EDEXCEL IAL

Statistics 1 (S1)
Notes

Prepared By:
Azman Anju Khan Chowdhury

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Contents

1 Statisticalmodelling 6
Statistical modelling............................................................................................................ 6
Definition........................................................................................................................................................ 6
Advantages ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Disadvantages................................................................................................................................................. 6

2 Representationofsampledata 7
Variables ............................................................................................................................. 7
Qualitative variables....................................................................................................................................... 7
Quantitative variables .................................................................................................................................... 7
Continuous variables ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Discrete variables ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Frequency distributions ....................................................................................................... 7
Frequency tables............................................................................................................................................. 7
Cumulative frequency .................................................................................................................................... 7
Stem and leaf & back-to-back stem and leaf diagrams....................................................... 8
Comparing two distributions from a back to back stem and leaf diagram. .................................................. 8
Grouped frequency distributions......................................................................................... 8
Class boundaries and widths .......................................................................................................................... 8
Cumulative frequency curves for grouped data .................................................................. 9
Histograms .......................................................................................................................... 9

3 Mode,mean(andmedian) 11
Mode ................................................................................................................................. 11
Mean ................................................................................................................................. 11
Coding ............................................................................................................................... 12
Coding and calculating the mean ................................................................................................................. 12
Median .............................................................................................................................. 13
When to use mode, median and mean .............................................................................. 13
Mode ............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Median .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Mean ............................................................................................................................................................. 13

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4 Median(Q2),quartiles(Q1,Q3)andpercentiles 14
Discrete lists and discrete frequency tables ...................................................................... 14
Interquartile range ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Discrete lists ................................................................................................................................................. 14
Discrete frequency tables ............................................................................................................................. 14
Grouped frequency tables, continuous and discrete data.................................................. 15
Grouped frequency tables, continuous data ................................................................................................. 15
Grouped frequency tables, discrete data ...................................................................................................... 16
Percentiles ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Box Plots ........................................................................................................................... 17
Outliers ............................................................................................................................. 17
Skewness........................................................................................................................... 18
Positive skew ................................................................................................................................................ 18
Negative skew .............................................................................................................................................. 19

5 Measuresofspread 20
Range & interquartile range.............................................................................................. 20
Range ............................................................................................................................................................ 20
Interquartile range ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Variance and standard deviation ....................................................................................... 20
Proof of the alternative formula for variance .............................................................................................. 20
Rough checks, m s, m 2s ..................................................................................................................... 21
Coding and variance ..................................................................................................................................... 21

6 Probability 23
Relative frequency ............................................................................................................ 23
Sample spaces, events and equally likely outcomes ......................................................... 23
Probability rules and Venn diagrams ................................................................................ 23
Diagrams for two dice etc. ................................................................................................ 24
Tree diagrams ................................................................................................................... 25
Independent events ........................................................................................................... 26
To prove that A and B are independent ..................................................................................................... 26
Exclusive events ............................................................................................................... 27
Number of arrangements .................................................................................................. 27

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7 Correlation 28
Scatter diagrams ................................................................................................................ 28
Positive, negative, no correlation & line of best fit. .................................................................................... 28
Product moment correlation coefficient, PMCC ............................................................. 28
Formulae ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
Coding and the PMCC ................................................................................................................................. 29
Interpretation of the PMCC ......................................................................................................................... 30

8 Regression 31
Explanatory and response variables .................................................................................. 31
Regression line .................................................................................................................. 31
Least squares regression line ....................................................................................................................... 31
Interpretation ................................................................................................................................................ 32

9 DiscreteRandomVariables 33
Random Variables ............................................................................................................. 33
Continuous and discrete random variables ....................................................................... 33
Continuous random variables ...................................................................................................................... 33
Discrete random variables............................................................................................................................ 33
Probability distributions .................................................................................................... 33
Cumulative probability distribution .................................................................................. 34
Expectation or expected values ......................................................................................... 34
Expected mean or expected value of X. ....................................................................................................... 34
Expected value of a function........................................................................................................................ 34
Expected variance ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Expectation algebra ...................................................................................................................................... 35
The discrete uniform distribution...................................................................................... 36
Conditions for a discrete uniform distribution ............................................................................................ 36
Expected mean and variance ........................................................................................................................ 36
Non-standard uniform distribution .............................................................................................................. 37

10 TheNormalDistributionN(,2) 38
The standard normal distribution N(0, 12) ...................................................................... 38
The general normal distribution N(, 2) ....................................................................... 39
Use of tables ................................................................................................................................................. 39

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11 Contextquestionsandanswers 42
Accuracy ........................................................................................................................... 42
Statistical models .............................................................................................................. 42
Histograms ........................................................................................................................ 43
Averages ........................................................................................................................... 43
Skewness........................................................................................................................... 44
Correlation ........................................................................................................................ 45
Regression......................................................................................................................... 46
Discrete uniform distribution ............................................................................................ 47
Normal distribution ........................................................................................................... 47

12 Appendix 49
1 P.M.C.C. 1 ........................................................................................................... 49
Cauchy-Schwartz inequality ........................................................................................................................ 49
P.M.C.C. between 1 and +1 ....................................................................................................................... 49
Regression line and coding ............................................................................................... 50
Proof ............................................................................................................................................................. 50

Normal Distribution, Z = ......................................................................................... 51

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1 Statistical modelling

Statistical modelling

Example: When a die is rolled, we say that the probability of each number is . This is a
statistical model, but the assumption that each face is equally likely might not be true.
Suppose the die is weighted to increase the chance of a six. We might then find, after
experimenting, that the probability of a six is and the probability of a one is , with the
probability of other faces remaining at . In this case we have refined, or improved, the
model to give a truer picture.

Example: The heights of a large group of adults are measured. The mean is 1723 cm and the
standard deviation is 124 cm.
It is thought that the general shape of the histogram can be modelled by the curve

f (x) =

This might not give a true picture, in which case we would have to change the equation, or
refine the model.

