ComMoN INDIAN SNAKES A Field Guide (Revised Edition) Romutus WHITAKER MACMILLAN This One 8B39-D6Q-3KSW© Romulus Whitaker, 1978, 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without permission. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First Published 1978 Reprinted 1922-2004 (Five Times) Revised Edition 2006 Reprinted 2007,2008 MACMILLAN INDIA LTD. Delhi Bangalore Chennai Kolkata Mumbai Ahmedabad Bhopal Chandigarh Coimbatore Cuttack Guwahati Hubli Hyderabad Jaipur Lucknow Madurai Nagpur Patna Pune Thiruvananthapuram Visakhapatnam Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 10: 1403-92955-6 ISBN 13: 978-1403-92955-6 Published by RAJIV BERI for Macmillan India Limited and Printed by S.M. YOGAN at Macmillan India Press, Chennai 600 041. ‘The book is meant for educational and learning purposes. The author(s) of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the author(s) has/have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action.Contents List of Illustrations ix Foreword by Prof. Carl Gans xi Preface xiii 1, Tue Nonvenomous Snakes 2. THE VENoMouS SNAKES 47 3. GENERAL Facts ABOUT SNAKES 73 Senses 14 Feeding 7 Mating, Birth and Growth 719 Locomotion 82 Enemies and Defence 83 Snake-Catchers 84 Conservation of Snakes 86 Recent Wildlife and Export Laws 88 Collection and Study of Snakes 89 Myths and Beliefs 91 4. SNAKEBITE 94 First Aid 95 Symptoms 95 Anti-venom Serum 99 Country Remedies 99 Snakebite Statistics 102 5. CHECKLIST OF THE SNAKES OF INDIA 106 6. VERNACULAR SNAKE NAMES 118 7, RaINFALL CHART 121 8. IDENTIFICATION OF SNAKES 123 Selected Bibliography 132 Index 136Coppi maiorIndian Rock Python 7 Common Sand Boa Cid Red Sand Boa Common Wolf Snake Banded Kuki Striped Keelback 19 1 Iback Checkered Keelback Watersnake 4 ———SCSCSC—~ Olive Keelback Watersnake 25 Trinket Snake 27 Rat Snake 30 Banded Racer 32 Royal Snake 34 Bronzeback Tree Snake 36 Flying Snake 38 Vine Snake 40 Common Cat Snake 43 Dog-faced Watersnake 45 Common Krait 48 Banded Krait 51 Slender Coral Snake 53 Spectacled Cobra 56 Monocled Cobra 58 King Cobra 60 Hook-nosed Sea Snake 64 Russells Viper 66 Saw-scaled Viper 68 Bamboo Pit Viper . 71 Venom extraction from a Cobra at Madras Snake Park 73 Scalation (nomenclature) 75-6x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Tongue and Jacobson’s organs A young Python engulfing a bandicoot A King Cobra swallowing a Rat Snake Checkered Keelback Watersnake in the process of laying eggs Snake shedding skin Snakes stones at the Perayur Temple in Pudukkottai Slaughter of snakes for the skin industry Bagging a venomous snake Handling a nonvenomous snake Tourniquet Short, fixed fang of the Cobra Swelling from a Cobra bite Long, hollow, folding fang of Russells viper Haffkine anti-venom serum Pit Viper ‘pit’ Small belly scales of a burrowing snake Long, tapering tail of most land, tree and freshwater snakes Broad belly scales of all tree, land and freshwater snakes Smooth, glossy scales of the Rat snake Short, blunt tail of a burrowing snake, the Common Sand Boa Rough, keeled scales of the Dog-faced Watersnake Sea snake tail Sea snake ventral scales 125 125 126 126 126 126Foreword Snakes are intrinsically fascinating and form an important component of the biota. It is natural that their curious mode of propulsion, their venom and their constricting mechanisms have made them a most important group of predators, the interaction of which maintains the natural balance in the forests and deserts, the plains and hills of India. The advent of man appears to have increased their importance, as tea plantations and paddy fields, village hut and city godown provided new opportunity for worms and insects, frogs and birds, rats and mice, many of which increased in the areas they occupied and became pests. Such expansion, and also such changes in their food supply apparently caused shifts in the kinds and density of snake populations as well. In many situations, this appears to be desirable as the increased number of snakes started to control the pests and with this protected the food supply. However, some snakes are poisonous and even non-poisonous ones may be kept in awe. For that matter, we know very little about the kinds of snakes occurring in each area and the actual changes that have taken place in snake populations with increased cultivation and the use of chemical fertilizer and pesticide. Furthermore, we lack information about those snakes that have been unable to survive the total destruction of natural habitats and about the role these snakes once played in maintaining a balance between pests and crops. Finally we know that some of the rarer snakes (and some of the common ones) produce compounds and venoms of great interest and value for the study of disease. They thus have an economic, as well as a scientific interest. For all of these reasons, one welcomes the