Colour in the built environment:
Beyond aesthetics
Dr Zena OConnor [email protected]
Continuing Professional Development (CPD)
Learning objectives
1. Understand colour attributes and categories.
2. Understand the complexity of the interface between colour and human
response and the factors that influence this interface.
3. Review the diverse origins of beliefs about colour, and distinguish
evidence-based information from unsubstantiated claims.
4. Examine evidence-based information about colour.
5. Practical solutions for real problems in design and the built environment.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Attributes of colour: Hue, Saturation and Tone
Most early colour theories and research studies focussed on hue only.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Categories of colour
Conventional colour Broad colour categories red, blue, green.
Substance colour Colour in the form of pigments and paints.
Formula colour Pantone, Resene, NCS, car colours, etc.
Spectral profile colour Colour in the form of light-waves.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Multiple theories of colour and colour models
Newton, 1704 Harris, 1766 Chevreul, 1855 Ostwald, 1916
Hering, 1878 Munsell, 1921 Itten, 1961 Albers, 1963
Zena O'Connor, PhD
The interface between colour and human response
Zena O'Connor, PhD
The interface between colour and human response
Cognitive responses Judgments, assessments and evaluations
Affective responses Mood, emotional reactions
Behavioral responses Actions, movements, way-finding
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour theories Diverse origins & influences
Correspondences Elements, Seasons, geometric shapes, colours
Traditional and New Age beliefs
19th & 20th century pseudo-scientific theories and fallacies
Theories from art and design Van Gogh, Albers, Eliasson
Colour symbolism
Late 20th and early 21st century robust scientific research
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Correspondences
Invented patterns of connection
Elements, planets, seasons, colours, shapes, etc.
Popular up to the Renaissance and beyond Albers and the Bauhaus.
Found in many theories about colour and colour psychology.
Nicoletto Rosex, 16th century
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Traditional and New Age ideas and beliefs
The Chakras and colours a Western invention?
Frequently mentioned Health, well-being and interior design.
Colours not aligned with Chakras in original texts: Hindu Upanishads.
William Walker Atkinson
The Human Aura: Astral Colours & Thought Forms (1912)
Pseudonyms Swami Panchadasi, Yogi Ramacharaka, The
Three Initiates , Theron Q. Dumont.
John Woodroffe
The Serpent Power (1919)
Pseudonym Arthur Avalon.
Charles W Leadbeater
The Chakras (1927)
Quoted Madame Blavatsky s The Secret Doctrine, Woodroffes
The Serpent Power and Atkinsons The Human Aura .
Zena O'Connor, PhD
19th - 20th Century Pseudo-scientific theories about colour
Many of these theories were not evidence-based
Seth Pancoast Blue and red light could cure ailments
Dinshah Ghadiali Spectro-Chrome machine (jailed for fraud)
Edwin Babbitt Chromo-Disk device (awarded himself Dr)
Goldstein and Gerard studies lacked scientific methods
Faber Birren successful colour consultant, widely quoted.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Theories about colour Art and design
Vincent Van Gogh
Unique ideas about colour may have had synaesthesia.
Josef Albers
Grouped colours and assigned them with specific meanings.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Interface between colour and human response Highly complex
Comprehensive research review for NASA (Wise et al, 1988).
No hard-wired linkages between colour and human response.
Personal beliefs about colour/colour symbolism play a role:
one makes certain associations to colours and these in turn may mediate
physiological response.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Symbolism
Influences the way in which colour is used in applied design and
the built environment
Colour Symbolism Three distinct levels
Individual varies considerably and highly personal.
Cultural learned colour symbolism, cultural conditioning.