Definition
A statistical model is a simplification of a real world situation. It can be used to make
predictions about a real world problem. By analysing and refining the model an improved
understanding may be obtained.

Advantages
the model is quick and easy to produce
the model helps our understanding of the real world problem
the model helps us to make predictions
the model helps us to control a situation e.g. railway timetables, air traffic control etc.

Disadvantages
the model simplifies the situation and only describes a part of the real world problem.
the model may only work in certain situations, or for a particular range of values.

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2 Representation of sample data

Variables

Qualitative variables
Non-numerical - e.g. red, blue or long, short etc.

Quantitative variables
Numerical - e.g. length, age, time, number of coins in pocket, etc

Continuous variables
Can take any value within a given range - e.g. height, time, age etc.

Discrete variables
Can only take certain values - e.g. shoe size, cost in and p, number of coins.

Frequency distributions

Frequency tables
A list of discrete values and their frequencies.

Example: The number of M&M s is counted in several bags, and recorded in the frequency
table below:
number of M&M s 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
frequency 3 8 11 19 13 7 2

Cumulative frequency
Add up the frequencies as you go down the list
number of M&M s 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
frequency 3 8 11 19 13 7 2
cumulative frequency 3 11 22 41 54 61 63

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Stem and leaf & back-to-back stem and leaf diagrams
Line up the digits on the leaves so that it looks like a bar chart.
Add a key; e.g. 5|2 means 52, or 4|3 means 43 etc.

Comparing two distributions from a back to back stem and leaf diagram.

A B 8/1=81
8 1 2 2 4 5 6 7 8
3 1 0 7 2 3 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 9
3 2 2 1 1 6 1 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 8 8 8 9 9
7 6 5 5 3 3 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
9 8 7 4 3 0 0 4
8 7 5 3 1 1 3
9 9 7 4 2 2
5 4 3 2 1 1
8 7 0

1. The values in A are on average smaller than those in B

2. The values in A are more spread out than those in B.

Grouped frequency distributions

Class boundaries and widths

When deciding class boundaries you must not leave a gap between one class and
another, whether dealing with continuous or discrete distributions.

For discrete distributions avoid leaving gaps between classes by using class boundaries as
shown below:
X 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

Class Class Class boundaries

interval as given contains without gaps
04 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 04

59 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 4 9

10 12 10, 11, 12 9 12

etc

For continuous distributions the class boundaries can be anywhere.

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Cumulative frequency curves for grouped data

class class cumulative

frequency class
interval boundaries frequency
0-4 0 to 4 27 4 27
59 4 to 9 36 9 63
10 19 9 to 19 54 19 117
20 29 19 to 29 49 29 166
30 59 29 to 59 24 59 190
60 99 59 to 99 10 99 200

Plot points at ends of intervals, (4 , 27), (9 , 63), (19 , 117) etc. and join points with a
smooth curve.

Histograms
Plot the axes with a continuous scale as normal graphs.
There are no gaps between the bars of a histogram.
Area equals frequency.
Note that the total area under a frequency histogram is N, the total number
and the area from a to b is the number of items between a and b.

To draw a histogram, first draw up a table showing the class intervals, class boundaries, class
widths, frequencies and then heights = as shown below:

class class class

frequency height
interval boundaries width

0-4 0 to 4 4 27 6

59 4 to 9 5 36 72

10 19 9 to 19 10 54 54

20 29 19 to 29 10 49 49

30 59 29 to 59 30 24 08

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 60 99 59 to 99 40 10 025

Example: A grouped frequency table for the weights of adults has the following entries:

weight kg 50 60 70 85
frequency 60 20

In a histogram, the bar for the class 50 60 kg is 2 cm wide and 9 cm high.

Find the width and height of the bar for the 70 85 kg class.

Solution: 50 60 is usually taken to mean 50 weight < 60

The width of the 50 60 class is 10 kg 2 cm

width of the 70 85 class is 15 kg 2 = 3 cm

The area of the 50 60 bar is 2 9 = 18 cm2 frequency 60

the frequency of the 70 85 bar is 20 an area of 18 = 6 cm2

the height of the 70 85 bar is area width = 6 3 = 2 cm.

Answer width of 70 85 kg bar is 3 cm, and height is 2 cm.

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3 Mode, mean (and median)

Mode
The mode is the value, or class interval, which occurs most often.

Mean
The mean of the values x1, x2, , xn with frequencies f1, f2, , fn the mean is

1
,where

Example: Find the mean for the following table showing the number of children per family.
Solution: Number of children Frequency
x f xf
0 5 0
1 8 8
2 12 24
3 18 54
4 9 36
5 4 20
56 142
xi fi = 142, and N = fi = 56
= = 254 to 3 S.F.

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 In a grouped frequency table you must use the mid-interval value.

Example: The table shows the numbers of children in prep school classes in a town.

Solution: Number Mid-interval Frequency

of children value
x f xf
1 - 10 55 5 275
11 - 15 13 8 104
16 20 18 12 216
21 - 30 255 18 459
31 - 40 355 11 3905
54 1197

xi fi = 1197, and N = fi = 54
= = 222 to 3 S.F.

Coding
The weights of a group of people are given as x1, x2, xn in kilograms. These weights are
now changed to grammes and given as t1, t2, tn .
In this case ti = 1000 xi this is an example of coding.
20
Another example of coding could be ti = .

Coding and calculating the mean

20
With the coding, ti = , we are subtracting 20 from each x-value and then dividing the
result by 5.
We first find the mean for ti, and then we reverse the process to find the mean for xi
we find the mean for ti, multiply by 5 and add 20, giving = 5 + 20

20
Proof: ti = xi = 5ti + 20
1 1
5 20

5 20

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 1
5 20since and

165
Example: Use the coding ti = to find the mean weight for the following
distribution.

Weight, kg Mid-interval Coded value Frequency

165
xi ti = fi ti fi
140 - 150 145 2 9 18
150 - 160 155 1 21 21
160 - 170 165 0 37 0
170 - 180 175 1 28 28
180 - 190 185 2 11 22
106 11

=
165
and ti = = 10 + 165 = 10 + 165 = 1660377358
mean weight is 16604 kg to 2 D.P.

