CIR536

Basic Principles of Landscape Design1

Dewayne L. Ingram2

Landscaping combines elements of art and fusion of one primary and one secondary color. These
science to create a functional, aesthetically pleasing colors would be between primary and secondary
extension of indoor living to the outdoors. One initial colors.
purpose of landscape design is to blend man's
technology (house or building) into the natural
surroundings. To work toward a desirable landscape
design, the landscape horticulturist must have a
working knowledge of art elements and design
principles. This publication is intended for the
commercial landscaper with little or no training in the
use of these basic principles. This publication is not a
complete landscape design text.
Figure 1.
ELEMENTS OF ART
Tint refers to a light value and is accomplished
Elements of art include but are not limited to by adding white to the pure color on the color wheel,
color, line, form, texture and scale. These elements while shade is a dark value and is created by adding
are never independent of each other, but we will black to the pure color on the color wheel. Black,
discuss their individual natures before considering the white and grey are neutrals and are compatible with
interactions. any color. Light colors and tints tend to attract
attention as do bright, vivid colors.
Color variation can best be explained by use of a
color wheel (Figure 1). Primary colors are red, blue Colors are combined into color schemes for
and yellow. Orange, green and violet are called practical applications. Three basic color schemes are
secondary colors because they are combinations of monochromatic, analogous and complementary. A
two primary colors. For example, yellow and red are monochromatic color scheme consists of different
combined to yield orange. Tertiary colors are the tints and shades of one color and is seldom achieved

1. This document is CIR536, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date June 1991. Reviewed October 2003. Visit the EDIS Web Site at
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. Dewayne L. Ingram, former professor and extension horticulturalist, Environmental Horticulture Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of
Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and
other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex,
sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Larry
Arrington, Dean
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 2

in its pure form in the landscape. An example of an also be given to the time of day when this color will
incomplete monochromatic color scheme would be enjoyed. White or light tints could be used to
include white and pink flowers with a background of create interest on a patio. Dark colors would add little
a dark pink and red brick house. to family enjoyment of this area as the daylight hours
passed.
Analogous color schemes combine colors which
are adjacent or side-by-side on the color wheel. An Line is related to eye movement or flow. The
analogous color scheme could include green, concept and creation of line depends upon the
blue-green, green-blue, blue and violet blue. This purpose of the design and existing patterns. In the
color scheme could be achieved by varying the overall landscape, line is inferred by bed arrangement
foliage color from green to blue-green or by using and the way these beds fit or flow together (Figure 2).
pyracantha with orange-red berries against a red brick Line is also created vertically by changes in plant
house. height and the height of tree and shrub canopies. Line
in a small area such as an entrance or privacy garden
Complementary color schemes combine colors is created by branching habits of plants, arrangement
directly across the color wheel. For example, red and of leaves and/or sequence of plant materials.
green would be complementary colors. A
complementary color scheme may be achieved by
using plants with green foliage against a red brick
house.

It is possible to have varying color schemes in

one area of the landscape as the seasons change.
White and pink azaleas flowers can yield a
monochromatic color scheme with a red brick house.
The green azalea foliage would produce a
Figure 2.
complementary color for the red brick during the
summer. Pyracantha berries would be an analogous Straight lines tend to be forceful, structural and
color to the red brick in the fall. The landscape stable and direct the observer's eye to a point faster
designer should consider the color changes than curved lines. Curved or free-flowing lines are
throughout the year when developing a landscape sometimes described as smooth, graceful or gentle
plan. and create a relaxing, progressive, moving and natural
feeling.
Colors can be used to visually change distance
perspective. Warm colors and light tints like red, Form and line are closely related. Line is
orange, yellow and white advance an object or area considered usually in terms of the outline or edge of
toward the observer. These colors and tints placed objects, whereas form is more encompassing. The
near the foundation of a house would make the house concept of form is related also to the size of an object
appear closer to the street. Cool colors and deep or area. Form can be discussed in terms of individual
shades like blue, green and black recede and can be plant growth habits or as the planting arrangement in
used to make the house appear farther from the street. a landscape.
Cool colors are restful while warm colors express
action and are best used in filtered light or against a Plant forms include upright, oval, columnar,
green or dark background. spreading, broad spreading, weeping, etc. (Figure 3).
Form is basically the shape and structure of a plant or
Color can be used to direct attention in the mass of plants. Structures also have form and should
landscape. Due to this strong characteristic, color be considered as such when designing the area
should be used carefully. When color is used for this around them.
purpose, consideration must be given to year-round
color not just to seasonal color. Consideration may
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 3