appearance of a simple guide to the common snakes of India and hopes that it will provide the impetus for additional study. As more workers observe the animals in the field and as we learn about the behaviour of particular species we not only contribute to the overall fund of human knowledge, but also provide the basis for informed decisionsxii FOREWORD about the management of the land that ultimately form: the basis of our existence. University of Michigan Cart GANS Ann Arbor :Preface There are over 2000 species of snakes in the world of which more than 275 ranging in size from 100 mm worm snakes to 6 m long pythons, are found in India. These snakes occur in most habitat: from the warm seas to deserts, swamps, lakes, farmlands, up into the mountains where some live even at the foot of glaciers 5,000 metres high in the Himalayas. This book does not attempt to describe all Indian snakes. It deals with 30 representative forms, most of which might be encountered by an average citizen of India as well as with a few species of special importance in one or another region. Many of the snakes treated here also occur in neighbouring countries; however, description and ranges are given for India alone. Emphasis is on species common to the Indian peninsula, with less attention paid to the forms of the Himalayas, the extreme northeast and the Bay Islands. It is hoped that this volume fulfills the need for a simple means of identifying Indian snakes through photographs, descriptions of the animals, and characterization of their ecology and habits. Snakes are very important economically, destroying many rodents. Unfortunately, some of the most useful are also of concern medically because of their venoms. Beyond this snakes are basically fascinating animals, as witness their appearance in the superstitious and religious lives of most of the population. Most people are admittedly, and quite unnecessarily, afraid of snakes. It is hoped that the present slim volume will help stir up some popular interest in this group of reptiles. I am grateful to a number of persons for assistance in preparing this book. A great part of the snake collection work and field study over the past eight years have been carried out by our associates of the Irula tribe, whose knowledge of the natural history of snakes is truly amazing. Our snakes have been cared for and observations recorded by several Snake Park staff, notably Soloman Pushparaj and M. Mani. I am grateful to my mother and familyxiv PREFACE for encouraging my interest in reptiles. Thanks are due to Harry Miller for introducing me to the Irulas, Dr Sherman A. Minton for the use of his key to the snakes, Prof. David Warrell and the late Dr H. Alistair Reid for reading and commenting on the snakebite chapter. The Indian Meteorological Bureau in Madras kindly supplied the rainfall data. I am indebted to Prof. Carl Gans for his critical appraisal of the manuscript and the section on locomotion. I am also grateful, to Mr J.C. Daniel, former Curator of the Bombay Natural History © Society, who contributed a number of invaluable suggestions; to Sheldon Campbell and the late Charles E. Shaw for the use of drawings from their book Snakes of the American West; Drs Yoshio Sawai and M. Homma for their snakebite data; and, lastly, I am deeply grateful to Zahida Whitaker, who edited and typed the many drafts of this book. “‘Pambukudivanam’ P.O. Box 21 Chengalpattu Tamil Nadu 603001 [email protected]The Nonvenomous Snakeseyeug WOM UOWWOD1. Common Worm Snake Ramphotyphlops braminus Distinctive Features: Small, wormlike: smooth, shiny scales; blunt head and tail; no pattern. AVERAGE LENGTH: 12.5 cm; At Birth: 3.5 cm; Maximum: 23 cm (Beaked Worm Snake: 60 cm). Description: Common Worm Snakes are reddish-brown or black, and their widely overlapping smooth scales have an iridescent sheen. Superficially they look like earthworms. The tail is similar to the blunt head, but bears a tiny spine: the eyes are barely visible dots and covered by scales. The underside is usually lighter. Magnification is needed to show the scales and tongue to prove them to be miniatures of the snake world. This is the commonest of our 14 species of worm snakes (or blind snakes). They are the smallest of Indian snakes and very little is known about them. Some people call them primitive or ‘degenerate’, but these snakes are highly specialized for underground survival, and their sensory behaviour and mechanics of movement are of great interest to scientists. Until recently, the scientific name of the Common Worm Snake was Typhlops braminus; then it was discovered that the genus included several subgroups. DistriBution: Throughout India including the Andamans. One of the two snakes reported tram Lakshadweep Islands. Up to 1,000 m above sea level in Indian hill ranges. Hasrrat: Worm snakes live underground in ant and termite