Here the coding simplified the arithmetic for those who like to work without a calculator!

Median
The median is the middle number in an ordered list. Finding the median is explained in the
next section.

When to use mode, median and mean

Mode
You should use the mode if the data is qualitative (colour etc.) or if quantitative (numbers)
with a clearly defined mode (or bi-modal). It is not much use if the distribution is fairly even.

Median
You should use this for quantitative data (numbers), particularly when there are extreme values
(outliers).

Mean
This is for quantitative data (numbers), and uses all pieces of data. It gives a true measure, but
is affected by extreme values (outliers).

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4 Median (Q2), quartiles (Q1, Q3) and percentiles

Discrete lists and discrete frequency tables

To find medians and quartiles

1. Find k = (for Q2), (for Q1), (for Q3).

2. If k is an integer, use the mean of the kth and (k + 1)th numbers in the list.
3. If k is not an integer, use the next integer up, and find the number with that position in
the list.

Interquartile range
The interquartile range, I.Q.R., is Q3 Q1.

Discrete lists
A discrete list of 10 numbers is shown below:
x 11 13 17 25 33 34 42 49 51 52

n = 10 for Q1, =2 so use 3rd number, Q1 = 17

for Q2, = 5 so use mean of 5th and 6th, Q2 = 33 median

for Q3 , =7 so use 8th number, Q3 = 49

The interquartile range, I.Q.R., is Q3 Q1 = 49 17 = 32.

Discrete frequency tables

x 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
f 3 6 8 10 9 8 6 4
cum freq 3 9 17 27 36 44 50 54

n = 54 for Q1, = 13 so use 14th number, Q1 = 7

for Q2, = 27 so use mean of 27th and 28th, Q2 = 8 median

for Q3 , = 40 so use 41st number, Q3 = 10

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 The interquartile range, I.Q.R., is Q3 Q1 = 10 7 = 3.

Grouped frequency tables, continuous and discrete data

To find medians and quartiles

1. Find k = (for Q2), (for Q1), (for Q3).

2. Do not round k up or change it in any way.
3. Use linear interpolation to find median and quartiles note that you must use the
correct intervals for discrete data (start at the s).

Grouped frequency tables, continuous data

class boundaries frequency cumulative frequency

0x<5 27 27
5 to 10 36 63
10 to 20 54 117
20 to 30 49 166
30 to 60 24 190
60 to 100 12 202

With continuous data, the end of one interval is the same as the start of the next no gaps.

To find Q1, n = 202 = 50 do not change it

Q1 5
5
class
boundaries 5 Q1 10

cumulative
frequencies
27 505 63
36
235

From the diagram Q1 = 5 + 5 = 8263888889 = 826 to 3 S.F.

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 To find Q2, n = 202 = 101 do not change it

class
boundaries 10 Q2 20

cumulative
frequencies
63 101 117

From the diagram Q2 = 10 + 10 = 17037= 170 to 3 S.F.

Similarly for Q3, = 1515, so Q3 lies in the interval (20, 30)

. .
Q3 = 20 + 10 = 270408 = 270 to 3 S.F.

Grouped frequency tables, discrete data

The discrete data in grouped frequency tables is treated as continuous.
1. Change the class boundaries to the 4 , 9 etc.
2. Proceed as for grouped frequency tables for continuous data.

class class cumulative

frequency
interval boundaries frequency
04 0 to 4 25 25
59 4 to 9 32 57
10 19 9 to 19 51 108
20 29 19 to 29 47 155
30 59 29 to 59 20 175
60 99 59 to 99 8 183

To find Q1, n = 183 = 4575

class
boundaries 45 Q1 95

cumulative
frequencies
25 4575 57

From the diagram

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 Q1 = 45 + 5 = 77421875= 774 to 3 S.F.

Q2 and Q3 can be found in a similar way.

Percentiles
Percentiles are calculated in exactly the same way as quartiles.

Example: For the 90th percentile, find and proceed as above.

Box Plots
In a group of people the youngest is 21 and the oldest is 52. The quartiles are 32 and 45,
and the median age is 41.

We can illustrate this information with a box plot as below remember to include a scale.

lowest highest
value
Q1 Q2 Q3 value

age
20 30 40 50

Outliers
An outlier is an extreme value. You are not required to remember how to find an outlier you
will always be given a rule.

Example: The ages of 11 children are given below.

age 3 6 12 12 13 14 14 15 17 21 26

Q1 = 12, Q2 = 14 and Q3 = 17.

Outliers are values outside the range Q1 15 (Q3 Q1) to Q3 + 15 (Q3 Q1).
Find any outliers, and draw a box plot.

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 Solution: Lower boundary for outliers is 12 15 (17 12) = 45
Upper boundary for outliers is 17 + 15 (17 12) = 245
3 and 26 are the only outliers.
To draw a box plot, put crosses at 3 and 26, and draw the lines to 6 (the lowest value
which is not an outlier), and to 21 (the highest value which is not an outlier).

lowest highest
value Q1 Q2 Q3 value
not outlier not outlier

age
5 10 15 20 25

Note that there are other ways of drawing box plots with outliers, but this is the safest and will
never be wrong so why not use it.

Skewness
A distribution which is symmetrical is not skewed

Positive skew
If a symmetrical box plot is stretched in the direction of the positive x-axis, then the resulting
distribution has positive skew.

Q1 Q2 Q3

PULL

Q1 Q2 Q3

For positive skew the diagram shows that Q3 Q2 > Q2 Q1

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 The same ideas apply for a continuous distribution, and a little bit of thought should show that
for positive skew mean > median > mode.