Universal few examples of colour symbolism on this level.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Symbolism
Culturally-based colour symbolism highly variable
10 Cultural groups
(Rings)
84 Colour meanings
(Spokes)
(McCandless, 2010)
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Symbolism
Culturally-based colour symbolism highly variable
Aslam, M.M. (2006). Are you selling the right colour? Journal of
Marketing Communications, 12 (1), 15-30.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Symbolism Highly context dependent
Red - a range of different connotations
Anger,
aggression,
danger, violence,
pain and death
Revolutionary
ideology,
Communism,
Socialism
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Symbolism Highly context dependent
Red - a range of different connotations
Love, romance,
virility, passion
Winning,
confidence,
competitive
advantage
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Evidence-based information about colour
Fixational Reflex
Saccades 2-3 eye scanning movements per second.
What attracts the attention of saccades?
Movement
Noticeable contrast - tonal value, saturation and hue (Boynton,
1979; McPeek et al, 1999; Shang & Bishop, 2000).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
The Isolation Effect applied design and the built environment
Strong colour & light/dark contrast draws attention to key details
Call to Action tabs in web design
Product controls
Fire exits, signage
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Red Attentional advantage
Visual search times are faster for red than other colours,
dependent on contextual colour (Elliot, 2015).
Red draws attention in a film poster, hotel interior and Washington DC underground station.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Red/warm colours Attract attention and encourage ingress
Retail and restaurant interiors
Red attracts attention.
Red/Warm colours draw people further into a retail interior
(Bellizzi, Crowley & Hasty, 1983).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Red Acts like an aphrodisiac for men
Red leads men to view women as more attractive and desirable.
Red as important as the waist-hips ratio and facial symmetry
from a male perspective (Elliot & Niesta, 2008).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Red Associated with winning and dominance
Red is consistently associated with a higher probability of
winning in sport (Hill & Barton, 2005).
Viewing red on others tends to increase appraisals of
dominance (Elliot, 2015).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour saturation and tonal value have a strong impact
Saturation and tonal value determine whether a colour is perceived
as exciting or calming (Mikellides, 2009).
Saturation and tonal value often more important than hue.
Initiative Media office, NYC by Ted Moudis Associates (2014).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour saturation and tonal value have an impact
Video: Why do some colours make you feel emotions (2:50mins)
Morgridge Institute for Research and Wisconsin State Journal.
https://youtu.be/W9cNhXNvS50
Saturation Correlated with Arousal and Dominance
LinkedIn offices, NYC by 1A Interior Architects (2015).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour saturation and tonal value have an impact
Variations of Light-Dark contrast varia@ons in ambience
Light-dark/Brightness correlated with Pleasure and Arousal
Estancia Resort, Philippines and Bulgari Hotel, London.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour saturation and tonal value have an impact
Light-dark contrast a major contributor to ambience
Tadao Ando (b1941) highly effective use of light-dark contrast
Lighting and paint colour can achieve similar effects.
Church of the Light (1989) in Osaka and Chichu Art Museum (2004) in Naoshima
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Creating calm Address the problem of visual noise
Excessive use of contrast and visual cluAer visual complexity
(Baldassi, Megna & Burr, 2006; Yamani & McCarley, 2011).
Saccades constantly being drawn to competing elements.
PotenOal for visual discomfort cogniOve dissonance.
Htel Belles Rives, Juan-les-Pins and interior by Brani & Desi
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Creating calm Address the problem of visual noise
Reduce the amount of strong contrast
leads to a sense of calm irrespective of hue.
Use similarity of tonal value not necessarily neutral colours.
Kitchen, Sydney and Hilton Htel Nicosia Cyprus.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Creating calm Address the problem of visual noise
Juniperina Juvenile Justice Centre, Lidcombe
Brief Create a calm, homely ambience; differentiate between
interior spaces; reduce institutionalised character.
Range of different hues in similar, light tones; bolder colours
introduced later through soft furnishings, posters and signage.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Moderate polychromy Supports mood and well-being
Office colour impacts mood and productivity but can vary due
to individual differences (Kwallek, Woodson, Lewis & Sales, 1997).
Stimulus screening ability, preferences.
