Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics te i - pe Xe ci y i ol» es oa 7) a FAWWAZ T. ULABYdescribing his or her understanding of what role electromagnetics plays in science, technology, and society. The following statement, submitted by Mr. Schaldenbrand, who has since graduated with a BS.E. degree, was selected for inclusion here: Electromagnetics has done more than just help science. Since we have such advanced communications, our understanding of orher nations and nation- atites has increased exponentially. This understanding has led and will lead the governments of the world 10 work towards global peace. The more knowledge we have about different cultures, the less foreign these cultures will seem. A global kinship wil result, and the by-product will be harmony. Understanding is the first step, and communication is the means. Electromagnetics holds the key 10 this communication, and therefore is an important subject for not only science, but also the sake of humanity Mike Schaldenbrand EECS 332, Winter 1994 ‘The University of MichiganFUNDAMENTALS OF APPLIED ELECTROMAGNETICS Fawwaz T. Ulaby The University of Michigan Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458For educating me, | dedicate this book to The American University of Beirut and The University of Texas For embracing me as one of their own, | owe gratitude to The University of Kansas and The University of MichiganTimelines and Technology Briefs Timeline for Electromagnetics in the Classical Era Timeline for Telecommunications 8 Timeline for Computer Technology 10 Microwave Ovens 86 Global Positioning System 128 X-Ray Computed Tomography 136 Resistive Sensors 174 Capacitive Sensors 186 Noncontact Sensors 188 Electromagnets and Magnetic Relays 224 Magnetic Recording 236 Inductive Sensors 242 EMF Sensors 274 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 302 Lasers 344 Bar-Code Readers 362 6Contents Timeline and Technology Briefs iv Preface 4 Introduction: Waves and Phasors 2 1-1 Dimensions, Units, and Nowtion 5. 12 The Nateof Electromagnetism 12 12.1 The Gravitational Force: A Useful Andlogue 12 Blewie Fields 1 Magnetic Felis 16 Static and Dynamic Fields 18 1-3 Traveling Waves 18 3.1 Sicusbidal Wave in a Lossless Medium — 21 3.2. Sinusoidal Wave ina Lossy Medium = 23 14 The Flecinomagnette Sperirum 26 1-5. Review of Complex Numbers 28. 1-6 Review of Phasors 31 Problems 36 2 Transmission Lines 40 2-1 General Considerations 21.1 The Role of Wavelength 42 2-12 Propagation Modes 43 22 Lumped-Blement Model 45 2-3. Thansmnission-Line Equations 49 24 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line 30 2s ‘The Lossless Transmission Line 33 25.1 Voltage Retfection Cocllicient 54 252. Standing Waves 57 Input Impedance of the Lossless Line 61 Special Cases of the Lossless Line G+ 27.1 Shor-Circuited Line 64 27.2 Open-Circuited Line 66Contents 267.3. Application of Short-Ciseuit and Open-Cireait Measurements — 66 74 LinesofLengiht=n2/2 68 2475 Quancr-Wave Transformer 68 276 Matched Transmission Line: 2, = Za _ 68 28. Power Flow on a Lossless Transmission Line 70 28.1 Instantancous Power 70 282 Time-Average Power 71 29 TheSwithCiat 72 2.9.1 ParumetricEquations 72 2.92 Input Impedance 77 2.93. SWR, Voltage Maxima, and Minima 79 2.94 Impedance to Admitance Transformations 80 2-10 Impedince Matching $8 2-11 Transients on Transmission Lines 92 ZILA Transient Response 92 2-112 Bounce Diagrams 96 Problems 100 Vector Analysis 108 Sel Basic Laws of Veewor Algchra 109 3-11 Equality of Two Vectors 110 3-1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction 111 313 Postion and Distance Vectors 111 3414 Vector Multiplication 112 3-15 Scalarand Vector Triple Products 115 4.2. Onhogonal Coordinate Systems 116 3-2.) Cartesian Coordinates 117 322 Cylindrical Coordinates 117 323. Spherical Coordinates 121 3.3 Transformations between Coonlinate Systems 123 4.3.1 Cartesian to Cylindrical Transformations 123 332. Canesianto Sphericsl Transformations 124 3-33. Cylindrical to Spherical Transformations 127 334 Distance between Two Points 127 344 Grodicntaf a Sealar Field 130 Sed,| Gratiot Operaior in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 131 342 Properties of the Gradient Operator 132ts vi 3S Dinetgence of s Vector Fick! 133. 35.1 Divergence Theorem [35 3:52 Renurks on Notztion 135 3:6 Curlofa Vector Field 139 3.6.1 Vector Wdentities Involving the Curl 140 3462 Stokes’s Theorem 141 37 Laplacian Operator 142 Problems 14t Electrostatics 150 “EL Maxwell's Equations 151 “42 Charge and Caren Distributions 152 421 Charge Densities 152 422 Current Density 154 453 Coulomb's Law 155 AB1 Blectric Ficld ducto Multiple Poiet Charges 156 | #32. Electric Feld due toa Chiige Distibation 157 44 Gauss Lew 160 5 Electric Scalar Potential 163 45.1 Electric Poteatial as a Function of Electric Field 163 452. Elecric Poteatial duc to Point Charges 163 453 Eleciic Potential due to Continuous Distributions 165 “A540 Electric Field as a Function of Electric Potential 165 455 Poisson's Equation 167 446 Electrical Properties of Materials 168 47 Condactocs 169 471 Resistnce 170 472. Joule'sLiw 172 48 Dieleces 173 ‘£0. Electie Boundsey Conditions 177 491 Dicleetie-Conuluctor Boundary’ 180 402. Condustor Condactar Bounssry 181 4:10 Capacitance 182 41] Electrostatic Potential Eneegy 190 £12 Image Method 191 Problems 194Magnetostatics 204 5.1 MasnoticForees and Torqucs 205 T Magnetic Fores on a Curnent Conying Conductor 207 2 Mapnetic Tore on a Curreat-Carying Loop 210 $2 The Diot-Savan Lew 213 Ll Magnetic Field due to Surface snd Volume Current iseTbsions $22. Magnetic Fcldof a Magnetic Dipole 217 5:3. Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Coacastors, 218 Si Matwell’s Magnetostatic Equations 219 5-41 Gauss’ Law for Magnetism S42 Ampéce's Law 220 5.5. Vector Magnetic Potential 226 $6 Magnetic Propettics of Materials 228 5.6.1 Orbital and Spin Magnetic Moments 228 5-62 MagnsticPermeahitity 229 5-63 Magnetic Hysteresis of Ferromagnetic Materials 730 5:7 Magnetic Boundary Conditions 2 58 Inductance 234 5.8.1 Magnetic Field in a Solenoid 235 5-82 Self-Indactance 238 $83 Mutual Inductance 240 59 Magnetic Energy 241 Problems 245 Maxwell's Equations for Time-Varying Fields G1 Faraday’s Law 255 62 Stationary Loop in a Time- jarying Magnetic Field 257 63 The Wdeal Transformer 261 Gt Moving Conductorin a Staic Magnetic Fisk! 262 65 The Electromagnetic Genersior 265 66 Moving Conductor in a Time-Varyi 67 Dicplacement Current. 268 68 Boundary Conditions for Electromagnetics 270 69 Charge-Current Continuity Relation 271 6-10 Free-Charge Dissipation in a Conductor a 6-11 HlectomusgneticPoteaials 276 GLA Retarded Potentials 276 6-112 Time-Harmanic Potcutias 277 Problems 281 ygretic Field 267 a4 254 Contests7 Plane-Wave Propagation 286 71 Time-Haimonic Fields 288 7-1 Complex Peeminivity. 