PULL

mode mean
median

Negative skew
If a symmetrical box plot is stretched in the direction of the negative x-axis, then the resulting
distribution has negative skew.
Q1 Q2 Q3

PULL

Q1 Q2 Q3

For negative skew the diagram shows that Q3 Q2 < Q2 Q1

The same ideas apply for a continuous distribution, and a little bit of thought should show that
for negative skew mean < median < mode.

PULL

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 mean mode
median

5 Measures of spread
Range & interquartile range

Range
The range is found by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value.

Interquartile range
The interquartile range is found by subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile,
so I.Q.R. = Q3 Q1.

Variance and standard deviation

Variance is the square of the standard deviation.

1
,or

1
.

When finding the variance, it is nearly always easier to use the second formula.

Variance and standard deviation measure the spread of the distribution.

Proof of the alternative formula for variance

1 1
2

1 1 1
2

1 2

since = and N =

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 1 1
2

Rough checks, m s, m 2s
When calculating a standard deviation, you should check that there is approximately
65 - 70% of the population within 1 s.d. of the mean and
approximately 95% within 2 s.d. of the mean.
These approximations are best for a fairly symmetrical distribution.

Coding and variance

Using the coding ti = we see that

xi = ati + k =a +k
1 1

Notice that subtracting k has no effect, since this is equivalent to translating the graph, and
therefore does not change the spread, and if all the x-values are divided by a, then we need to
multiply st by a to find sx.

Example: Find the mean and standard deviation for the following distribution.

Here the x-values are nasty, but if we change them to form ti = then the
arithmetic in the last two columns becomes much easier.

x ti = f ti fi ti 2 fi
200 2 12 24 48
205 1 23 23 23
210 0 42 0 0
215 1 30 30 30
220 2 10 20 40
117 3 141

the mean of t is = = =

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and the variance of t is = = 1204470743

1 204470743 1 097483824 = 1.10 to 3 S.F.

To find , using = , = 5 + 210 = 215.5 to 1 D.P.

To find the standard deviation of x

sx = 5st = 5 10974838 = 549 to 3 S.F.

We would need to multiply the variance by 52 = 25

sx2 = 25st2 = 25 1204470743 = 301 to 3 S.F.

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6 Probability
Relative frequency
After tossing a drawing pin a large number of times

the relative frequency of it landing point up is ;

this can be thought of as the experimental probability.

Sample spaces, events and equally likely outcomes

A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes, all equally likely.
An event is a set of possible outcomes.
numberof ways A can happen n( A)
P(A) = = , where N is number in sample space.
total numberin samplespace N

Probability rules and Venn diagrams

All outcomes must be equally likely to happen.
n ( A)
P(A) =
N
P(A ) = P(not A) = 1 P(A)
A is the complement of A. A B means A or B or both. A B means both A and B,

B B
A A
A A

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B)

P(A | B) means the probability that A has occurred given that we know that B has already
occurred, and should always be re-written as

P(A | B) =

If we know that B has already happened, we can think of B as the new sample space with
n(B) elements.
Then the number of ways that A can now occur is n(AB)

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 P(A | B) =

Diagrams for two dice etc.

When considering two dice, two spinners or a coin and a die, the following types of diagram
are often useful they ensure that all outcomes are equally likely to happen.

Two dice Coin and die Two coins Three coins

green

6 6 H H H H H
5 5 H T H H T
4 4 T H H T H
3 3 T T T H H
2 2 H T T
1 1 T H T
1 2 3 4 5 6 red H T T T H
T T T

From these diagrams it should be easy to see that

For two dice: P(total 10) = , P(red > green) = , P(total 104 on green) = = .

For coin and die: P(Head and an even number) = .

For three dice: P(exactly two Heads) = .

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Tree diagrams
The rules for tree diagrams are
Select which branches you need
Multiply along each branch
Add the results of each branch needed.
Make sure that you include enough working to show which branches you are using (method).
Be careful to allow for selection with and without replacement.

Example: In the launch of a rocket, the probability of an electrical fault is 02. If there is an
electrical fault the probability that the rocket crashes is 04, and if there is no electrical
fault the probability that the rocket crashes is 03.
Draw a tree diagram. The rocket takes off, and is seen to crash. What is the
probability that there was an electrical fault?

Solution:
We want to find P(EC). C
04

P(EC) = E
02 06
P(EC) = 02 04 = 008 C
and P(C) = 02 04 + 08 03 = 032

P(EC) = = 025 C
03
08
E
07
C

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Independent events
Definition. A and B are independent P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
It is also true that P(A | B) = P(A | B ) = P(A).
A and B are not linked, they have no effect on each other.

To prove that A and B are independent

first find P(A), P(B) and P(A B) without assuming that P(A B) = P(A) P(B),

second show that P(A B) = P(A) P(B).

Note: If A and B are not independent then P(A B) P(A) P(B), and must be found in
another way, usually considering sample spaces and/or Venn diagrams.

Example: A red die and a green die are rolled and the total score recorded.
A is the event total score is 7, B is the event green score is 6 and C is the event total
score is 10.
Show that A and B are independent, but B and C are not independent.

Solution: The events A, B and C are shown on the diagram.

green

6 B P(A) = , P(B) =

5 and P(A B) = from diagram

4 C P(A) P(B) = = P(A B)

3 A and B are independent.

2
1 A P(B) = , P(C) =
and P(B C) = from diagram

1 2 3 4 5 6 red P(B) P(C) = P(B C)

B and C are not independent

Example: A and B are independent events. P(A) = 05 and P(A B) = 03. Find P(B).

Solution: P(A) = 05 and P(A B) = 03 B

A
P(A B) = 05 03 = 02
03

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 But P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
02 = 05 P(B)

P(B) = = 0 4

Exclusive events
Definition. A and B are mutually exclusive B
A
P(A B) = 0
i.e. they cannot both occur at the same time
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B)

Note: If A and B are not exclusive then P(A B) P(A) + P(B), and must be found in
another way, usually considering sample spaces and/or Venn diagrams.

Example: P(A) = 03, P(B) = 09 and P(A B) = 01.

Prove that A and B are mutually exclusive.