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Color, line, form, texture and scale are tools
which are used in combinations to adjust design
principles. Design principles include unity, balance,
transition, focalization, proportion, rhythm, repetition
and simplicity. All these principles interact to yield
the intended design.
Figure 3.
Unity is obtained by the effective use of
Texture describes the surface quality of an components in a design to express a main idea
object than can be seen or felt. Surfaces in the through consistent style. Unity is emphasized by
landscape includes buildings, walks, patios, consistency of character between units in the
groundcovers and plants. The texture of plants differs landscape. Use of elements to express a specific
as the relationships between the leaves, twigs and theme within units creates harmony. Unity can be
branches differ (Figure 4). Coarse, medium or fine achieved by using mass planting and repetition.
could be used to describe texture but so could Unity means that all parts of the composition or
smooth, rough, glossy or dull. landscape go together; they fit. A natural feeling
evolves when each activity area belongs to and blends
with the entire landscape. Everything selected for a
landscape must complement the central scheme and
must, above all, serve some functional purpose.

Balance in design refers to the equilibrium or

equality of visual attraction (Figure 6). Symmetrical
balance is achieved when one side of the design is a
mirror image of the other side. There is a distinct
Figure 4. dividing line between the two sides. Equal lines,
forms, textures or colors are on each side of a
Scale refers to the size of an object or objects in
symmetrical design.
relation to the surroundings. Size refers to definite
measurements while scale describes the size
relationship between adjacent objects. The size of
plantings and buildings compared on the human scale
must be considered (Figure 5).

Figure 6.

Asymmetrical balance uses different forms,

colors and textures to obtain balance of visual
attraction. These opposing compositions on either side
Figure 5. of the central axis create equal attraction. For
example, mass may be opposed by color or linear
dimension by height.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 4

The landscape designer must skillfully

manipulate the design elements to create
asymmetrical balance. The central axis must be
predetermined and then developed by the elements of
art and other principles of design discussed in this
publication.

Transition is gradual change. Transition in color

can be illustrated by the radial sequence on the color
Figure 8.
wheel (monochromatic color scheme) previously
discussed. Transition can be obtained by the whole. One large towering oak may compliment an
arrangement of objects with varying textures, forms, office building but would probably dwarf a single
or sizes in a logical sequential order. For example, story residence (Figure 9). A three-foot pool would
coarse to medium to fine textures, round to oval to be lost in a large open lawn but would fit beautifully
linear structural forms, or cylindrical to globular to into a small private area. And of course, a colossal
prostrate plants. An unlimited number of schemes fountain would dominate a private garden but could
exist by combining elements of various size, form, enhance a large city plaza.
texture and color to create transition (Figure 7).
Remember, transition refers to the 3-dimensional
perspective of composition, not just the flat or facial
view.

Figure 9.

Proportion in landscape design usually relates to

people and their activities. The desired size
Figure 7. relationships of components in a design should pose
little problem for the designer who considers this
It is possible to use transition to extend visual principle routinely in systematic thought processes.
dimensions beyond actual dimensions. For example,
radical lines in the private area of the landscape can Rhythm is achieved when the elements of a
be used to enframe and/or focalize a lake scene. design create a feeling of motion which leads the
Transition of plant materials along these lines can viewer's eye through or even beyond the designed
make the scene become a part of the landscape area. Tools like color schemes, line and form can be
(Figure 8). Transition from taller to shorter plants repeated to attain rhythm in landscape design.
with textural changes from coarse to fine along focal Rhythm reduces confusion in the design.
lines emphasizes the beauty of a lake scene.
Transition from shorter to taller plants and from fine Focalization involves the leading of visual
to coarse textures would enframe the scene and make observation toward a feature by placement of this
it appear closer, like a painting on a wall. Generally, feature at the vanishing point between radial or
transition assists in the gradual movement of a approaching lines. Straight radial lines as in Figure 10
viewer's eye to the design and within it. create a strong focalization when compared to curved
lines. The viewer's eye is quickly forced along
Proportion refers to the size of parts of the straight lines to a focal point. Generally, weaker or
design in relation to each other and to the design as a flowing lines of focalization are desirable in the
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 5

residential landscape. Transition of plants or other STEPS IN DEVELOPING A

objects along these lines can strengthen or weaken LANDSCAPE DESIGN
the focalization. Curved lines are stronger when
curved toward each other than when curved outward. The benefits of an organized system in
Indirect focalization is created by lines curved in the developing a landscape design are tremendous. As
same direction. Focalization can be adjusted by plant with most endeavors, the level of efficiency relative
materials along the lines to create symmetrical or to time input is greatly increased with an organized
asymmetrical focalization. Asymmetrical focalization approach. The game plan for the landscape designer
is indirect while symmetrical focalization is more should follow a sequence such as the one presented
direct, creating stronger focalization. here:

Steps In Design

1. Develop a plot plan.

2. Conduct a site analysis.

Figure 10.
3. Assess family needs and desires.
Since focalization can be used to direct attention
to a point, traffic in an area is usually directed to that
point. Therefore, focalization could be used to direct 4. Locate activity areas.
traffic in a garden area. Guidance of view toward
features of commercial, aesthetic or cultural value
may attract the eye of the unaware without conscious
5. Design activity areas.
effort.

Repetition refers to the repeated use of features

like plants with identical shape, line, form, texture 6. Plant selection and placement.
and/or color. Too much repetition creates monotony
but when used effectively can lead to rhythm, Develop a Plot Plan
focalization or emphasis. Unity can be achieved
better by no other means than repetition. Think of It is difficult to visualize certain aspects of
repetition as not having too much variety in the design without putting it to scale on paper. The
design which creates a cluttered or busy appearance. designer should think with drawings or sketches and
make the mistakes on paper not on the landscape site.
Simplicity goes hand-in-hand with repetition and The plot plan should consist of 1) accurate house
can be achieved by elimination of unnecessary detail. placement on the lot, 2) accurate lot and house
Too much variety or detail creates confusion of dimensions with window and door placement and 3)
perception. Simplicity is the reduction of a design to existing driveways and/or walks. It saves a lot of time
its simplest, functional form, which avoids if the customer has an accurate plat of the house and
unnecessary cost and maintenance. lot and a house floor plan with outside dimensions.
These plans maybe secured from the builder,
developer or county or city property records.
Although the floor plan scale will probably be
different from the scale you use, it will still be easier
to convert the scale than to physically measure the
house, lot, etc.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 6

Once the house position on the lot has been

determined, this should be drawn to a predetermined
scale on tracing paper placed over grid paper.
Commonly, 1 inch equals 5 feet or 1 inch equals 10
feet, but you may choose another scale based upon
your drawing equipment and project dimensions.
Recommended drawing equipment includes: drafting
pencils, T-square, scaled rulers, triangle, art gum
eraser, drafting tape, grid paper (8 or 10 squares to Figure 11.
the inch) and tracing or drafting paper. The designer
must have a firm, steady working surface. Land form refers to slope or land elevation
changes. It determines surface water drainage
Conduct a Site Analysis patterns and is essential knowledge for the landscape
horticulturalist in developing functional and
A complete survey of the customer's property is
aesthetically pleasing landscapes.
essential. The plot plan will assist you in organizing
the information from the site analysis. A thorough Soil characteristics will determine selection and
site analysis can save you time and money. Existing placement of plants. Soil pH, nutrient and
vegetation, natural factors and features, views, noise waterholding capacity and drainage should be
levels, utility placement, easements/setback lines and considered. Native fertility levels and soil
primary architectural features of the house should be characteristics may be indicated by existing
noted. vegetation. Turkey oaks on the property usually
indicate dry, infertile soil. Native cypress trees
Existing plants should be examined. Tree
usually indicate poorly drained soils exist or did exist
condition and placement should be recorded. Trees on
in that area.
adjoining property that would affect shade patterns on
the customer's lot should also be surveyed. This Rainfall distribution can be determined on a
information is essential to designers, especially since regional basis. Periods of heavy rainfall can magnify
it is their responsibility to blend this home into the the problems of shallow soils or a hardpan resulting
natural or existing setting, or to create a setting to be in unwanted standing water. Sometimes these
functional and to complement the structure. Shrubs, conditions may require the engineering of drainage
groundcovers and grasses should also be examined as modifications by some type of tiles or pipe. Often the
to their condition and potential use. conditions simply require careful plant selection.
The landscape horticulturalist may also be Predominate wind directions differ with the area
involved in protecting existing vegetation during of the state, the season and the time of day. Where the
construction. It may be desirable to block vehicular wind direction differs in summer and winter,
traffic from areas close to valuable trees. plantings can be arranged to block the cold winter
winds from a patio and direct summer breezes into
Natural factors and features of a landscape
this same area (Figure 12). While conducting the site
include house orientation, land form, soil conditions,
analysis, be sure to look for existing wind breaks
rainfall distribution, seasonal wind pattern and
provided by plants and structures on the property or
micro-climatic conditions. House orientation affects
on adjacent property.
the exposure of various portions of the house to the
sun (Figure 11). This knowledge is essential so the All of these factors interact to create
designer can provide shade in important spots and micro-climates. This means that the conditions in a
locate activity areas appropriately. For example, a isolated spot may differ considerably from the
southeastern exposure is generally the most conditions in another area of the landscape. The
comfortable spot year-round while a western slope designer must consider those variations in order to
will be hot in the summer and cold in the winter. "fine-tune" the landscape plan and plant selection.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 7