289 74.2 Wave Equations for a Charge-Free Medium 280 Plane-Wive Propagation in Lossless Media 200 721 Uniform Plane Waves 290 722 General Relation between Band 294 73 Wave Polarization 295 31 Linear Polarization 296 732 Cieular Polarization 297 “733 Elliptical Polarization, 299 74. Plane: Wave Propagation in Lossy Media 304 TAL LowLoss Diclettic 306 7-42 Good Conductor 305 ‘Current Flow in Goad Conductor 308 6 Electromagnetic Power Density 311 7-61 Plane Wave in a Lossless Medium 312 TH62__ Plante Wave in a Lossy Medium 313) 7463. Decibel Scale for Power Ratios 314 Problems 316 2 8 Reflection, Transmission, and Waveguides 184 ‘Wave Reffection and Transmission at Normal Incidence 322 ELA Boundary between Lossless Media 222 ‘S12 Transmission-Line Analogue 325 ‘8-13 Power Flow in Lossless Media 326 #14 Boundary between Lossy Media 329 B2 Shell's Laws 331 Fiber Opics 334 Wave ReBecion and Transmission at Oblique Incidence 336 “S41 Perpendicular Potarizaion 337 “$42 Palle Polarization 341 843° Brewster Angle M3 TRS. Refictivity and Transmissivity 346 $6 Waveguides 69 BT Genessi Relations for E and 1 351 320x Coates $8 TM Modes in Rectangular Waveguide 352 8.9. TE Modes in Rectangular Waveguide 357 $10 Propagution Velocities 358 S11 Cavity Resonaioes 363 S111 Resonant Frequency 364 8-11.2 Quality Factor 364 Problems 366 9 Radiationand Antennas 372 91 The Short Dipole 375 SeL1 FasField Appeoximation 377 9-12 Power Density 378 92 Anteana Radiation Characteristics 380 9-21 Antenna Putte 381 9-22 Beam Dimensions 383 9-23 Amenna Directivity 383 9-24 AntennaGain 386 9-25 Radiation Resistance 386 93 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna 387 9-31 Directivity of 4/2 Dipole 389 9-32 Radiation Resistance of 4/2 Dipole 389 9-33 Quarter Wave Monopole Antenna 390 4 Dipole of Arbitrary Length 397 OS Effective Arca of a Receiving Antenna 392 9-6 Friis Transmission Formula 395 9-7 Radiation by Large-Aperture Antennas 397 %8 Rectangular Aperture with Uniform Aperture Distribution 400 9-81 Beamwidth 401 982 Directvty and Effective Ares 402 9.9 Amenna Amays 403 910 N-Blement Array wits Uniform Phase Distibution 410, 9:11 Electronic Seunning of Aras 412 9-111 Uniform-Ampliude Excitation 414 9-112 Amay Feeding 15 Problems 18 10 Satellite Communication Systems and Radar Sensors 424 10-1 Satellite Communication Systems 425 102 Swelite Transponder. 427103 Communication-Link Power Budget 430 104 Antenna Beams 432 105 RadarSensors 433, 10-5.1 Basic Operation of «Radar System 433 10-52 Unambiguous Range 434 10-53 Range and Angular Resolutions 43 ‘106 Target Detection 436 10-7 Doppler Rivas 439 108 Monopuise Radar’ 440 Problems 44 { Symbols, Quantities, and Units 445 . Material Constants of Some Common Materials 447 Mathematical Formulas 449 _ Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 451 | Bibliography 457 Index 459Preface During 2005, Fandamencats of Applted Electromag. tics, 2004 Media Eclrion was used as a textbook by ‘close to 100 US, universities and by a comparable ‘number of academic institutions in other couiries as “well Asan author, [am of course delighted and grattied “by the book's success, but to keep its conten relevant abd ts presentation style attractive, have to continue 10 -cxploré ways to improve it, My best source of feedback. 4s besn from colleagues who teach from the book al other universities. Their comments and suggestions ‘have proved invaluable, as have some of the questions [ “received from smidents via ¢-nnail, This fit edition incorporates a number of specific -hanges aimed al clarifying certain concepts or elaborat- ‘ingen ther significance, More significant, however, are ‘he following major fev 4, Waveguides and Cavity Resonators “The material in Chapter 8 on geomerrc opnies hss been leer andreplaced with six new sections on waveguides ad easy resonators This revision as been in response iv input fom a few colleagues who told me that they ike teaching from the book, hut they have had io supplement “iwi handout materia oftheir own on waveguides and “resonators. 2, Technology Briets Ii'anatiempt o bridge the gap between the fundamental concepts covered ian undergraduate-level textbook, “such a3 Applied Hlectromagnerics and the world of xiii applications that students experience all around! hers — fromcell phonies and computers to the near instantaneous retrieval and display of informtion—the fifth edition of: ‘fers asequence of “Technology Briefs” on elevanttopics, ‘Examples inclade capacitive sensors and how they are used to measure pressure and as fingerprimiing devices, ‘quid crystal displays, emphasizing the fimdamental role ‘of wave polarization to their operation;andthe peinciples ‘of operation of the laser. GPS, and X-ray tomograph among others. Ineach case. the intentisto connect basic ‘sancept, such as capacitance, inductance, or polarization, 1 real-world applications. 3. End-of- Chapter Problems Extensive revisions have been made to end-of-chapter problems. In some cases, problems were replaced with new ones, while in other cases, numerical values were changed to render old solutions essentially obsolete CONTENT ‘The book becins by buikling a badge between what should be familiar 4 a third-year electrical engineering student snd the eleciromaznetics (EM) material coyered in the book: Pror to enrolling in an EM couse. atypical student will have taken one oF more courses in circuits He or ste should be familiar with circuit analysis, Ohm's Jw, Kirchhot?'s current-and voltage laws, and related topics, Transmission lines constitute a natural bridgexv between eleciric circuits and electromagnetics. Without having to deal with vectors or fields. the student uses concepts that are already familiar to agn about wave ‘motion, the reflection ad transmission of power, phasors, impedance matching, and many of theproperties of wave propagation in a guided structure, All of these newly Jeamed concepts will proveinvaluabletater(in Chapvers 7 through 9) and wil fciitae the learing of how plane ‘waver peopate in free spare and in material media ‘Transmission lines are covered in Chapter 2, which is preceded in Chapter | by reviews of complex numbers and phasor analysis ‘The next part of the book, Chapters 3 throagh 5. covers vector analysis, elecrostaties, and magnetostatics Compared with most EN textbooks writen for under graduate instruction, the present hook elifers in terms of its presentation ofthese three topics in the following ‘wo ways Of the total mumber of pages contained ‘in the book, about 30% are allocated to these topics, ‘compared with Sie or more in most EM texthooks, The electrostatics chapier begins with Maxwell's equations for the time-varying case, which are then specialized 19 cleerosttics and magneiosaties, thereby providing the studeat with an overall framework forwhatisto.come and showing.him orher wit eleseostatles anc mazmetostalies are special cases ofthe more general sime-ratying eae (Chapter 6 deals with time-varying fields and sets the stage for he material in Chapters 7 throueh 9, Chapter 7 covers. plane-wave propagation in dielectric and conducting media and Chapter 8 covers reflection and transmission at discontinuous boundries and introduces. the student to Aber epties, wavesuides; and resonators. JChapler 9, dhe students iirxhiced tothe principles of radiation by curents flowing in wires sich asipols, 4s well 2s t0 radiation by apertures, such as a hom: jmtenna or an opening inn opaque sereen illuminated by a light source. To give the student a taste of the sede-amging applications of electromagnetics in today’s technological society, Chapter 10 conctodes the book with overview Prelace presentations of to system examples: satellite comme nication systems and radar sensors. ‘The material inthis book was written for a tworsemester scquence of ix credits, but its possible 1 tim it down zo generate a syllabus for a/one-semester: fourscredit course. The accompanying table provides syllabi foreach ofthese two optinns. In writing this book, [avoided lenethy derivations of theorems, particularly {hose involving extensive Use of vector calculus. My goal hasbeen to help the student to develop competénce in applying vector calculus to solve elestromagnetic problems of practical interest. | view vector calculus and msthematies in general a8 useful tools and not as ends in and of themselves. Throughout the maicral, emphasis is placed on using the mathematics 19 explain and clarify the physics, followed by practical examples intended to dermoncirate the engineering teletanee of physical concepts: believe the combination of the approach used in preseating the serial, the arrangement af topies cavered in the book, and the relative emphasisin favor of dynamics constitutes ameffective algorithm for equipping our future graduates ‘with relevant foundation in applied electromagnetics, INTERACTIVE CD-ROM ‘TheCD-ROM, rt introduced in the 200] Media Ftifon tnd Tater upgraded and expanded in the 2004 Media ation; contains four types of maria 1. The text contains 112 crercises, cach posing & ‘question, followed hy an abtieviated ansiser, If the student wishes to verify that his/her solution for a particular exercise is corsct, he/she can do 50 by, Joking up the solution for that exercise through the ‘CD-ROM meau entry called Exercises (E). 