Red may be associated with anxiety and blue with depression
(Kuller, Mikellides & Janssens, 2009).
RIBA Offices, London, Theis + Khan (2015) & LEGOs offices, Rosan Bosch & Rune Fjord (2010)
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour strategies to attract/keep quality employees
Key issue attracting and keeping quality employees/Millennials.
By 2025, 75% of workforce will be Millennials
Born between mid 1980s and 2005
Preferred workplace-design: Hybrid of work and play
Cool, fun, flexible and campus-like and colourful.
Googles Dublin office (2013) by Camenzind and Facebook Menlo Park (2014) by Gensler.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour strategies to support/encourage Creativity
1) A mix of moderately colourful spaces to support mood and
encourage well-being.
2) Blank canvas spaces + window views for visual respite.
3) Minimise visual clutter and unnecessary visual distractions.
Moos London offices by Trifle Creative (2014) and Microsoft office by Perkins + Will (2014)
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Pompidou Centre, Paris (1977) Renzo Piano & Richard Rogers.
Aims: Minimise the tension between visitors and the serious
museum; create happy buildingsthat people react to.
Colour-coded external functional elements.
Pompidou Centre, Paris.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Saint Cloud Leisure Centre, Boulogne-Billancourt, Paris, Koz
Architects (2009).
Internal/external colour-coding indicates different interior spaces.
Aim: To create an accessible and safe place for children to play.
Saint Cloud Leisure Centre, Paris.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Hotel Puerta America, Spain (2003) and Torre Agbar Tower,
Barcelona (2005) by Jean Nouvel.
Red House by Jarmund Vigsnaes Architects (2002).
Vivid paint colour Red House and Hotel Puerta America.
Hotel Puerta America, Torre Agbar and Red House.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Nestl Application Group building in Quertaro by Michel
Rojkind of Rojkind Arquitectos (2009).
Vivid yellow painted facade and interior re-imagines the
industrial building.
Nestl Application Group building in Quertaro.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Supergraphics
Transform perceptions of the built environment.
Encourages engagement.
Kentish Town Health Centre in England by Studio Myerscough (2009).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Supergraphics
Supports social engineering in educational institutions.
Motivational slogans to support teaching policies.
Achievement First Endeavour Middle School (2010), Brooklyn by Paula Scher, Pentagram .
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Supergraphics
Highly saturated colours in supergraphics on shipyard buildings.
Re-imagines and humanises an industrial environment.
Port-Barcars Gondolys shipyard buildings (1969) by Jean-Phillipe Lenclos Atelier 3D
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement
Supergraphics
Highly saturated colours in supergraphics on shipyard buildings.
Re-imagines and humanises an industrial environment.
Solmer Steel Plant (1976) by Jean-Phillipe Lenclos Atelier 3D
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Visual escape and diversion
Disrupts the predictable status quo.
Enhances experience and adds novelty value.
Re-imagines: Design/architectural archetypes.
A nightclub? Office? Apartment building?
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Visual escape and diversion
Disrupts the predictable status quo.
Enhances experience and adds novelty value.
Re-imagines: Design/architectural archetypes.
Spiegel Publishing House by Verner Panton, 1969.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Visual escape and diversion
Baker-Miller pink Drunk tank pink.
Decrease in aggressive behaviour in holding cell (Schauss, 1979).
The decline in aggressive behaviour may have been an artefact
of the colour intervention (Pellegrini, Schauss & Miller, 1981).
Baker-Miller pink, US Naval Correctional Facility.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Visual escape and diversion
Temporary installation Asylum by Hot Tea/Eric Rieger (2015).
Vivid paint colour completely transformed a public pool in NYC;
private commission by K&CO and Pliskin Architecture.
Paint colour completely transforms the site.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Architecture
Facade colour can help to reinforce a caves or temples
approach to architecture (Norman Foster, 1976).