position of television and telephone cables, water

lines and sewage lines, or a septic tank and field line.
Television cable companies and the telephone
company will usually locate their service lines
accurately. However, these services must be
requested in advance.

Architectural style of the house is of primary

importance. Specific details of interest must be
Figure 12.
identified during the site analysis. Things like the
Views should be identified that are to be height of windows, the height of house corners from
preserved or accented. Likewise, less desirable views the ground and overhang widths should be
must be considered so screening can be planned. considered. Is the house guttered or should it be? If
Views and activities 30 feet (9 m) or so from the so, locate the outlets. Notice major traffic problems so
property line must be surveyed. During the site proper access and movement can be provided.
analysis, views should be observed from inside the
Assess Family Needs
house to outside and from outside to inside the house
(Figure 13). Observe the neighbors' property from A landscape should be an outdoor extension of
positions on the customer's lot and view the indoor living areas. It should be functional and
customer's property from the neighbors' lots if provide space for family activities. Before the
possible. The house should also be observed at designer can create such an environment, knowledge
multiple angles from the street. Pictures from an of certain family characteristics is essential.
instant camera can be helpful in reminding the
designer of specific views when sitting back at the The questions used in the form at the end can be
drawing table. among those asked of the customer.

Locate Activity Areas

Once the family needs have been determined,

areas for these activities must be located on the
property. Their placement should be considered in
terms of the house plan and in relation to other
activities in and adjacent to the property. These
activity areas could include a public area, entrance,
living area, quiet zone, service and work area, or
Figure 13.
vegetable or cut-flower garden plot.
Surrounding distractions must be identified. You
These areas should be defined on the plot plan or
may need to question neighbors or the property owner
maybe on a piece of tracing paper laid over the plot
about these factors. Record a noise source like roads, plan. Actually sketch the outline of these areas
factories, saw mills, etc. and plot the direction and
(Figure 14). Be sure to include all needed activity
distance of the source. The time of day for peak noise
areas and draw them to scale and to the size necessary
levels can be important as well. It may be necessary
to accommodate the activity, yet still fit within the
to return to the site during such a period. Other
property lines.
distractions could include glare or odors.
Two major considerations for the placement of
Utility lines may be on poles or underground.
areas must be emphasized. 1) Place outdoor areas in
Locate the position of these on the plot plan. Also
relation to indoor activity areas (Figure 14). The
locate the electrical meter on the house, the
outdoor living or entertaining area should be an
air-conditioner unit and water outlets. Consider the
extension of the family or living room in the house.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 8

what actions should be taken. Ground covers may be

the answer for long, gentle slopes while terraces with
railroad ties or blocks may solve the problem of a
short, steep bank. Grass should not be put on slopes
greater than 1:6 (1 foot of rise per 6 feet of run)
because of maintenance safety. Other ground cover
materials will probably hold a 1:2 or 1:3 slope. Bark
mulch should not be placed on a slope greater than
Figure 14. 1:10.