nests. They are also found under logs, moist leaves and humus in wet forests, dry jungle and even city gardens. Hastts: This species turns out to be all-female and parthenogenetic. Apparently, common worm snakes have many enemies and only come to the surface at night. When handled, they exude an unpleasant smelling musk, at the same time poking ois-24 COMMON INDIAN SNAKES with their tail-point in a convincing act of ‘mock stinging’. The musk lets other worm snakes know of their presence and acts as an ant and predator repellent. Youna: This snake lays 5-8 self-fertilized eggs; the time of egg- laying in India is not known. Foon: Evidently worms, the soft-bodied larva and eggs of ants and termites, tunnels of which they occupy. Captive worm snakes at the Madras Snake Park have fed on earthworms. Status: The distribution and survival of this group of snakes directly teflects soil humidity and temperature. Since deforestation has become rampant in India, it is likely that some of the forest species of worm snakes will not survive. Remarks: Common Worm Snakes are possibly the world’s most widely distributed snakes. Carried around the world in flower pots (by accident), they have colonized even the snakeless islands like Lakshadweep, New Zealand and Hawaii. HARMLESS 2. Perrotet’s Shieldtail Snake Plectrurus perroteti Distinctive Features: Small; pointed head and blunt tail; smooth, glossy scales; generally brightly marked underside. AVERAGE LENGTH: Maximum: 44 cm; diameter 11 mm. Description: Perrotet’s Shieldtail is brown; each scale has a red- dish or yellowish centre. The underside of the tail is orange and the young usually have a yellow line on the top of the tail. All uropeltids have powerful, pointed heads and tiny eyes. The tail is short and blunt and ends in two small points. The glowing iridescence of these snakes is best seen when the snake is put in sunlight, but is actually due to specializations of the scales that keep the dirt from sticking to it. Shieldtails are often mistaken for earthworms; however, unlike earthworms, almost6 COMMON INDIAN SNAKES all species have brightly marked undersides. Perrotet’s Shieldtail is one of the 43 shieldtails or uropeltids of the hills of South and Central India and Sri Lanka. DistrisuTion: Western Ghats, south of Goa. According to M.A. Smith, this species is common in the Nilgiris and Anaimalais. Other species are found at their particular altitude and habitat preferences throughout the Western Ghats. The distribution of these snakes needs considerable revision. Hasrrat: Uropeltids are forest snakes, occupying tunnel systems generally in the leaves, humus, rocks and logs of most forests, 10-30 cm below the surface of the soil. At drier times of the year they may burrow much deeper. Hasits: Being burrowers, uropeltids spend almost all the time underground. They may move to the surface at night and we have found them active when it rains. These snakes refuse to bite when handled. Youne: Shieldtails produce 3-5 living young. Foon: They apparently feed on earthworms and insect larva which they will take in captivity. Srarus: With the ever-increasing destruction of the hill forests the shieldtails and countless other smaller, little-known forest creatures are likely to become extinct before we have learned anything about their biology. 3. Indian Rock Python Python molurus Distinctive Features: Large, thick-bodied; smooth scales; bright, blotched pattern. AverAGE LenctH: 3 m; At Birth: 50 cm; Maximum: 6 m. Description: The Indian Rock Python is a heavy-bodied, smooth- scaled snake with a lance-shaped head and short tail. The bright,uoykd 4904 UeIPUl8 COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. blotched pattern may be yellowish to dark brown. Pythons of the hill forests of the Western Ghats and Assam are darker, and those of the Deccan and East Coast are usually lighter. The underside is whitish, yellowish or light orange. Pythons have ‘spurs’, which are vestigial legs on either side of the anal vent. These are larger in males. These snakes are equipped with heat sensors, small slits near the nostrils, similar in function to the ‘pits’ of the pit vipers. The other species of python found in India, the Regal Python (Python reticulatus) grows to over 10 metres and is probably the largest snake in the world. It is reported from the Nicobars. DistrisuTion: Throughout most of India. Pythons are found in estuarine mangrove forests, arid scrub jungle and the cool dense rain forests up to 2,000 m above sea level. Hapimar: Though able to adapt to many types of environment, pythons require large undisturbed areas to hunt and hide in. They live in tocky clefts and caves, abandoned mammal burrows, hollow trees, dense water reed and mangrove thickets, usually near a permanent water source. Hasrrs: Pythons sleep or bask in the sun during the daytime. At night, they prowl