2. Equation (1.27) on page 23 of the text describes the relationship between te frequency, wavelength, and ‘velocity ofa sinusbiclal wave. The symbol <== appears nex Yo Ey. (1.27), followed by BEay ‘Suggested Syllabi TwoSemester Slabas ‘One-cemester Slabs 6 credits (42 contact hours per seinesict} 4 credits (56 contact hows) Geter Sections ‘outs Sections Hours_| aaa al =] All 7 2 “Tanarason Lines IL Bo | Pztads aia 3 Vector Analisis oo x all 5 4 Bectosaies Sil a Atw410 6 | 5 Magctsation All T_ | Si0s5anas-7058 5 Ean 3 2 Total fort sementer 2 © Nidxwell' Equations ~All 6 140653, and 56 7 Plane- wave Propusation All 7 Fel to Tan 7-6 6 3 Wine Reflection al o Ries wes 7 sd Transmission 9 Radiation and Antennas all 10 91 to 96 6 10 Sallie Coiatuicaion a 3 Nowe = Systems and Radar Sensors Exams _ aide 1 ‘Toul teseond semester a Total 6 Esra Hours 2 7 This refers (o interactive: modules (M) 1-1=1.3 in fhe CD-ROM, cach af which presents a graphical rendition of a triveling sinusoidal wave amd asks the user to fill out answers to questions abou the wavelength and frequency Of the wave. IF the user ‘eles incomect answers the program will so inform timer, and if the user activates the “help” foon, the program will displ the correct solution. The CD-ROM contains 77 such modules, cach of which ‘uses video animations andlar dill exercises (0 help the student develop beter understanding of EM. oneepls and applications. |. The CD-ROM vontains 85 demonstration (D) ‘exercises that utilize spatial displays of eld distibutions o¢ temporal plots of certain quantities to ooaney the dynamic nature of EM fields and the roles of Key paramicters. In the text, each demonstration is identified by the later D, asin . Ba Under the Section entitled “Sotved Problems (P):" the CD-ROM contains complete solutions for 90 Problems. Half of these problems were selected from among the €nd-of-chopier problem ap pesringinthe book, and are Ratified by the symbol © next to the problem statement, An additional set of 43 problems ‘yas add im the 2004 Medic: Fltion. ‘Thei¢ problem statetnents and complete solutions arc available on the CD-ROM. 5, Copies of all figures appearing in the Book, made -sailable to facia the practical reproduction of the Figures by instructors who may went to generate sewgraphis of the figures electrosicaly Maseage 10 he Statent The interactive CD-ROM ascompaaying this book was developed with you, the student, in mind. Take thetime to use itt conjunetion with the material inthetextbook. The ‘multpfe-window feature of electronic displays, makes it possible to design inleractive modules with “telp” butions to guide the student through the solution of a ‘peoblem when needed. Video animations can show you Fhow fics and waves propazate in lime snd space, how the beam of am antenna array can be made to scan electronically, and examples of bow current is inbuced jn a cieuit under the influence of a changing magnetic field. The CD-ROM is a useful esoorce for selésindy, Use itt Meseage tothe tastrucior 1 found the “demos contained in the CD-ROM to be extremely helpful in explaining cerain EM concepts, particularly when both time and space are involved samine DS. 3 aun exinple and you'll sec wht mean, With that demo, it was x0 much easier to explain to the studenis the coneepis of travelling and standing wanes, how boundary conditions are satisfied at the interface Deiween two dissimitar media, and what we mean by standing wave ratio The video presentations were well received by the students snd generated alot of questions hope you will make use ofthese demos also, especially if you have the means to peoject them onto a large sree? Preface | would Tike o take this oppostunity to thank Leland Pierce ang Janice Richards for their tectucal assistance in the CD-ROM development, The high quality of the Video demonstrations is duc in large micasie t their creative talents and computer wicartry. Acksowledgments My sincere gratitude: goes to Roger DeRoo, Richard (Carnes, and fim Ryan. Fan indebted to Roger DeRoo for hrispainsizking eeview of several drafts of the manaseript Richard Cames is unquestionably the best technical rypist Tihive ever worked withs his mastery of IFEX, coupled ‘with his arcntion to detail, made it possible wo artange the material ina clear and sinooth fora The artwork ‘yon done by Jim Ryan, who skillfully transformed my rough sketches into drawings that are both professional Tooking and esthetically pledsing. 1am also grateful to ihe Following graduate students fr reading darough parts or all of the manuscript and for helping me with the solotions manual: Bryan Hauck, Yani Koaskoulss, and Poul Sigueir Special thanks. are due to the reviewers fot their valuable cominents and sugzestions. They include Constantine Balanis of Arizona State University Harold Mott of the University of Alabama, David Pozar ofthe University of Massachusets, S..N_ Prasad of Bradley University, Robe. Bond of New Mexico Inilitute of Tecnology, Mark Robinson of the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. and Raj Mitta of the University of llinois. Lapprectate the dedicated efforts of the staffat Prentice Hall and am gratefel for thet ep i shepherding this project through the publicalien process inaverytiimely manner. also vould Tike vo thank Ralph Pescatore For copyediting the manuscript. Bawwaz 7; ULasyFUNDAMENTALS OF APPLIED ELECTROMAGNETICS Fawwaz T. Ulaby The University of MichiganOverview Hi istorical Timeline i CHAPTER Introduction: Waves and Phasors Dimensions, Units,and Notation ‘The Nature of Flectromagnelism Traveling Waves ‘The Electromagnetic Spectrum Review of Complex Numbers Review of Phasorsmany electronic gadgets, feom alarm clocks and cell Phoves fo laptop compurers. and tslevision. systems, of a list of materials known a. fguid are nother pure soit, nor pure igus, ‘materials is such that when ligt travels through etal, the wave polarization of the emerging light ends on whether oF not & voltage exists across the maictial. Consequcrily, ‘when no. voltage is eee liage of a certzin level fs applied com he LED aloo Tight passes throush i, esatng. in a dark “The inbetween voltage range translates into a individual pisel in a two-timensional array of i, a complete image can be displayed (Fig. I+). ‘displays ane composed of three subpivels with red, and blue filters. The wave-polarization behavior LCD is 2 prime example of how electromagnetics is ch encompasses the indy of eleeitic and magnetic ena and their engineering. applications, under state and dynamic conditions. Primary emphasis on the lundarnental properties of time-rarying electiomapnetic fields Because of their relevance 9 practical problems in many disciplines. inhaling miroyave and opal highspeed mlcrockccroics among oters. Wesball ‘Wave polarization princplcina liquid erysal ‘study wave propagation in guided media such 2s coatiel {rasmissian lines, optical fibers and waveguides; wave reflection. and transmission at the interface between ‘dissimilar media: radiation’ by antennas, and several ‘other related topics. The concluding chapter is intended tw illustrate 2 few aspects of applied electromagnetics ‘through an examination of design considerations sssociated with the use and operation of radar sensors ‘ud