Solution: A B is shaded in the diagram

P(A B) = 1 P(A B) A B

P(A B) = 1 01 = 09
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B) 01

0.9 = 03 + 06 P(A B)
P(A B) = 0
A and B are mutually exclusive.

Number of arrangements
Example: A bag contains 5 Red beads, 7 Yellow beads, and 6 White beads. Three beads are
drawn without replacement from the bag. Find the probability that there are 2 Red beads
and 1 Yellow bead.

Solution: These beads can be drawn in any order, RRY, RYR, YRR

P(RRY or RYR or YRR)

= P(RRY) + P(RYR) + P(YRR)
= 5
18 174 167 + 5
18 177 164 + 7
18 175 164 = 35
408 = 0.0858 to 3 S.F.

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 You must always remember the possibility of more than one order. In rolling four DICE,
exactly TWO SIXES can occur in six ways:
SSNN, SNSN, SNNS, NSSN, NSNS, NNSS, each of which would have the same
probability =
and so the probability of exactly two sixes with four dice is 6 = .

7 Correlation
Scatter diagrams

Positive, negative, no correlation & line of best fit.

no correlation positive correlation negative correlation

The pattern of a scatter diagram shows linear correlation in a general manner.

A line of best fit can be draw by eye, but only when the points nearly lie on a straight line.

Product moment correlation coefficient, PMCC

Formulae
The are all similar to each other and make other formulae simpler to learn and use:

1
Sxy = =

1
Sxx = =

1
Syy = =

S xy
The PMCC r = , 1 r +1 for proof, see appendix
S xx S yy

To calculate the PMCC first calculate Sxx, Syy and Sxy using the second formula on each
line.
N.B. These formulae are all in the formula booklet.

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Coding and the PMCC
To see the effect of coding on the PMCC, it is better to use the first formula on each line.

Example: Investigate the effect of the coding t = on the PMCC.

Solution: rxy =

ti = xi = ati + k and =a +k

rxy =

= rty
In other words, the coding on x has had no effect on the PMCC. Similarly, coding on y has
no effect on the PMCC.
Coding has no effect on the PMCC.

~ Page 29 ~
Interpretation of the PMCC
It can be shown that 1 r +1 see appendix

if r = +1 there is perfect positive linear correlation,

if r = 1 there is perfect negative linear correlation,
if r = 0 (or close to zero) there is no linear correlation .

PMCC tests to see if there is a linear connection between the variables.

For strong correlation, the points on a scatter graph will lie very close to a straight line, and r
will be close to 1 or 1.

Example: Bleep tests are used to measure peoples fitness. A higher score means a higher
level of fitness. The heart rate, p beats per minute, and bleep score, s, for 12 people were
recorded and coded, using x = p 60 and y = 10s 50.

x 0 6 9 1 5 8 30 19 28 20 36 23
y 55 62 38 7 50 44 8 8 3 20 14 3

x = 171, y = 270, x2 = 4477, y2 = 13540, xy = 1020.

(a) Find the PMCC between x and y.

(b) Write down the PMCC between p and s.
(c) Explain why your answer to (b) might suggest that there is a linear relationship
between p and s.
(d) Interpret the significance of the PMCC.

1
Solution: (a) Sxy = = 1020 = 28275

1
Sxx = = 4477 = 204025

1
Syy = = 13540 = 7465

S xy
r = = = 07245127195 = 0725 to 3 S.F.
S xx S yy

(b) As coding has no effect on the PMCC, the product moment correlation coefficient
for p and s is also 0725, to 3 S.F.

~ Page 30 ~
 (c) r = 0725 is quite close to 1, and therefore the points on a scatter diagram
would lie close to a straight line
there is evidence of a linear relation between p and s.

(d) There is negative correlation between p and s, which means that

as heart rate increases, the bleep score decreases, or
people with higher heart rate tend to have lower bleep scores.

8 Regression
Explanatory and response variables

In an experiment a toy car is released from rest on a ramp from a height of h. The horizontal
distance, d, is then measured. The experimenter can control the height, h, and the distance, d,
depends on the height chosen.
h is called the explanatory variable and is plotted on the horizontal axis. d is called the
response variable and is plotted on the vertical axis.

In some cases it may not be possible to control the explanatory variable. For example the
temperature at a given time may affect the sales of ice cream; the researcher cannot control the
temperature, but it is the temperature which affects the ice cream sales.
Therefore the temperature is the explanatory variable, and the ice cream sales is the response
variable.

Regression line

Least squares regression line

y

,
~ Page 31 ~
 The scatter diagram shows the regression line of y on x. The regression line is drawn to
minimise the sum of the squares of the vertical distances between the line and the points.
S xy
It can be shown that the regression line has equation y = a + bx, where b = ,
S xx
also that the regression line passes through the mean point, ( , ),
and so we can find a from the equation =a+b a = b

Interpretation
In the equation y = a + bx

a is the value of y when x is zero (or when x is not present)

b is the amount by which y increases for an increase of 1 in x.
You must write your interpretation in the context of the question.

Example: A local authority is investigating the cost of reconditioning its incinerators. Data
from 10 randomly chosen incinerators were collected. The variables monitored were the
operating time x (in thousands of hours) since last reconditioning and the reconditioning
cost y (in 1000). None of the incinerators had been used for more than 3000 hours since
last reconditioning.
The data are summarised below,
x = 25.0, x2 = 65.68, y = 50.0, y2 = 260.48, xy = 130.64.
(a) Find the equation of the regression line of y on x.
(b) Give interpretations of a and b.

Solution:

(a) = = 250, = = 500,

Sxy = 13064 = 564, Sxx = 65.68 = 318
.
b = = = 1773584906
.

a = b = 500 1773584906 250 = 05660377358

regression line equation is y = 0566 + 177x to 3 S.F.