in search of prey or lie in wait near a waterhole or a regular mammal pathway. Very large pythons seem reluctant to move far and often establish a territory and a favoured residence. After a heavy meal, they become sluggish and may rest for several days or even weeks during digestion. One captive python fasted for over two years. In captivity they become tame if well cared for. Younc: Between March and June, the female lays up to 100 eggs, often the size of duck eggs (sometimes considerably larger) in a safe, undisturbed hole, cave or hollow and remains coiled on them for 60 to 80 days. She may contract her body muscles rhythmically, thus incubating the clutch, affording temperature and humidity control and protection. Foon: Pythons feed mainly on warm-blooded prey ranging in size from mice and birds to jackals, civets and even deer and wild boar. They stalk prey stealthily, striking suddenly and tightening around the victim. Pythons do not crush their prey but restrict respiration and heartbeat. There is no authentic case of a human being eaten by one in India. Where common, pythons are extremely valuable predators on agricultural pests.THE NONVENOMOUS SNAKES 9 Status: Pythons are killed throughout their range for the fine skin; thus, this beautiful snake is now locally extinct in many areas. They are now partly protected by the Government of India and python skin export is banned. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Poliyars and other tribals eat python meat and the fat is favoured in many areas for purported medical uses. 4. Common Sand Boa Gongylophis conicus Dismincrive Features: Short, thick-bodied; keeled scales; very rough tail; conspicuous, blotched pattern. AVERAGE LENGTH: 50 cm; At Birth: 12.5 cm; Maximum: 1 m (female). Description: The overall colour of the Common Sand Boa varies from yellowish-white to dark brown, with irregular blotches of reddish-brown to black forming an uneven chain down the back. They are stumpy snakes with a very rough tail and a square nose. Superficially, they resemble the Russells Viper; the spots of the latter however are uniform and round. Distripution: Common throughout India on the plains and low hills but rare or absent in most parts of Bengal and Assam. Hasitar: Sandy soil, rat burrows, brick piles and rocky areas are favoured. Hasrts: Common Sand Boas are mainly nocturnal, and hunt after dark for fresh rodent burrows or lie in wait, with head and neck out of a hole, for a passing rodent. We have seen this technique used successfully in the morning hours after sun-up, when birds and lizards are caught. This snake is timid when first caught, but gets used to gentle handling. The initial defence stance is coiling and quick upward bites which can be surprising and slightly painful but which are, of course, absolutely harmless. The Sand Boas typically hide the head beneath the body whena z a © é & 8THE NONVENOMOUS SNAKES 11 provoked. Though less of a digger than the Red Sand Boa, this snake also prefers sandy soils for easy burrowing. Youn: Females give birth to 6 to 8 living young May through July. The young are bright replicas of the parents, and resemble saw- scaled vipers slightly. Foon: Adult eat rats, lizards, birds, frogs and. toads. Status: Though effective rodent controllers, Common Sand Boas have been extensively killed for their skins, which are called ‘baby python’ by dealers. Remarks: In some areas of India it is foolishly believed that the bite or lick of this Sand Boa causes leprosy or a similar skin disease. The origin of this story may have been the snake’s mottled skin pattern. 5. Red Sand Boa Eryx johnii Distincrive Features: Medium-sized, with very blunt tail and head; keeled scales; no pattern. AVERAGE LENGTH: 75 cm; At Birth: 22 cm; Maximum: 1 m. Description: The overall colour of the Red Sand Boa varies considerably, from reddish-brown and speckled-grey or yellowish to black. The thick body is well adapted for burrowing. The Red Sand Boa is one of the oddest looking snakes of India. The shovel-shaped nose and a tail so blunt that it appears to have been chopped off make them easy to recognize. Therefore, they are often called ‘two-headed snakes’ in vernacular languages and are favourites of the snake-charmer. Distripution: Throughout the drier parts of India. Common inTHE NONVENOMOUS SNAKES 13 Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and the north-west. A plains’ snake. Hasitat: Prefers sandy places and often lives in rodent burrows. Hasits: This is a nocturnal snake. They are docile and unlike Common Sand Boas, will not bite when handled, but just try to hide the head under their body coils. With the head securely tucked under, the boa’s tail may wave about and distract the tormentor. The effectiveness of this ruse is obvious from the high percentage of scarred and mangled tails one sees. Youn: The female gives birth to 6 to 8 living young around June. The young are distinctly banded. Foop: Diet and method of killing prey is similar to that of the Common Sand Boa. Red Sand Boas feed on other snakes with fair regularity. They are one of the few snakes that can penetrate the blocked burrows of the Mole Rat, a notorious rice destroyer. Status: Red Sand Boas are lucky enough to have remained off the skin dealer’s list, arid are also apparently favoured by the ever increasing desert regions of India. 