satellite communication systems.4 CHAPTER | INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS. ‘We begin this chapter with a historical chronology ‘of electriity and agit, Next, we introduce. the fundamental electric and magnetic field qualities we ‘se in electromagnetics, as well as their relationships to cach other and t0 the electric charges and currents that senerate them, The laws goveming these relationships (Fig), and co is a universal constant called the electrical permitivity of free space [ey = 8.854% 10°= Farad per meter (Pini), The two charges are assumed to be in free space (vacuum) and isolated from all ‘other charges. The foree F, acting on charve gy due 1 charge 2 sequal to force Fin magnitude, but oppostie indirection: F,. = —F.,, The expression wiven by Eq. (1.7) for the electrical force is analogous to that given hy Eq. (1.2) for the gravitational force, and wecan extendthe analogy furtsee by defining the existence of an elecri¢ field fntensity E dle to my change q a Follow: an (Vin) Cin free space), (1.8) Where Fe is the distance between the charge and the observation point, and R is: the radial unit vectoe Pointing away from the change. Figure 1-5 depicts the ‘lectriceficld lines duc to a postive charge. For reasons that will become apporent in later chapeers.the unit for E is volt per meter (Wm)Figure 15 Hletrie fla 8 due to charge q. Electric charec exhibits two important properties. The itis the hin of conservation of electric charge, which tnt hc (net) electric ceirge canneitlier be created uy sestoveds Mia volume contains np protons and ae ‘lostrons then the total charge is Hame—nme=(tp—mle (Ch (1.9) some of the protons were to combine with an gual numberof elecionsto produce neutrons orothere!= mnenaty particles, the net charge femains unchanged. | mutter, the quantum mechanical kaxs governing the havior ofthe protons inside the atom’s nucleus and the lesions outside it do not allow them to combine The second important propery of electic chasse is he pratciple of linear superposition, which slates that esa econ electric field ata pul dn space de toa Of pin caarges és equal i die vector stun of the els at thal point dic tothe tncividual charges seemingly simple concept will allow usin future With te forces scting on each individual charge due the fields by all of the other chges, ‘The expression given by Fa, (1.8) describes the fied idoced by an electic charge ‘when i free space. Let 103! consider what happens when we place. positive @09000 600 @Get000e8 @O3%/ 7200 @@eesceeQ @099/%x88e@ O00 09°88 0000008888 me 1-6! Poliszation of the aloms of a dicheiris steal ny a peste charge g poo charge in a material composed of aioms. In the absence of the point change, the material is electrically neural, with ¢ich atom having a positively charged: nucleus surrounded by 4 cloud of electrins of equal but ‘opposite polarity: Henee, at sny point in the material ‘ol occupied by an alom the eleciric field Eis zero, ‘Upon placing a point charge in the material, 2s shown in Fig. 1-6, the atoms experience forces that case them to become distted. The center of symmetry of the electron cloud is altered with respect tothe nucleus, wath, ‘ne pole of the atom becoming more positively iurged and the other pole becoming more nepatively charged. Such a polarized atom is called an eicctrie dipole, and the distortion process is called polarization. The degree of polarization deers on the distance between the atom and the isolated point chargo, and the orientation ‘of the dipole ix such that the dipole axis connecting its two poles is directed toward the poiat charge, a iMlusiried schematically in Fig. 1-6. The net result of this polarization process is that the electric dipoles of ‘the atoms (or moleeales) tend fo counteract the field sduc tothe point charge. Consequently. the electric field al any point in the material would be different from the field that Would have been induced by the point16 CHAPTER | INTRODUCTION: WAVES. AND PHASORS thangs ithe sbscace ofthe materia, To extend (1-8) fom the free-space ease 1o any medium, we replace the Permiivty of fee space to With & where ¢ is now the pesmitivity af the material in which the slctrie fed f measured and istherefore characteristic of that particular material, Thus, at Re (vim. c.10) Often, «is expressed in the form eto Fin). ap where ¢ i & Uintensionless quantity called the relative permittivity of dielectric constant of the material, Foe ‘wieum, ¢, = I:forairnearFanh’ssurface, 2 = 1 0006: and for materials that we will have o¢casion tose in this book, their values of g, ane tatulated in Appendix B: Inaddition tothe electric feldintensityR, we willoften find it convenient i also use a related quantity called the electric lice density De given by Dee (Ch), 1.12) and its unit fs Coulomb per square meter (Chin?). These ‘vo electrical quantities, E and D, constitute one of two fundamental pair of electromagnetic fields. The second pair eouasts ofthe magnetic fies discussed next. 12.3 Magnetic Fields As eatly'as S00 BC, the Greeks eliseovered that certain Kindsof stones exhibit a foree thatattats pieves ‘These stones are now called miagnerite (Fey0,) and the pheootenon they exhibit is magnetism. In the thirteenth Century, French scientists discovered that, when a needie twas placed on the surface of a spherical natural magnet, the needle oriented itself along different directions for different locations on the magnet: By mapping the directions taken by the needle, itwas determined thatthe Figuye 1-7: Pattern of magnetic field lines around a bar ‘magnet, magnetic force formed maznctic-ficld lines that encircled the sphere and appeared to pass through (wo points diametrically opposite each other. These points. calle the north avid South poles of the magnet, Were found to exist for every magnet, regardless of its shape. The maghclicfield patlem of a bar magnet is displayed in Fie 1-7, was also observed that like poles of differen ‘magnets repel each other and unlike poles attract each Uber, This attrction-repulsion property is simila tothe clectic force between electric charges, except for one charges cam be ixolaied, 5 Fa permanent magnetiseu nto small pieces, no matter how small esc piece is, t will lways have north and a south pole “he magnetic lines encircling a magnet are called ‘magneticeficld lines and represent the existence of a magnetic field called the moxnetic lax density B, ‘A magnetic feld not only exists around permanent iiaghets bat can alco be crested by electric enment. ‘This connection between electricity and inagnetism was, discovered in 1819 by the Danish sciemist Hams Oersted|} THE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM Figure 18: The mammstie fell induced by « steady ae Nowing inthe = icection {1777-1851}, .who found that an cleciccurrent ina wine taused 2 compass needle place in its vicinity ra deflect ni thatthe needle turned tha its direction was aliays ieularto the wireandto the adil line counecting the wie to the needle. From these observations, it fis dedueod that the carremtearying wire induced a ei fied that formed closed circular loops arouid thee. os llsiatel in Fig. 1-8, Sho after Oersted's dcocy, French semis Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Sava developed an expression that relais the magnetic fax density B at a point in space to the corrent J in Se conductor. Application oftheir formulation, known eda 2 the Biot-Sovart Jaw, to the situation depicted in 1-8 fora very lang wie Teas to he result thatthe peti lx clemsity Bindced by a constant current | ving inthe <-iretion is given by Bae op, (113) one ris the radial distance from the cureat and 35am unit vector denoting the fact that the magnetic 0 Tel dirsetion is tangeotial to the circle surmounding the ‘current, as shown in