917 in response to the German use of
submarines against passenger ships. As the war dragged on,
governments took control of national economies, censored the news
media, and used propaganda to bolster public opinion. Women entered
the workforce in large numbers. After the war, many lost their jobs to
men but gained expanded rights and status. By 1921 women had the
vote in Austria, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States.
Section 3 The Russian RevolutionRussia was unprepared for World
War I and suffered massive casualties early in the war. Bread shortages
and anger at the mounting casualties brought street protests led by
working-class women and a workers' general strike. Nicholas stepped
down as czar, and a provisional government was formed. Meanwhile,
sovietscouncils representing workers and soldierssprang up
throughout the country. In the soviets, Bolsheviks, a socialist group
committed to violent revolution, played a crucial role under the
leadership of V.I. Lenin. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks overthrew the
provisional government. The czar and his family were held captive and
then executed by members of a local soviet. Civil war ensued between
the Bolshevik Communist regime and anti-Communists. Despite aid
from the Allied forces, the anti-Communists were defeated by a well-
disciplined Communist Red Army.
Section 4 End of the WarAllied forces finally defeated Germany at
the Second Battle of the Marne but would not make peace with the
German emperor. In the face of upheaval, William II fled Germany.
Social Democrats then formed a democratic republic, which signed an
armistice with the Allies and crushed a Communist attempt to seize
power. The Austro-Hungarian empire dissolved into four separate
states. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sought to pave the way for a
just and lasting peace by creating the League of Nations. However, the
Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh penalties on Germany. The war
settlements redrew the map of Europe and dissolved the Ottoman
Empire. Ignoring promises made during the war, France and Britain
took control of several Arab states. Despite the principle of self-
determination, many Eastern European states included large ethnic
minorities, setting the stage for later conflicts.