6. Common Wolf Snake Lycodon aulicus Distinctive Features: Small, slender, with or without bright cross bands; smooth shiny scales; protruding black eyes. AVERAGE LENGTH: 30 cm; At Birth: 14 cm; Maximum: 80 cm. Description: Common Wolf Snakes are grey, brownish or black with 10-20 thin white or yellow bands. The jet-black eyes protrude slightly and the pupil is invisible. Small specimens have translucent skins so that the internal organs can be easily seen from the underside. The head is flattish and somewhat pointed, the scales are smooth and slightly glossy. The unmarkedg = a 3 = § € & S 3THE NONVENOMOUS SNAKES 15 underside is white. These are small and often brightly marked ‘house’ snakes which sometimes share human dwellings. There are eight species of wolf snakes in India. DistripuTion: Throughout India, including the Andamans and Nicobars, up to over 2,000 m in the hills. Hasirat: In and around caves, stone piles, hollow trees, under bark and other dry, secure places. Man’s convenient mud, brick and cement ‘caves’ are attractive habitats, with abundant geckos to feed on. Hasirs: Common Wolf Snakes seem to be strictly nocturnal and are never seen out during the day. They are great climbers and can easily cling to fairly smooth walls and tree trunks. When first handled, wolf snakes usually bite with micro-ferocity. A nip from a big one can be quite painful. The long front teeth which give them the name may be mistaken for fangs unless carefully examined. Younc: 5~7 eggs are laid in December—January in the Madras region. The young have bolder and brighter patterns than the adults. Foon: Adults have a preference for skinks and geckos, though they probably also eat small lizards and frogs. The long front teeth help in gripping the prey; which is swallowed alive. Status: Wolf Snakes are often mistaken and killed as ‘kraits’. Though common, they are nowhere abundant. It is sad that most college and school preserved specimens requirement lists seem to include them. 7. Banded Kukri Oligodon arnensis Distinctive Features: Small; smooth, glossy scales; prominent cross bands and distinctive chevron mark on top of the head.Banded KukriTHE NONVENOMOUS SNAKES 17 AVERAGE LencTH: 35 cm; At Birth: 8 cm; Maximum: 70 cm. Description: Banded Kukris are reddish or greyish-brown with 10-20 black or dark brown bands. The top of the head has a distinct chevron or arrowhead design. The underside is white. The scales are smooth and glossy, head thin with a blunt tip, eyes round-pupilled. Kukri snakes get their name from their sharp, curved teeth, perfect for holding strong prey such as geckos. Banded Kukris are the most common of the 34 kukri snakes of Asia which range from southern Asia to southern China and some Malayan islands. Russell’s Kukri is another common species; though varying in colour and pattern, it has the typical chevron head marking of a Kukri. DisrripuTion: Throughout India. The White-barred Kukri of Assam is found up to 2,000 m in the hills. Hasitat: Though sometimes found in termite mounds, Banded Kukris, like the wolf and cat snakes, are mainly cave, crevice and tree-hole dwellers, that find old broken houses especially suitable. Hasits: Out and active on cool rainy nights. Almost never bites, its main defence being to stiffen and jerk when provoked, as do kraits. Younc: Banded Kukris.generally lay 3 to 6 eggs. Baby Kukris appear in Madras in September. Foon: Geckos, skinks and small mice. According to M.A. Smith, they are particularly fond of bird and reptile eggs. The tiny offspring feed on insects, their larvae and spiders. Starus: Although rarely seen and nowhere abundant, this is a fairly common snake. Because of the banded pattern, they are often mistaken for kraits and killed.8. Striped Keelback Amphiesma stolatum Distinctive Features: Small, keel (rough) scaled: two distinctive yellow stripes down back. AveraGE Lenctu: 40 cm: At Birth: 12 cm: Maximum: 80 cm (female). Description: Striped Keelbacks are closely related to and resemble the watersnakes. They are, in fact, quite at home in water and have long rear teeth for catching frogs. The overall colour is light or dark brown with two tan or yellow stripes running down the body length. These stripes are especially bright on the last half of the body. The head is light brown, and the sides of the head, lip area and chin are white or yellow. In the Madras