(b) a is the cost in 1000 of reconditioning an incinerator which has not been used, so
the cost of reconditioning an incinerator which has not been used is 566.
(a is the value of y when x is zero)
b is the increase in cost (in 1000) of reconditioning for every extra 1000 hours of
use, so it costs an extra 1774 to recondition an incinerator for every 1000 hours of
use. (b is the gradient of the line)

~ Page 32 ~
9 Discrete Random Variables

Random Variables
A random variable must take a numerical value:

Examples: the number on a single throw of a die

the height of a person
the number of cars travelling past a fixed point in a certain time

But not the colour of hair as this is not a number

Continuous and discrete random variables

Continuous random variables

A continuous random variable is one which can take any value in a certain interval;
Examples: height, time, weight.

Discrete random variables

A discrete random variable can only take certain values in an interval

Examples: Score on die (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Number of coins in pocket (0, 1, 2, ...)

Probability distributions
A probability distribution is the set of possible outcomes together with their probabilities,
similar to a frequency distribution or frequency table.

Example:
score on two dice, X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

probability, f (x)

is the probability distribution for the random variable, X, the total score on two dice.
12
Note that the sum of the probabilities must be 1, i.e. P( X = x) = 1.
x=2

~ Page 33 ~
Cumulative probability distribution
Just like cumulative frequencies, the cumulative probability, F, that the total score on two dice
is less than or equal to 4 is F(4) = P(X 4) = .

Note that F(4.3) means P(X 4.3) and seeing as there are no scores between 4 and 4.3 this is
the same as P(X 4) = F(4).

Expectation or expected values

Expected mean or expected value of X.

For a discrete probability distribution the expected mean of X , or the expected value of X is
= E[X] =

Expected value of a function

The expected value of any function, f (X), is defined as

E[X] =

Note that for any constant, k, E[k] = k, since = k =k1 = k

Expected variance
The expected variance of X is

Var ,or

2 = Var[X] = E[(X )2] = E[X 2] 2 = E[X 2] (E[X])2

~ Page 34 ~
Expectation algebra

E[aX + b] =

= aE[X] + b since = , and 1

Var[aX + b] = E[(aX + b)2] (E[(aX + b)])2

= E[(a2X 2 + 2abX + b2)]) (aE[X] + b)2
= {a2 E[X 2] + 2ab E[X] + E[b2]} {a2 (E[X])2 + 2ab E[X] + b2}
= a2 E[X 2] a2 (E[X])2 = a2{E[X 2] (E[X])2} = a2 Var[X]
Thus we have two important results:
E[aX + b] = aE[X] + b
Var[aX + b] = a2 Var[X]
which are equivalent to the results for coding done earlier.
Example: A fair die is rolled and the score recorded.
(a) Find the expected mean and variance for the score, X.
(b) A prize is awarded which depends on the score on the die. The value of the prize
is $Z = 3X 6. Find the expected mean and variance of Z.

Solution: (a) score probability xi pi xi2pi

1

= E[X] = = =3

and 2 = E[X 2] (E[X])2 = = = 2

~ Page 35 ~
 The expected mean and variance for the score, X, are = 3 and 2 = 2

(b) Z = 3X 6
E[Z] = E[3X 6] = 3E[X] 6 = 10 6 = 4

and Var[Z] = Var[3X 6] = 32 Var[X] = 9 = 26

The expected mean and variance for the prize, $Z, are = 4 and 2 = 26

The discrete uniform distribution

Conditions for a discrete uniform distribution

The discrete random variable X is defined over a set of n distinct values
Each value is equally likely, with probability 1/n .

Example: The random variable X is defined as the score on a single die. X is a discrete
uniform distribution on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

The probability distribution is

Score 1 2 3 4 5 6
Probability

Expected mean and variance

For a discrete uniform random variable, X defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., n},

X 1 2 3 4 ... ... n
Probability

By symmetry we can see that the Expected mean = = E[X] = (n + 1),

or = E[X] = =1 +2 +3 ++n

= (1 + 2 + 3 + + n) = n(n + 1) = (n + 1)

~ Page 36 ~
 The expected variance,
Var[X] = 2 = E[X 2] (E[X])2 =

= (12 + 22 + 32 + + n2) 1

= n(n + 1)(2n + 1) (n + 1) 2 since i2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

= (n + 1){(8n + 4) (6n + 6)}

= (n + 1) (2n 2)

Var[X] = 2 = (n2 1)

These formulae can be quoted in an exam (if you learn them!).

Non-standard uniform distribution

The formulae can sometimes be used for non-standard uniform distributions.

Example: X is the score on a fair 10 sided spinner. Define Y = 5X + 3.

Find the mean and variance of Y.
Y is the distribution {8, 13, 18, 53}, all with the same probability .

Solution: X is a discrete uniform distribution on the set {1, 2, 3, , 10}

E[X] = (n + 1) = 5

and Var[X] = (n2 1) = =8

E[Y] = E[5X + 3] = 5E[X] + 3 = 30

and Var[X] = Var[5X + 3] = 52 Var[X] = 25 = 206

mean and variance of Y are 27 and 206 .

~ Page 37 ~
10 The Normal Distribution N(, 2)

The standard normal distribution N(0, 12)

The diagram shows the standard normal

distribution

Mean, , = 0
Standard deviation, , = 1 z
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
z
The tables give the area, (z), from upto z;

To find other probabilities, sketch the curve and use your head

Example: P(Z < 123)

= area upto 123 = (123)

= area beyond +123 = 1 (+123)

z
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

= 1 08907 = 01093 to 4 D.P. 123 123

~ Page 38 ~
The general normal distribution N(, 2)

Use of tables

To use the tables for a Normal distribution

with
mean and standard deviation

X
We use Z = (see appendix) and look x
-2 - + +2
in the tables under this value of Z
Z

Example: The length of life (in months) of Blowdris hair driers is approximately Normally
distributed with mean 90 months and standard deviation 15 months.
(a) Each drier is sold with a 5 year guarantee. What proportion of driers fail before the
guarantee expires?
(b) The manufacturer decides to change the length of the guarantee so that no more than
1% of driers fail during the guarantee period. How long should he make the
guarantee?