Hotel Puerta America (2003) & Torre Agbar tower (2005) Spain
by Jean Nouvel; Red House by Jarmund Vigsnaes Archts (2002)
Barrgans extraordinary use of Disruptive colour.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Architecture
Luis Barrgan (1902-1988)
Renowned for using vivid colour contrasts with context.
Fuentes de los Amantes horse ranch (1966), Casa Gilardi (1976),
Towers of the Ciudad Satellite city (1966-68).
Barrgans extraordinary use of Disruptive colour.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Disruptive Colour Architecture
Facade colour as a statement Landmark strategy
Pixel by Studio 505 (2010) features a simple but visually intricate
assembly of recycled colour panels providing shade, views, glare
control and a unique Landmark facade.
Disruptive facade colour creating a Landmark building.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Orientation and Wayfinding
Colour is an effective non-verbal mnemonic device for orientation
and way-finding at a range of different scales (Lynch, 1960).
Parking stations and shopping malls.
Colour-coding in parking stations.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Orientation and Wayfinding
Colour is an effective non-verbal mnemonic device for orientation
and way-finding at a range of different scales (Lynch, 1960).
Coloured pathways retail and transportation
Narita Airport Wayfinding System by Nikken Sekkei
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Orientation and Wayfinding
Coloured faade flows through into the interior.
Colour breaks down the monumentality of the faade and
serves to delineate spaces within.
Barajas Airport, Madrid, Richard Rogers Partnership, 2006.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Orientation and Wayfinding
Allianz Football stadium, Munich (2005) by Herzog & de Meuron
Red, Bayern Munich; Blue, 1860 Munich, White, National team.
Large-scale housing project, southeast area of Pudong, Shanghai.
Allianz Football Stadium, Munich and housing project, Shanghai.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Behaviour modification in commercial interiors
Active, collaborative areas A range of mid level saturated
colours to indicate work teams, social areas, meeting rooms.
Quiet /contemplation areas - Less saturated colours with
minimal hue and light-dark contrasts to create a sense of calm.
Medibank Melbourne, Hassell & Macquarie Bank Sydney, Clive Wilkinson Architects.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Behaviour modification in commercial interiors
Pathways and lift lobbies - Standard hue to improve
orientation and way-finding across different levels.
Colour identifies lift lobbies and end walls.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and light: Encourages engagement and improves
perceptions of safety
Marbles by Studio Roosegaarde (2012), Holland.
Glowing, pulsating objects encourage usage.
Video: Studio Roosegaarde, Dutch language (Video, 2:12mins)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ArADqrplH6Q
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and light: Encourages engagement and improves
perceptions of safety
Kings Cross Designing-Out Crime (UTS) project.
Coloured light projections in laneways behind Kings Cross area.
Alternatively Fluorescent paint or graffiti-resistant paint.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Influences perceptions of size
Monochromy allows the exact evaluation of an object (and by
extension, a building)... polychromy destroys the pure form.
Polychromy minimises volume and can alter the perception of
large or monolithic faades (Le Corbusier, 1925)
Polychromy minimises perceptions of building size and volume.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Influences perceptions of size
Similarity between facade colour and contextual colour can
minimise the visual impact of a building (OConnor, 2011).
Effective paint colour strategy to reduce the eyesore factor.
Waste Recycling Centre, Belrose
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Influences perceptions of size
Research supports anecdotal evidence in the fashion industry
darker clothing creates the impression of a smaller silhouette.
Variations in perceptions of silhouette size.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour Inherent vs. Perceived colour
Variation occurs due to influencing factors (Anter, 1996, 2001).
Changes in ambient lighting.
Variations in surface quality.
Influence of contextual colour (simultaneous contrast).
Inherent colour
Perceived colour
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Childrens hospitals and facilities
Colour Humanises and encourages engagement.
A strong preference for lighter, more saturated colours
(Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994; Park, 2014).