Fig. 1-8, The magnetic field is measured in tesla (1), named in honor of Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), 4 Croatian-American electrical cagincer ‘whase work on transformer: made it possible to sist ‘electricity over Jong wires without to much loss, The ‘quantity jg is calle! the megnedi« permeability of free Space [jy = 4 % 10-7 henry pee meter (Hin. and it ‘is analogous to the eletrie permituvity cp I fet, awe “will scc in Chapter 2 the procuct of fy and pig specifies, the selocity of light in foee space, as follows: =3x10° Gs. (1.18) The majority: of natural materials are noamagnetic, ‘meaning thit they ethibit a magnetie permeability it = ito, For ferromagnetic materials. such 2 iron and nickel. x can be much Ianger than yep. The magnetic emmeability c accounts for mgnetizarion properties of ‘tmiteral. fn analogy with Fq. (1.11). ofa particular ‘material can be defined 2s = nut — (Him) (as) ‘where sis a dimensionless quantity called the reatine ‘magnetic permeability of the material, The valucs- jy for commonly used ferronissnctic malecials are give in Appendix B. ; We stales! eartiet that 1 and D constitute one of two. pairs of elecramaeneti eld quantities. The second pair is B and the magnevie eld inteasits H, wich ire related to each other though j= Bah, 16)as CHAPTER 1_INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS 4-2.4 Static and Dynamic Fields Because the electri field Ets governed by the charge q and the imagnetie field H is governed by f= dg dt. and since q and dg /dt are independent variables. the induced leciric aint magnetic fields are independent, of one another as long as J remains constant. To demonstrate the validity of this Siatement, consider for example a sell section of a beam of charged) uirticles that are ‘moving al a constant velocity, The maving. charges constitute @ d-¢ cutrest. The clectrlc field duc to that section of the beam is determined by the total charge @ contained in that section. The magnetic field does not ‘depend on q. but rather on the rate of charge (current) ‘owing through thal section. Few changes moving very fast can constitute the same curent 3 many’ charges ‘moving slowly: In these to cases the induced magnetic field will be the same because the cureat 7 isthe same, but the induced electric field will be quite different biccause the numbers of changes ane notte same. ‘trostatics and maigectosicites, corresponding 10 suationary. charges and steady’ currents, xespectiv are special cases of electromagnetics. They represent two independent branches, 60 characerized because the induced electric and magnetic fields are uncoupled to-each otbes. Dyiamies, the thind and: more general branch of electromagnetics, imvolves time-narying fields induced by time-varying sources, thot is, currents and charge densities Ifthe current associated with the beam ‘of mioving churzed particles varies with time, then the smmount of elsarge present in a given section ofthe beam also varies with tiine, and vice versa As we will see in Chapter 6, the electric and magnetic fields become ‘coupled to each other in thateane In facto imesarsine clecsrie fest wl sei feld andiea vers, Table 13 providesa suzantary ofthe tree boranches of electromagnetics. The eleccic and! mayetic propettics of matetials are characterized by thetwo parameters ¢ andl ,respectively. ate atimestaring m ‘A third fundamental parameter is. also needed, the coniductiviéy of a material 2, which (s measured in siemens per meter (Sim). The conductivity liatacterizes the ease with which ehtrges (electrons) can move freely in a material, Lf ¢ = 0, the charges do not move more than atomic distanees and the material is said 19 be: a perfect dieleciric, and if ¢ = 00. the charges can move very freely theobghout the material, which i then called sperfeet conductor. The material parameters 15, 1 and & are offen referred to as the constitute parameters of a material CTable 1-4). A medium is said to be homogeneous if fis constnative parameters ax | ‘constant throughout the medium, ————— REVIEW QUESTIONS QU: What are the four fundamental forces of nae and what are ther relative stengths? 01.2 Whats Coulomb's law? State its propenies QLE What ure the tivo important properties of cloctie- hares? QLA What dothe electrical permittivity and mages permeability of a material account for? QLE What are the thre branches ‘and associated, conditions of electromagnetics? 1-3. Traveling Waves Waves are a natural consequence of many physical processes: Waves and ripples on oceans and lakes; sou wanes that travel through if; mechanical waves om streiched strings; electromagnetic waves that constitute light: earthquake waves; and many others. All thee ‘urious types of wavs exhibit a number af common properties, including the following: = Mon ry. energy. from. one: pod 11-3 TRAVELING WAVES ‘Table 1-3: The te branches of electromagnetics, ee ier [Pek gens] “Siauonary charges (g/t =0) Eleoie ix demiy D (Cin?) Dock ‘Magnelostatics ‘Sieally carrents ‘Misgnenic flax deasity WOT) Ife = Magnetic et imensny (Arm) |e Ball Dynamics | Timesaningeurns ED tani Cime-varying elds) | (LJ 20) ED) couple to (8, 8) Sse ‘Table f-4: Constitutive parameters of mats, a lectrical permits» | tm | ap =¥951 10. (tiny Sa x 10° Cin) Manet permesiy| win | jag = 4 «10°? i) Conductive | fm ° estime fora wave totravel ffom one point to another. In yacuurn, light waves tmavel ata speed of 3 10 mis and sound waves in ‘it travel ata speed approximately a million times Slower, specifically 330 mis # Some saves exhibit a propecty called Linearity Waves that do not affect the passage of other waves aie called ffnear because they pass sight though -sach other, and the total of two linear waves is Simply the sum of the two waves as they ‘would ‘exist Separately, Electromagnetic waves are linear, 4 ace sound waves, When two people speak to one ‘mollis thsi sound waves do not reflect from one -sother, but simply pass through independenily of ee cach oiher. Water waves are approximately linear; the expanding cirvles of ripples caused by two pebbles thrown into two locations on lake surface 9 not affect each other. Although the interaction of the two circles. may exhibit a complicated patter, it fs simply the near superposition of two independent expanding circles. ‘Waves ate of two types: rranslent wares caused by a short- duration disturbance and cominuons harmonic eaves generated by an oscillating source. We will ‘encounter both types of waves inthis book, but most cof our discussion will deal with the propagtion of ‘continuous waves that vary sinosoidally with time.20 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS =) wavefront Spherical wavefront Two-dimensional wase Biihe ) (@) Ciestar waves (b) Plate and cylindrical waves (c) Sperieal wave Figure 1-10: Examples of two-dimensional and tree mension waves () ciealur naves on pond, (4) a ple Hight wnne ‘scitng aeyleeal ight wave through the use of long marrow slitinan opaque screen and (c)a sliced section of «special ‘An essential feature of a propagating wave is that i isa selFsuslaining disturbance of the medium throuzh Which it travels [f this disturbance varies as a function ‘of one space variable, such asthe vertical displacement of the sting shown in Fig. 19, ste call the wave 4 one-cimenstonal wae. The vertical displacement varies wih time and with the Tocation along. the fength af the string. Even though the string rises up iulo a second dimension, the wave is only one-dimensisnal because the disturbance varies with only one space surlable, A nvo-cimensignal ware propagstes out across 4 surface, like the ripples on a pond [Fig. I-104a)}, and ts disturbance can be described by tia space varies | Andy tension, a redimensional nave propaga through a volume and its disturhance may