The service area and work area may be an extension Bed form, traffic flow and plant selection and
of the laundry room, kitchen or garage. 2) Arrange placement utilize art elements and design principles
areas relative to the activities in each and activities on previously discussed. These can best be covered as
adjoining property. For example, do not position the the development of specific areas is discussed.
children's play area beside the quiet zone. Always
Public Area. The public area is the portion of the
leave a clear view to the children's play area from
residential landscape the public sees and uses. The
some identified observation point like the kitchen
current trend toward smaller residential lots
window.
encourages the development of some of the front
Design Activity Areas yard for family living. The public area contains the
driveway, parking, walks, open space and entrance
A systematic approach should be taken in area. The purpose of the public area is to enhance the
designing activity areas. First, determine the home, provide comfortable access and lead the visitor
objectives of the design and establish the general type to the entrance.
of plan formal or natural. Plan for structural needs,
consider land form modifications, determine traffic Foundation planting is not all of landscaping but
flow, develop bed form and then specify plant can be a vital part of functional landscape design.
materials. Too often foundation planting is overdone and left to
stand along. History reveals that foundation plantings
Structural needs should be considered first. If a were used to block the view of raised foundations and
storage building is needed, a level spot and access to slow cold air movement under the house (Figure
must be planned. Required access may mean a path or 15). Although these needs do not often exist today,
limited vehicular access to haul in firewood, etc. some landscapers and homeowners think it is a must
to cover every linear foot of the foundation with
Land form information derived from the site plants.
analysis can be used now. Do surface water drainage
problems exist? If so, determine how to correct them.
Engineering and legal considerations are involved in
major surface water drainage problems. Seemingly
simple solutions may affect someone else's surface
drainage. Consider grassed waterways, paved
waterways or possibly drainage tiles. Drainage
problems may not exist but land form modifications
could be used to create interest, or help block
undesirable views or noise. Care should be taken not Figure 15.
to create surface water drainage problems with land
form modifications. The objectives of foundation planting are to
focalize the main entrance, compliment the
Existing land form may have slopes which will architectural style of the house and to break long
erode. Existing slope or steepness will determine continuous lines of the house and blend it into the
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 9

surroundings. The designer should avoid competing

elements which detract from the main entrance and
the house in general. An isolated bed in the middle of
open lawn area is one of these competing elements.
Plants should be selected which can easily be
maintained to proper scale with the house. This is
probably the most common failure of foundation
plantings.
Figure 17.
A general rule of thumb is that the height of
plants in the foundation planting should not exceed Walk and driveway surfaces should be selected
two-thirds the height of the wall at house corners based on traffic demands. Low traffic walks and
(Figure 16). Generally, plant height should not driveways may be surfaced with less expensive
exceed the height of a line extending from the materials such as bark or gravel, but walks and
doorway to this imaginary point at the house corner. driveways with high traffic demands should have a
This does not mean every house should have hard surface.
plantings this high.
Walks accommodating two people abreast should
be at least 4 feet (1.2m) wide (Figure 18). Walks for
one person should be at least 30 inches (74cm) wide
(Figure 18). A straight driveway for one car should be
at least 8 feet (2.4m) wide while 14 feet (4.3m) is
required for two cars side-by-side. Circle drives
should have a minimum inside radius of 18 feet
(5.5m) and an outside radius of 32 feet (9.8m) with a
surface width of 14 feet (4.3m). Steps should be
Figure 16. designed with human comfort as the top priority.
Generally, a taller step, one with greater rise, should
Balance in landscape design is not always have a longer tread area. A handy rule of thumb states
necessary. Imbalance may be used with architectural that twice the rise in inches plus the tread should
features of some houses to create desirable, equal 26 or 27 (Figure 19). Ramps for wheelchair
interesting effects. However, when balance is access are necessary or desired in some residential
suggested, it should be achieved. landscapes. The average wheelchair user can
negotiate a 5 percent gradient independently and the
Symmetrical balance has been overdone in
minimum width is 3 feet (90cm). The bottom and top
residential landscape design. This approach seems
approach to a ramp should be clear and level for a
formal and monotonous (Figure 17). Asymmetrical
distance of at least 5 feet (1.5cm).
balance is often more desirable for residential
landscapes as balance is created without monotony.
Size is balance by mass and texture in this example.
Architectural style may dictate the use of symmetry
or asymmetry. Driveways, parking and walks must
be functional. They must be positioned to provide
easy access from points of entry onto the property to
the entrance of the house. Too often walks are placed
from the street to the front door with no consideration
of access from the driveway to the front door. Many
Figure 18.
times a walk dividing the front yard is not necessary
and may detract from the house.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 10

A long low house (ranch style) can be made to

appear taller in relation to its length by proper
placement of plant materials (Figure 21). Larger trees
planted as a background break the horizontal roof
line. Smaller trees spaced a few feet from the ends or
corners of the house would also help the house seem
taller in relation to its length.