area, a smaller, slightly different type occurs, which has wide, black lines behind each eye. This is the common ‘grass snake’ of India. DistriBuTion: Throughout India up to 2,000 m in the hills. Hasitat: Rice fields, pond edges, thick grass and bushes are favoured. Haars: Striped Keelbacks are diurnal and spend nights sleeping under rocks, holes or the branches of trees or bushes. During the breeding season, a female may be found attended by six or more smaller males. One of the gentlest snakes, they very rarely bite even when first caught, making them a perfect snake for the amateur herpetologist. When frightened, some spread a small ‘hood’, revealing the beautiful blue, red or white interscale colour. Younc: On 11 August a female at the Madras Snake Park laid 12 eggs. We have observed egg-laying year round. Foon: Frogs are the main diet but Striped Keelbacks will also take toads, small lizards and rodents, which are swallowed alive. The young feed on insects, tadpoles and the young ofyoeqieey pedis Bet ge aoe a20 COMMON INDIAN SNAKES toads and small-mouthed frogs (Microhyla). Status: Very common. Remarks: Commonly found in gardens, Striped Keelbacks are often mis-identified as ‘baby cobras’ and needlessly killed by undiscerning gardeners and house-holders. 9. Green Keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor Distinctive Features: Medium-sized; keel-scaled; grass-green; flattens neck into ‘hood’ with distinctive ‘V’ mark when disturbed. . AverAGE Lenctu: 55 cm; At Birth: 7.5 cm; Maximum; 94 cm. Description: The overall colour of the stocky Green Keelback is bright green with indistinct and irregular black cross lines. The head and neck bear a fairly clear inverted ‘V’ mark which becomes part of the ‘hood’ design when the snake is aroused. The skin is slightly glossy and strongly keeled. The head is wide and the round-pupilled eyes large. Underside is greyish- white. The young are brightly marked (see Young). DistriBuTion: Forests of India. Up to 2,000 m above sea level. Hasirat: Green Keelbacks are found mainly on hills and plateaus, in dense evergreen as well as open deciduous forests. Hasrts: Very little is known about this snake. When frightened, they will freeze into kinked ‘S’s as many snakes do. When provoked, they may spread a good sized ‘hood’ and rear up slightly. As M.A. Smith remarks, ‘In disposition, it is singularly gentle and inoffensive.’ Younc: The female lays about 12 eggs. For up to 8 months or a year, the young are brightly coloured with black bands and speckled markings on the body. 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for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.ised Edition This book is a concise introduction to the fascinating world of snakes in India. It provides basic facts about snakes in general, their natural history, senses, feeding habits, reproduction patterns and locomotion. There are also sections on snake- catchers, conservation, laws protecting snakes, snakebite, and myths and beliefs. Thirty species of snakes, the ones most likely to be seen in the Indian countryside, are described in detail with a black and white photograph of each to aid in identification. The book makes a strong case for the need to differentiate the few venomous species from the abundant non-venomous species and highlights their value as rodent controllers. The Big Four medically important snakes of India: cobra, krait, Russell's viper and saw-scaled viper are the ones responsible for most serious snakebites, and this book makes their identification easily possible. Common Indian Snakes is an ideal text for biology students and the perfect book to kindle interest in these mysterious and wonderful reptiles. Salient Features » Aconcise and simple introduction to Indian snakes, their habits and natural history » Updated checklist to the 275 species of Indian snakes » Detailed descriptions and new pictures of 30 of the most common Indian snakes » Sections on snakebite, general snake facts, myths and conservation * The perfect first book on Indian snakes for both amateur and professional naturalists Romulus Whitaker was born in New York, USA in 1943 and was brought to India by his American mother and Indian stepfather in 1951. After finishing high school in South India, he went to college at the University of Wyoming and spent several years working as a merchant seaman, salesman and a stint in the US Army. Rom started the Madras Snake Park in 1970, Madras Crocodile Bank in 1976, the lrula Snake-catchers Cooperative in 1978, a research base in the Andaman island in 1990 and another in Agumbe, Karnataka in 2005. He has published several hundred scientific and popular articles, made 20 documentaries and one children’s feature film and written several books. Rs 110 Ss NM 140-392-955-6 A os ae MACMILLAN Macmillan India Ltd. www.macmillanindia.com | ol7 814030929556