be a function Of all three space, variables. Three-dimensional waves ‘may take on many different shapes: they include pase Figure1-J:Anedimersionalvavetraelingonasting | wares, eslindrical waves, and splericel waves. A plane wave is characterized by a distrbance that at given point in time hss uniform propeties across an infinie plane perpendicularto the dtection of wave propagation15 TRAVELING WAVES. _ Fig. 1-104b)] and, similerly, tor eyindrical and spherical _ wavetahe disturbances are uiformacross ylindrical and “spherical surfaces, as shown in Figs. [-1O(b) and (e). ‘nthe material that follows, we will examine some of axicproperties of waves hy developing mathematical ulations hat describe their functional Gependenceon “ne and space variables. To keep te preentaton simple, “e will limit our present discussion 10. sinasoidally “sanying waves whose disturbances are functions of only spect Variable, and we will defer discussion of mare licated waves to Inter chapters. ‘Sinusoidal Wave ina Lossless Medium -Regatdles of the mechanism responsible for generating ‘tem, all waves can be described mathematically in tems, By way of an example; let us consider {weave traveling om lake surface. A mail is ud so losis Fit does not attenwate the anaplitude ofthe saveirg win itor ots surface, Lets assume Sethe time being that ftietiomal forces can be ignored, shy allowing awave generated onthe water sirfacsto sel indefinitely with no lass in enengy IF denotes the fejght of the water surface relative (0 the mean height fnlisarbed condition) and x denotes the distance of travel, the functional dependonee of y on time 1 the spatial coonfinate x has the general form et) = aos ( 5 ) (am), C17) 21 function ofa) x at =O and (be =O, ‘The angle Gt, 1) is called the phase of the wave, and it should not be confused with the reference phase dy. ‘which is constant with respect to both time and space. Phase is measured by the same units as angles, that is, ‘aadians (cad) oc degrees, with 2 radians = 360° ‘Lotus first analyze the simple case when oo et ax re A is the amplinde of the wae, T is is time ind, ib ts spatial waxeTength and gy fsa reference The quantity y(n. ¢) can also be expressed in the yir.1) = A-cos ifr), a.18) ) so a vis) =Aeos( = =) (m). (£20) The plots in Fig. 1-11 show the varfation of y(r,#) with ral = O and witht at x = 0. The wave pater repeats itself at a spatial period 2 along x and a3 temporal period T along If We tke time snapshots of the water surface, the height profile y(x) would exhibit the sinusoidal paterns shown in Fig, 112. For each plot, comesponding to a specific valve Of f, the spacing between peaks is equal2 ‘CHAPTER L ie a faction of x at (a) = 0. (0) = T/A, ao (0) 1 T/2 Note tha te wave moves ine +1-distion wil | Figure 112: Plots of yla,1) = dem (2-2) a5 so the wavelength 2, but the patterns are shifted relative 49 one another because they comespand 10 different observation times. Because the pattem advances along the +e-direction al progressively inereasing Yalucs off. the height profile behaves like a wave traveling in Uist direction. If we shoose any fight level, such as the peak P and follow itin time, we enn measure the phase velocity of the wave. The peak corresponds (o when the INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS: phase (x. 1) of the wave is equal to zero or multiples ‘of 2x radians. Thus, ee oe oet= 7p ‘Had we chosenany other fixed heightof the wave, say ye. and monitored its movernent asa function of ¢ and x, this again is equivalent to setting the phase (x, t) constant such that 0)1,2;4 (12a) 24) or Qt Ia eae constant, (1.23) ‘The apparent velocity of that fixed heights obtained by taking the time derivative of Ea. (1.23), te # (124) Which sives the phave vwllcity ig 3s ds 2 yaa s aly cia eae (1.23) ‘The phase velocity also called the propagation velocity is te velocity of the wose patter ait maves actos) the water surface, The water itself mostly moves up aad down; when the wave moves from one point to another, the water does not mave physically along-with it. The direction of wave propazation is easily determina by inspecting the sivns of the ¢ and x terms in the expression forthe phase h(x. 1) sivenbyEq.(L AM:ifone ifthe signs is positive and tic exter is negative, hen He in ue positive x-direction, ard if wave fs reapedin ens are pasitive or balk are nevative, then the wave ts reveling in the negative x-direction. The constant phase} reference dy has no influence 09 either the speed or the direction of wave propagation.13 TRAVELING WAVES The frequency of a sinusoidal wave, Ff, is the _xiprocal ofits time pesiod T: (Hy. (126) pe fh ca). “The Wave frequency /', which is measured in eycles per -scond. has been assigned the unit (HH2) (pronounced “hertz”, named in honor ofthe German physicist Hein- pst Hertz (1857-1894). oho pfonceredl the development aio waves, Using Ea. (1.26), Eq. (1.20) can be rewrinen in the *sborined form as atest) = Aces (an - =.) = Acoslin~ 1), (38) “ahere « is the angular velocity of the wave and fis 16 - phase constant (or wavenumber), defined as (1.29) (1.29b), w= p=2 (130) _ Sofa ¢ have examined the behavior ofa winvetraveing nthe +cdireetion. To deserbe a wave traveling inthe “Aelitecti, we reverse the sizn of «in Eq (1.28; Y= A coslent + fin). (at) a ‘We now examine the role of the phase reference Gy siven previously in Eq. (1.17). If gy fs nde zero, then Eq, (1.28) should be written as let) = A coslat — px + on) (1532) A plot of y(x,1) a6 @ function of x at a specified ¢ oF as a function of | at specified x will be shifted in ‘spice oF time, respectively relative to 2 plot wilh gy = 0 by an amount ¢. This is illustrated by the plots shown in Fig. 1-13. We observe that when gg is positive, y(t) reaches its peak valve, oF any other specified value, sooner than when dy =O, Thus, the wave with &y = 2/4 is stid to dead the wave with ¢ = 0 by-a phase load of s2/4; and similarly. the wave with gy = —s/4 is said to lay the wave with dy = 0 by a phave fag of 7/4. A wave Function with anegative gy takes longer 19 ‘each a given valu of vit) than the rero-plise reference Sanction. Whe its value is positive, py. signifies phase Iead in time, and when it és negative, it signifies. 3 phase Lag, —— 43.2. Sinusoidal Wave in a Lossy Medium ra wave istrayelingin the x-ditection inafossy media, its amplitude will decrease as e-**. This factor is called the avlemuation factor, &ad a is called the attenuation ‘constant of the medium ond ils unit is néper per metse (Oypitn). Thus, in general, YON = Ae coslee Ax tg). (1.33) ‘The Wave ampitode is now Ae“, and not just 4. Figs ute I-14 shows aplotofy(x, 1)asafunctionof.catr = 0. for A = 10m) =2m,c = 0.2 Npln, and dy =0. Note that he envelope ofthe Wave pattern decreases ase“ ‘The tea unit of a is (IMs the neper (Np) peat is dimensionless, iatiliial adjective traditiotaly uses 2 ‘eminder that the unit (Np/m) refer tothe stienuation constant of the medium, ¢. A similar practice i applicd to the phase constant # by assigning it the unit (rad/im) instead of just (Um),a CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS Leidsaheadot «Reference wive (9 =0) Laps behind reference wane Figure DM: Plotol yx) = (Ile? cin a-s) meters Note that the envelope is hounded herman theicun'e ghenby Me“ and ifs miror image. ‘with distance in (a) a lossless: mediom and (b) a los) { REVIEW ouesTIONS medium? QL6 How ean you tell if a wave is traveling in the positive x-direction or the negative a-direction? Sie Ms iat ce cael i i 2 hag? Q17 How docs the envelope of the wave pattem vary13 TRAVELING WAVES “Ezample 1-1 Sound Wave in Water An.acoustic wave traveling inthe xitection ina oid “igi or gas) is characterized by a differential pressure 1). The unit for pressure is newson per square meter “(Nim?). Find