Solution:
(a) X is the length of life of drier X ~ N(90, 152).
5 years = 60 months
we want P(X < 60) = area upto 60
x
X 60 90
Z = = = 2.0
15 60 90

so we want area to left of Z = 2

= (2) = 1 (2)
= 1 09772 = 00228 to 4 D.P. from tables.
z
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

the proportion of hair driers failing during the guarantee period is 0.0288 to 4 D.P.

(b) Let the length of the guarantee be t years

we need P(X < t) = 001.

~ Page 39 ~
 We need the value of Z such that (Z) = 001
From the tables Z = 23263 to 4 D.P. from tables (remember to look in the small table
after the Normal tables)

Standardising the variable

X t 90
Z = =
15
t 90 001
= 2 3263 to 4 D.P. from tables
15
t = 551 to 3 S.F. z 0

so the manufacturer should give a guarantee period of 55 months (4 years 7 months)

Example: The results of an examination were Normally distributed. 10% of the candidates
had more than 70 marks and 20% had fewer than 35 marks.

Find the mean and standard deviation of the marks.

Solution:

First we need the values from the tables

(08416) = 02, 02 01
and 1 (12816) = 01
x

08416 0 12816

X
Using Z = we have

35
08416 =

= 35 + 08416
02 01
70
and 12816 =
x

= 70 12816 35 70

= 165 and = 489 to 3 S.F. simultaneous equations

~ Page 40 ~
Example: The weights of chocolate bars are normally distributed with mean 205 g and
standard deviation 26 g. The stated weight of each bar is 200 g.

(a) Find the probability that a single bar is underweight.

(b) Four bars are chosen at random. Find the probability that fewer than two bars are
underweight.

Solution:
(a) Let W be the weight of a chocolate bar, W ~ N(205, 262).

Z = = = 19230769

P(W < 200) = P(Z < 192) = 1 (192) = 1 09726
probability of an underweight bar is 00274.

(b) We want the probability that 0 or 1 bars chosen from 4 are underweight.
Let U be underweight and C be correct weight.
P(1 underweight) = P(CCCU) + P(CCUC) + P(CUCC) + P(UCCC)
= 4 00274 097263 = 01008354753
P(0 underweight) = 092764 = 07403600224
the probability that fewer than two bars are underweight = 0841 to 3 S.F.

~ Page 41 ~
11 Context questions and answers

Accuracy
You are required to give your answers to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
There is no hard and fast rule for this, but the following guidelines should never let you down.
1. If stated in the question give the required degree of accuracy.
2. When using a calculator, give 3 S.F.
unless finding Sxx,, Sxy etc. in which case you can give more figures you should use
all figures when finding the PMCC or the regression line coefficients.
3. Sometimes it is appropriate to give a mean to 1 or 2 D.P. rather than 3 S.F.
4. When using the tables and doing simple calculations (which do not need a calculator),
you should give 4 D.P.

Statistical models
Question 1
(a) Explain briefly what you understand by
(i) a statistical experiment,
(ii) an event.
(b) State one advantage and one disadvantage of a statistical model.

Answer
(a) a test/investigation/process for collecting data to provide evidence to test a
hypothesis.
A subset of possible outcomes of an experiment
(b) Quick, cheap can vary the parameters and predict
Does not replicate real world situation in every detail.

~ Page 42 ~
 Question 2
Statistical models can be used to describe real world problems. Explain the process
involved in the formulation of a statistical model.
Answer
Observe real world problem
Devise a statistical model and collect data
Compare observed against expected outcomes and test the model
Refine model if necessary

Question 3
(a) Write down two reasons for using statistical models.
(b) Give an example of a random variable that could be modelled by
(i) a normal distribution,
(ii) a discrete uniform distribution.
Answer
(a) To simplify a real world problem
To improve understanding / describe / analyse a real world problem
Quicker and cheaper than using real thing
To predict possible future outcomes
Refine model / change parameters possible Any 2

(b) (i) height, weight, etc. (ii) score on a face after rolling a fair die

Histograms
Question 1
Give a reason to justify the use of a histogram to represent these data.
Answer
The variable (minutes delayed) is continuous.

Averages
Question 1
Write down which of these averages, mean or median, you would recommend the
company to use. Give a reason for your answer.
Answer

~ Page 43 ~
 The median, because the data is skewed.

Question 2
State whether the newsagent should use the median and the inter-quartile range or the mean
and the standard deviation to compare daily sales. Give a reason for your answer.
Answer
Median & IQR as the data is likely to be skewed

Question 3
Compare and contrast the attendance of these 2 groups of students.
Answer
Median 2nd group < Median 1st group;
Mode 1st group > Mode 2nd group;
2nd group had larger spread/IQR than 1st group
Only 1 student attends all classes in 2nd group

Question 4
Compare and contrast these two box plots.
Answer
Median of Northcliffe is greater than median of Seaview.
Upper quartiles are the same
IQR of Northcliffe is less than IQR of Seaview
Northcliffe positive skew, Seaview negative skew
Northcliffe symmetrical, Seaview positive skew (quartiles)
Range of Seaview greater than range of Northcliffe
any3acceptablecomments

Skewness
Question 1
Comment on the skewness of the distribution of bags of crisps sold per day.
Justify your answer.
Answer
Q2 Q1 = 7; Q3 Q2 = 11; Q3 Q2 > Q2 Q1 so positive skew.

~ Page 44 ~
 Question 2
Give two other reasons why these data are negatively skewed.
Answer
For negative skew; Mean < median < mode: 494 < 52 < 56
Q3 Q2 < Q2 Q1: 8 < 17

Question 3
Describe the skewness of the distribution. Give a reason for your answer.

Answer
No skew or slight negative skew.
0.22 = Q3 Q2 Q2 Q1 = 0.23 or 0.22 = Q3 Q2 < Q2 Q1 = 0.23
or mean (3.23) median (3.25), or mean (3.23) < median (3.25)

Correlation
Question 1
Give an interpretation of your PMCC (0976)
Answer
As height increases, temperature decreases (must be in context).