Edinburgh Childrens Hospital, Texas, 2006; Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, 2006.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Childrens hospitals and facilities
Childrens colour preferences influenced by prevailing trends
in film, television and childrens toys.
Bring new trends to life with updated paint colours.
Edinburgh Childrens Hospital, Texas and Toronto Childrens Hospital.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Childrens hospitals and facilities
Childrens colour preferences influenced by prevailing trends
in film, television and childrens toys.
Bring new trends to life with updated paint colours.
USCF Benioff Childrens Hospital, Oakland CA.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Childrens day care centres
Colour Effective non-verbal Orientation and Wayfinding device
Colour-coded hubs for
childrens activity, dining, and
sleeping areas and staff area.
Childcare centre in Denmark by CEBRA.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Childrens day care centres
Colour Effective non-verbal Orientation and Wayfinding device
Play areas - Saturated contrasting colours to ignite imagination.
Dining areas Minimal contrasts to minimise excitement.
Reading areas - Darker colours to distinguish from play areas
and encourage quiet.
Sleeping areas - Minimise hue and saturation contrast to
minimise visual noise and encourage a sense of calmness.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour in healthcare environments
Lack of reliable, evidence-based information
Comprehensive review on colour in healthcare settings:
Evidence is conflicting, anecdotal and loosely-tested
(Schwartz & Tofle, 2005).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour in healthcare environments
Influence of stimulus-screening ability
Stimulus-screening ability varies (Dijkstra, Pieterse, & Pruyn 2008).
Stress-reducing effects of green and arousal-inducing effects of
orange in healthcare environments:
More pronounced for people with low stimulus screening
ability than for those who are able to effectively screen out
complexity in the environment.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour in healthcare environments
All-white and green colours negative connotations
Sterile, stark, clinical and lifeless.
Barren, cold and inhospitable.
White functionality:
Things should be seen to be clean Florence Nightingale.
Bland interiors that prefer to remain anonymous.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour in healthcare environments
Homelike colours can help to minimise anxiety.
Children prefer bright, more saturated colours (Cohen & Trostle, 1990).
Older people prefer more marginally saturated colours and
stringer contrast (Leibrock, 2004).
Colour humanises and encourages engagement.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and contrast Older people and aged care environments
Visual perception declines from middle age onwards.
Strong colour contrast improves environmental legibility.
Colour humanises and encourages engagement.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and contrast Older people and aged care environments
People with Dementia and Early Onset Alzheimers disease can
experience difficulties with spatial awareness:
Difficulty judging distances; identifying an object from its
background; finding light-switches, toilet/bathroom floor.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and contrast Older people and aged care environments
Recommendations Strong colour contrast (70%+)
Between steps and risers, and leading edge of step;
Contours and boundaries - walls from floors; doors from
walls; windows from walls; railings from walls.
Light switches and walls, toilet and bathroom floor.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and contrast Older people and aged care environments
Signage
Sans serif fonts Strong, thick strokes.
Less than 10 words Quickly and easily read.
Icon representations an effective non-verbal alternative.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Colour and contrast Older people and aged care environments
Signage
Text/Background colour contrast aim for 85+ Light-dark
differential for effective legibility (Arthur & Passini, 1992).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Faade Colour Contributes to a sense of Place
Faade colour and regional Imageability (Lynch, 1960)
Cinque Terre region, Burano, Positano, Italy; Longyearbyen,
Norway; Guanajuato, Mexico, Tobermory, UK; Santorini, Greece.
Faade Colour Contributes to a sense of Place
Heritage Colours
Planning policy frequently recommends Heritage colours.
Colours are fixed to a particular time and place.
New approach Evolving chromatic continuity rather than a
frozen colour palette (Portoghesi, Porter, 1997).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Faade Colour Creates a sense of Place
Planning Policy and Faade colours
Colour-coded buildings
Colours schemes must
complement the harbour
Dark greens, mid-greys but not
dark browns (SMH, 2004)
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Faade Colour Creates a sense of Place
Planning Policy and Faade colours
Problematic terms Harmonious, Sympathetic, Compatible colour
Not defined.