an expression for px ) For & sinusoidal -toand wave traveling inthe postive c-lirection in ware, _fiven that the wave frequency is 1 KET, the velocity of spond in waver is 1.5 km/s, the wave amplitude is 10 Wnt, and p(x, 1) was observed to be at its, maximum “yeloe a t= 0 and x = 0.25 m. Treat water asa lossless ‘tedium. ‘Solution: According to the general form given by 1-117) fora wave traveling in the postive x-direction, en fey 5 nn =Aon( a - +#) nti’. “The amplitude A= 10 Nin? T= A/F = 10° sand rom, = fi, My 15 x 108 a Tn ele 15m. a in= ne (eens Se) “Saee st = Oand x = 0.25 m, p(025,0) Weave = 10= to ( 025 +45) a = Mon (+4), Sihich yields the mult (y ~ 3/3) = cos), ar 3. Hence, Bi) = in (22 x1 — as +3) (um), " Example +2 Powar Loss ‘A Toser eam of ight propagating. through the ‘atmosphere is characterized by an electric field intensity siven by aren 15De= cos(S x 10% — 10'x) Vim), here x is the distance from the source i meters. The attenuation 3s duc to sbsomption by almospherie gases. ‘Detertine (a) the direesion of wave travel, (b) the wave velocity, and (c) the wave amptitude at a distance of 200m. Solution: (a) Sings the coefficients of ¢and x in the ‘zgument of the cosine function have opposite signs, the ‘wave must be ttavelingin the y-direction, (by =3x 10's, which is equal to the velocity of fightin free space. (€) Atx-= 200m, the amplitude of E(x. 0) is 130" =037 (Vf). om EXERCISE 1.1. ‘The clectic field of a sraveling electro: maghotic wave is given by Elz, 11 = Weoste x 10% +-x2/18-4+=/6) Determine (a) the direction of wave propagation, (6) the vane frequency f.() its wavelength 2, and (d) its phase velocity tp ‘Ams, (a) z-direction (b) f = 5 MHz. (¢) k= 30m, (G)up= 15 x10? mis. (See *) EXERCISE T.2 An electromagnetic wave is propagating the s-iestion in a Tossy medium with sitenwation constant ¢ = 05 Npfm, If the wave’s electie-feld amplitede is 100 Vim at = 0, how far can the wave (wim,6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: ‘travel before its amplitude will have been reduced to (a) 10 Vim, 6) 1 Vim, (6) 1 V7? Ais: (a)4.6 i; (b) 9.2m, (¢) 37m. (See) 1-4. The Electromagnetic Spectrum electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1-15); Ornee members of this family include gamma rays, X rays, infrared Waves, and fadio waves. Generically they all are called electromagnetic (EM) saves becaise they share the following Furdantental properties: ‘© ANEM wave consists of electric and magnetic Field intesities that oscillate atthe same frequency ‘= The phase velocity of an EM wave propagating in “vacuum isa universal constant give by the velocity, ‘of light c, defined eartier by Fg. (1.14). ‘© Tn vacuum, the wavelength i of an EM wave is related to its oscillation frequency ff by | - 03) Whereas all EM waves shafe thete properties eich is distinguished by its own wavelength 4, or equivalently by its own oscillation frequency f. ‘The visible par ofthe EM spectrum shown in Fig, 1-15 covers a very marow wavelength range extending between § = 0.4 jum (violet) and = 0.7 pum (red). As ‘We move progressively toward shorter wavelength, we encounter the ultraviolet, Xray, and gamma-ray bands ‘each so named because of historical reasons associzied with the discovery of waves with those wavelengths. On the otherside ofthe visiblesypectrum lie the infrared band and then the radio region. Because ofthe link between 3, and f given by Bq. (L343, cach of these spectral ranges vAVE! IND PHASORS may he specified in terms of its wavelength range or alternatively i terms ofits frequency range. In practice, however, wave is spécified in terms ofits wavelength if, < Imm, which encompasses all parts of the EM spectrum except for the rafio region, and the wave is specified in terms oF is feequency f if% = 1mm ie. in the ratio region). A wavelength of | mm coresponds toa frequeney of 3% 10" Hi = 300 GHz in free space: ‘The radio spectrum consis Of several individual band, 25 shoan in the char of Fig, 1-16, Each band covert one decade of the radio spectrum an has & Jeter desizmation based on & nomenclature defined by the Intemational Telecommunicution Union. Difereat frequencies have different applications because they are excited by different mechanigms, and the properties of an EM wave propagating in a material may vary Considerably from one band t0 another. The extremely low frequency (ELF) band from 3 t0 30 He is used primarily forthe detection of bried meta objets. Lower frequencies down to 0.1 Hiz an: used in magnetotetirie sensing of the stracture’of the earth, and frequencies in the range from 1 Hz to 1 KHz sometimes are used for commanicatins with submerged submarines a for ‘crtain kinds of sensing of Earth's ionosphere. The very Tow frequency (VIF) region from 3t0 30k isused both foe submarine communications and for postion locaton by the Omegx navigition system. The low-frequency. (LF) bated, from 30 0 300 Ke, is used for some fers ‘f eommunication and for the Loren C:position-oation, system, Some rainy beacons. and. weather broadcast ‘Sltions used i air navigation operate at frequencies in {he higher end of the LF band. The medium-frequency QE) region From 300 kHz tw 3 MHZ contains the sStandand AM brosdeast band from O15 to 1.5 Mz, Long distance communications and short-wave broad: casting over lone distances use frequencies in the hhigh-frequeney (HF) band from 3 to 30 MHz because ‘waves in this band are strongly affected by rellections by the ionosphere and least affected by absoeplion inat BCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 2 ares Si Sion Raine nee we a o ‘Titra dam Hl Gomeainn yt A aca Racin ern = Soma) tee a aT [3] Neri aor tim rpm A tae tm tm mkt wwe Ma we r wt wx toe fii tte tcie isaete rene i Hee Hf woe ew Wa we : Figure 115: The cleckomagnetic spectrom, the fonosphere. The next frequency repion, the very Mat of the extremely high frequency (EHF) band high frequency (VHF4 band from 30 «0 30) MHz, is used primarily for television and FM broadcasting over line-of-sight distances and also for communicating with ‘aircraft and other vehicles. Some early radio-astronomy research was also conducted in this range, The ultrahigh frequency (UHE) region frm 300) MHz to 3 GHz. is extensively populated with radars, although part off this tnd also is used for television broadcasting and mobile “Corimunications with aircrafl and surface vehicles. The ‘tadars in this region ofthe spectrum are normally used for aircraft detection and tracking. Some parts of this region have been reserved for radio astronomical observation. ‘Many foineto-point radio communication systems ‘and various Kinds of ground-based radars and ship radars ‘operate at frequencies in the superigh (requoney (SHE) range from 3050 GHo. Somesirral navigation sysiems ‘esate inthis range 2s wel from 30 10 300 GHz is wed less extensively, primarily because the tcchnology is not ax well dévetoped ane! because of excessive absorption by the atmoophere in some parts ofthis band. Some advanced communication systems are being developed for operation at frequencies in the “atmospheric windows” where atmospheric absomplion is not a serious problem, a are automobile collision-avoidnce radars and some military imaging radar systems. These atmospheric wine's include the ‘ges from 30 to 35 GHz, 70 10 75 GHz, 90 10 95 GHe, and 135 t0 143 GHz. Although no precise definition exists for the extent af the micrawave Aand, it ie conventionally regarded to cover the full ranges of the UILR, SHE and EBLE Dands, with the EHF band sometimes referred to asthe millimeter-wave Bord, Becuuse the wavelength range ‘covered by this band extends fom 1 mm (300 GH2) to Jem (30 GH).28 CHAPTER |_ INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS, | Froqueney (1) 02 Band Applicat M0 Ge: ne — ied) High Frequenes Rada advanced eomminisaon ems F.