Question 2
Give an interpretation of this value, PMCC = 0862.
Answer
As sales at one petrol station increases, sales at the other decrease (must be in context).

Question 3
Give an interpretation of your correlation coefficient, 0874.
Answer
Taller people tend to be more confident (must be in context).

~ Page 45 ~
 Question 4
Comment on the assumption that height and weight are independent.
Answer
Evidence (in question) suggests height and weight are positively correlated / linked,
therefore the assumption of independence is not sensible (must be in context).

Regression
Question 1
Suggest why the authority might be cautious about making a prediction of the
reconditioning cost of an incinerator which had been operating for 4500 hours since its last
reconditioning.
Answer 4500 is well outside the range of observed values, and there is no evidence that the
model will apply.

Question 2
Give an interpretation of the slope, 09368, and the intercept, 19, of your regression line.
Answer
The slope, b for every extra hour of practice on average 09368 fewer errors will be
made
The intercept, a without practice 19 errors will be made.

Question 3
Interpret the value of b (coefficient of x in regression line).
Answer
3 extra ice-creams are sold for every 1C increase in temperature

Question 4
At 1 p.m. on a particular day, the highest temperature for 50 years was recorded. Give a
reason why you should not use the regression equation to predict ice cream sales on that
day.
Answer
Temperature is likely to be outside range of observed values.

~ Page 46 ~
 Question 5
Interpret the value of a, (regression line)
Answer
Number of sold if no money spent on advertising

Question 6
Give a reason to support fitting a regression model of the form y = a + bx to these data.
Answer
Points on the scatter graph lie close to a straight line.
Question 7
Give an interpretation of the value of b.
Answer
A flight costs 2.03 (or about 2) for every extra 100km or about 2p per extra km.

Discrete uniform distribution

Question 1
A discrete random variable is such that each of its values is assumed to be equally likely.
(a) Write down the name of the distribution that could be used to model this random
variable.
(b) Give an example of such a distribution.
(c) Comment on the assumption that each value is equally likely.
(d) Suggest how you might refine the model in part (a).
Answer
(a) Discrete uniform
(b) Example Tossing a fair die /coin, drawing a card from a pack
(c) Useful in theory allows problems to be modelled, but the assumption might not
be true in practice
(d) Carry out an experiment to find the probabilities which might not fit the model.

Normal distribution
Question 1
The random variable X is normally distributed with mean 1770 and standard deviation
64.
It is suggested that X might be a suitable random variable to model the height, in cm, of
adult males.

~ Page 47 ~
(a) Give two reasons why this is a sensible suggestion.
(b) Explain briefly why mathematical models can help to improve our understanding of real-
world problems.
Answer
(a) Male heights cluster round a central height of approx 177/178 cm
Height is a continuous random variable.
Most male heights lie within 177 3 6.4
(b) Simplifies real world problems
Enable us to gain some understanding of real world problems more quickly/cheaply.

Question 2
Explain why the normal distribution may not be suitable to model the number of minutes
that motorists are delayed by these roadworks.
Answer For this data skewness is 3.9, whereas a normal distribution is symmetrical and has no
skew.

Question 3
Describe two features of the Normal distribution
Answer
Bell shaped curve; symmetrical about the mean; 95% of data lies within 2 s.d. of mean;
etc. (any 2).

Question 4
Give a reason to support the use of a normal distribution in this case.
Answer
Since mean and median are similar (or equal or very close), the distribution is (nearly)
symmetrical and a normal distribution may be suitable.
Allow mean or median close to mode/modal class ), the distribution is (nearly)
symmetrical and a normal distribution may be suitable.

~ Page 48 ~
12 Appendix

1 P.M.C.C. 1

Cauchy-Schwartz inequality
Consider (a12 + a22)(b12 + b22) (a1b1 + a2b2)2
= a12 b12 + a12 b22 + a22 b12 + a22 b22 a12 b12 2a1b1a2b2 a22 b22
= a12 b22 2a1b1a2b2+ a22 b12
= (a1b2 a2b1)2 0
(a12 + a22)(b12 + b22) (a1b1 + a2b2)2 0
(a1b1 + a2b2)2 (a12 + a22)(b12 + b22)

This proof can be generalised to show that

(a1b1 + a2b2 + + anbn)2 (a12 + a22 + + an2)(b12 + b22 + + bn2)

or

P.M.C.C. between 1 and +1

In the above proof, take ai = (xi ), and bi = (yi )
Sxy = (xi )(yi ) = aibi
Sxx = (xi )2 = ai2 and Syy = (yi )2 = bi2

P.M.C.C. = r =

r2 = =

1 using the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality

1 r +1

~ Page 49 ~
Regression line and coding

The regression line of y on x has equation y = a + bx, where b = , and a = b .

Using the coding x = hX + m, y = gY + n, the regression line for Y on X is found by writing

gY + n instead of y, and hX + m instead of x in the equation of the regression line of y on x,
gY + n = a + b(hX + m)

Y = + bX equation I.

Proof
= h + m, and =g +n
(x ) = (hX + m) (h + m) = (hX h ), and similarly (y ) = (gY g ).

Let the regression line of y on x be y = a + bx, and

let the regression line of Y on X be Y = + X.

Then b = and a = b

also = and = .

b = =

b=

= = = since a = b

and so

Y = +X Y = + bX

which is the same as equation I.

~ Page 50 ~
Normal Distribution, Z =

The standard normal distribution with mean 0 and ( z)

standard deviation 1 has equation

The normal distribution tables allow us to find the
area between Z1 and Z2.
1 xz

2 Z1 0 Z2

The normal distribution with mean and standard deviation has equation

f (x)

1

2

Using the substitution z = X1 X2

dz = dx, Z1 = and Z2 =

1

2
= the area under the standard normal curve, which we can find from the tables using

Z1 = and Z2 = .
Thus

~ Page 51 ~