Definitions vary considerably due to cultural and individual
differences (OConnor, 2009).
Colour Similarity Harmonious Colours
Research indicates people prefer some level of contrast (OConnor, 2006).
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Selected References
Anter, K.F. (1996). Inherent and perceived colour in exterior architecture. Paper presented at the
Colour and Psychology Conference, Gothenburg.
Aslam, M.M. (2006). Are you selling the right colour? Journal of Marketing Communications, 12(1),
15-30.
Bellizzi, J.A, Crowley, A.E., & Hasty, R.W. (1983). The effects of color in store design. Journal of
Retailing, 59(1), 21-45.
Boynton, R.M. (1979). Human color vision. New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston.
Elliot, A.J. (2015). Color and psychological functioning: A review of theoretical and empirical work.
Frontiers in Psychology, 6(4), 1-8.
Elliot, A.J, & Niesta, D. (2008). Romantic red: Red enhances men's attraction to women. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 1150-1164.
Hill, R.A, & Barton, R.A. (2005). Red enhances human performance in contests. Nature, 435, 293.
Kuller, R, Ballal, S, Laike, T, Mikellides, B, & Tonello, G. (2006). The impact of light and colour on
psychological mood: A cross-cultural study of indoor work environments. Ergonomics, 49(14),
1496-1507.
Kuller, R, Mikellides, B, & Janssens, J. (2009). Color, arousal, and performance - A comparison of
three experiments. Color Research and Application, 34(2), 141-152.
Kwallek, N, Woodson, H, Lewis, C.M, & Sales, C. (1997). Impact of three interior color schemes on
worker mood and performance relative to individual environmental sensitivity. Color Research
and Application, 22(2), 121-132.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Selected References
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Manav, B. (2007). Color-emotion associations and color preferences: A case study for residences.
Color Research and Application, 32(2), 144-150.
Mehrabian, A. (1977). Individual differences in stimulus screening and arousability. Journal of
Personality, 45, 237-250.
Mikellides, B. (1990). Color and psychological arousal. The Journal of Architectural and Planning
Research, 7(1), 13-20.
O'Connor, Z. (2011). Faade colour and judgments about building size and congruity. Journal of
Urban Design, 16(3), 397-404.
Park, Y, & Guerin, D.A. (2002). Meaning and preferences of interior color palettes among four
culture. Journal of Interior Design, 28(1), 27-39.
Welbourne, L.E, Morland, A.B, & Wade, A.R. (2015). Human colour perception changes between
seasons. Current Biology, 25(15), 646-647.
Whitfield, T.W.A, & Whelton, J. (2015). The arcane roots of colour psychology, chromotherapy, and
colour forecasting. Color Research and Application, 40(1), 99-106.
Whitfield, T. & Whiltshire, T.J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical review. Genetic, Social and
General Psychology Monographs, 116(4), 385-411.
Wise, B.K., Wise, J.A., & Beach, L.R. (1988). The human factors of color in environmental design: A
critical review. NASA Grant No. NCC 2-404. Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Centre.
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Thank you Questions, Comments
Beauty Remains Photographs of Lithuanian garage doors by Agne Gintalaite, 2015
Zena O'Connor, PhD
Dr Zena OConnor
An independent research consultant, Zena holds a PhD from the University of
Sydney, a Masters Degree in Design (University of Technology, Sydney) and a
Bachelors Degree (University of Technology, Sydney).
Zena delivers evidence-based insight and research reports and seminars
relating to environment-behavior interactions and in particular colour in the
built environment, colour psychology, colour in logo design and branding, visual
literacy and colour mapping studies. Zenas clients include a wide range of
organisations in the commercial, government and academic sectors.
[email protected]http://zenaoconnor.com.au
Zena O'Connor, PhD