- Mi) GHe) ‘ernie sens, ado strona igh Froqueaey ‘Rada satelite eponnication gems aerate Micromave IF 3 -80Glls) sayigin, ratio atmos, rome sexsing VGH 10" “Cea Hash Freaueaey ‘TV teeadessig sar, rain sooeny. LUNGS MIFe=3 GIL) micromave ovens calla teleisoe- Very High Frequesey Wand Po tadcaaing, mobieadio NHK (3 300 Mitel communication rte coi Tie quay Shoat wave eadening HP_w Ma intictio’ “Medium Freaaeney AM troalcsane MP (Gon liz NN) Tew Frequency Rai Barons, wear saan ais LE (0-300) Joc ai misao ‘Very Tow Frequency ‘Navigation ant postion ction VIE G-S0Kb) UktieL io! “Gu baw Frequtney “aia signals on PaepORE ULE A300 Ha 3 hte) | ‘Sar baw Frewseacy ‘Gosia ising decals poner | SUF 0-300 He) aration, submaring communiation TEstrencly law Prgjueiy _Delestion of eried wt objets ELE t0Nn 1H arty Magnseilianc soaang fe chk srocare Figure 1-16: Individual hands of he dio spectrum and their pelinay applications 4-5 Review of Complex Numbers ‘REVIEW QUESTIONS Q19 Whatare the three fundamental properties of EM complex number z ig written in the form QI.10 What is the range of frequencies covertal by the sertiy, 39) rnicronave band? QLIL What is the wavelength range of the visible where x and y are thereal (Re) and imaginary mm) parts spectrum? What are some of the applications of the of z, respectively, and = J—I, That is, infared hand? : a += Re), Jm(). (1.38)1:5 REVIEW OF COMPLEX NUMBERS: rstlcos0 yaldsn eee 6 = tart is) Rela) Fiore I-17: Reltion betaeearectangularand polar ep imsenlations af a cormplen number z =} fy = [zie Altematively, c may be written imolar form ais ele? = [ele a7) ‘where |2[ is the magnitude of =, 8 is its phuse angle, and the form 2 is a useful shorthand representation commonly used in numerical calculations. Applying euler’ identi, cos tis (1.38) Neean conver ¢ from potar form, asin Eg. (1.37), into ‘ectangular fore, as in Eq, (1.35), E=lele™ =[c] e080 + jlelsin®, (1.39) ‘which leads (othe relations relzieos®, yeleising, 40 aah @ = tan (yf). Tie two forms are ilustrated graphically in Fig. L-17. ‘Whea usiog Eq. (1.41), care should be taken to ensure that isin the properquadrant. Also note that, since [| ‘ha positive quamity. only the postive raotin Eq, (Ll) ‘i applicable. This is denoted by the + sign above the ‘Stpare root sien 2» The comples conjugate of z, denoted with a star “superscript (or asterisk), is obtained by replacing j (wherever it appears) with ~j, so that = late? = fe Gtiyex (az) ‘The magnitude [2 is equal tothe positive square root of the prosluct of = and its complex conjugate: as | We mow highlight some of the properties of complex. algebra that we will likely encounter in future chapters Fogudlity: two Goniplex numbers) and <3 are given by. aay nant i °y (143) then 21 = 22 if and only if» =a: and y) = yp or, equivalently [y] = [cy] and 6 Adlition: atestatatiorty). (46) Multiplication: i SWOGE + Jn) im — yn) iGnet ay (AT) or izle" + [eafer™ fzrllzslet or) fcos(e +4) + j sin(4, +42)). (LATO)0. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WAVES AND PHASORS Division: For 23 4 0. Given two complex numbers Vv T= it (2+ j3)- (a) Express V and J in polar form, and find (b) V1, 2) VIF Ad) V/d, and (eh VT. “Gti Gm _ Gi ty) tie 198) + 48a) ey Solution @) = JO=HNBFT) = ¥ 4, =tan-'(-4/3) V =|Vje# =5e 755 i= Vee Since 1 = (-2= (coun e'jsinnd), (1.49) (hb) Vm Se SM xe 3.5127 Zig.aseite 80 Boaiinenn = lel feost@/2)-+ jsin(@/2)]. (1.50) Useful Relations: ‘Figure £1 Complex mambene V and ? inthe complex Example 1-3 Working with Complex Numbers, plane (Exampfe |-3).L6 REVIEW OF PHASORS fo) It = Se" 3. B05) 8,050", seen 1396-2 te) VI = V3.1 =a VS6T eltits ef omit SIS AEAQISE1 Express the follonis in por form: ‘complex functions G- py, ja? Ans 33= 25287, 2)= Lt VSMC. (See) PXERCISE1.4 Showehat JI] = L(+). (See 9) 1-6 Review of Phasors Phasor analysis is useful mathematical tool for solsing problems involving Linear systems in which the Scialiom 54 periodic time function. Many engineering problems ace sastin the form of lincarintegro-cifferenial ‘squats. If theexcitation, morecomnnmonly knowns the Jorcing fonction, vaies sinusoidally with tie, the use ‘f phasor notation to represent time-dependent variables allows us to Convert tke integro-differential eatin into ‘linear equation with no sinusoidal functions, thereby ‘simplifying the method of solution. Alter solving for the desired variable, sueli a6 the voltage or exrrent in {circuit conversion from the phasor domain hack to the time domain provides the desired result “The poasor technique can also be wsed for analyzing linear systems when the forcing function isany arbitrary (nosinusoitl) perio time: function, such as 2 squsse wase or a sequence of pulses. By expanding the a : Figure 1-19: RG cizcuit connected so 4 volige source ult) forcing function into. a Fourier series off sinusoidal Components, we can solve for the desired variable using phasor analysis for each Fourier component of the forcing function separately. According to the principle of superposition, the sum of the solutions due to all of the Fourier components gives the same resuit as one ‘would obtain tad the problem been solved entirely inthe time domain without the aid. of Fourier representation, ‘The obvieus advaniige of the phasor-Fourier approach {is simplicity, Moreover, inthe case of nonperiodic source functions, such ax 2 single pulse, the functions ean be expressed ay Fourier integrals, and a similar application of the principle of superposition can be used as well. The simple RC circuit shown in Fig. 1-19 contains a sinusoidally time:varying voltage source given by wilt) = Vosiniwt #20), (158) where Vp is the amplinads, «is the angular frequenty, ind y is a reference phase. Application of Kirchhort’s voltage law gives the Following loup equation: fo (2) (Gime dom (156) (Our objective i to obtain an expression for the curent ‘We can Go this by solving Eq. (1.56) in the time2 CHAPTER |_INTRODUCTION; WAVES AND PHASORS, orcing fumetion x,(1) isa sinusoid. Altematively, wee-can take advantage of the phasoe technique as fellows, Step 4: Adape a cosine reference ‘This means that we should express the forcing funetion as.acosine, if ot already in that form, and hence all time-varying functions, suc as the curent in the circuit c3.actoss ft and C. will abo have acasine reference. This, (1) = Vosintest + ¢) pa) es ( =Vecos (ot +a), (187) ‘where we used tie propertics sinx = cos(z/2— x) and eas{—x) = cos. Sas 2° Eppes tiniedeperent sattables as phasors Any cosinusoidally time-varying function z(e) can be expressed in the form zt) = Re [2 ]. where plia\or ofthe inscaniemeons funetion z(t). To distinguish Jnstantancous quantities from their phssor eoutierparts, a letter denoting 4 phasor is given a tkle (~) oner the Fetter. The voltage 1, (r) given by Bq, (157) can be cast fn the form att) = Sevier] = Pie [Yoel =e] me[ Vel], (1.59) svhere Faherty (1.60) ‘The phasor. ¥, corresponding to the time function (1), comiains amplitade and phase information but is independent of the time vatiable (, Next we define the unknown variable f(t) in terms of phasor 7, i{g) =Stele™), and if the equation we are’ tying to solve contains: derivatives or integrals, Wwe use the following. tio properties (61) dedi a Gage] ieee aie =Mdjofe™], few = fete) ar ote ( | ie é) oi) ‘Thus. differentiation of the time function 4(2) i ‘equivalent to mottplication ofits phasor F by jon and integration is equivalent to division by jis. (1.63) and aay Step 4 Recast rhe differemaielsimteyral wipiation in Phasor Form pon using Eqs. (1:59), (1,61), and (1.63) in Ba. (1.56) we have i Na fi ie( fe?) 4— Me RM te (g e| =Re(He™). (Lee) Since both R and C are real quantities und the Rel ) operation is ismiunive, Eq (1,68) simplifies 1 i(r+-) =F; (phasordomain), (1.659 jot,