Figure 19.

Driveways must be wide enough at the street to

allow cars to merge easily into the flow of traffic. The
higher the average speed of the street traffic the wider
the mouth of the drive should be.

The view of street traffic from the driveway

entrance should not be blocked. Large plants placed Figure 21.
along the driveway entrance create a dangerous
situation. Plants on the outside of a curve in a A tall slender house seems longer when few or
driveway or highway aid the driver by giving no trees are placed in the background but
definition to the traffic flow. Make sure such a medium-sized, rounded trees are positioned on either
planting blends into the total design. A plant screen side of the house (Figure 21). Plants placed near
on the inside of a curve in a driveway or highway is these trees should be shorter and decrease in height
hazardous because it blocks the driver's view of the the farther from the house they are positioned. This
road ahead. planting design effectively created a sloping line to
replace the strong vertical line of the house. The
Trees can be used in the public area to soften house then appears longer in relation to its height.
lines, provide shade and enframe the house (Figure
20). Also trees placed in the backyard can provide an Trees positioned for shade must be carefully
excellent background for the house as viewed from located. The designer must learn what area needs
the street. Vertical lines of many houses can be shade, and during what time of the day and what
effectively softened by a small tree planted in seasons the shade is needed. This information will
conjunction with other plants at a corner. Tree shape determine where to plant the trees relative to sun
is very important. A low-branched, rounded tree angle, sun direction and areas to be shaded.
softens this line while a slender upright tree only
accents the line. Trees with a lot of exposed trunk, A moderate amount of open area in the front
like a sabal palm, will also accent and not soften these yard can create the feeling of a large expansive area
vertical lines. that allows the observer's eye to move from the street
to the planted areas. The planted areas can then direct
the observer's eye to the appropriate place. Some
family game activities need not be in the private
living area and can be accommodated by open
portions of the public area.

Entrance. The entrance should be an area of

transition between outdoors and indoors.
Considerable detail should be given to the planning
and maintenance of this area. This is true because a
Figure 20.
visitor is close to this area and moving slowly or
actually standing still. Therefore there is time to view
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 11

this area and a favorable impression can be developed the activities to be included there. Consideration is
before a person enters the house. given to the house design, land form and house
orientation as they relate to space organization.
Plantings in the public area should focus
attention to the entrance. This means there should be Private area(s) are usually a part of the living
no doubt in the visitor's mind where to enter the area. A private area may be for reading and
house. If the house is approached commonly from meditation as an extension of the master bedroom or
more than one direction, the focalization of the it could be an area for small group conversation as an
entrance form these different perspectives must be extension of the living room. A private area may be
considered. This focalization is achieved through placed close to the house or in an isolated corner of
repetition of plant masses (Figure 22). Transition of the landscape.
plant form, color and texture and the bed lines can
help direct attention. Space and equipment for children's play are
required in many landscapes. The play area should be
an integral part of the landscape. Enclosure of this
area may be required, based on age of children, size
of area and activities on adjacent property. The
permanency of the play area depends upon the ages
of the children and family plans. If the children are 8
to 10 and no other children are expected, the area may
be temporary and plans for future modification should
be suggested to the customer.
Figure 22.
The children's play area may require some open
Focusing attention toward the entrance is not the space. This space may also serve for adult
same as accenting the entrance or access area. entertaining. Planning for multi-use space of this sort
Plantings, like liriope, along both sides of a walk in can lead to high space utilization and efficiency.
the open lawn only draws attention to or accents the
It is often important to provide a degree of
walk. These do not direct attention to the entrance, but
privacy in the living area. Fencing, walls or plants
actually distract the observer's attention from the
used for this purpose can also block views, enhance
entrance area to the walk itself.
views and direct or block prevailing winds.
There should be a feeling of intimacy or comfort
Structural features in the living area could
with limited exposure when a person is standing in
include a patio, deck, terrace, water feature and/or
the entrance area. Security and the need to focus the
garden and workshop. A patio used as an extension of
entrance may dictate the extent of exposure in this
the family room should be at least 12 feet by 15 feet
area. In a outdoor public area for a larger home, an
(4m by 5m). The selection of surface material is
extensive entrance garden may be appropriate. Be
based on land slope, expected use rate, style of the
careful to keep this area in scale with the house and
house and the amount of funds available. Raised
its surroundings. These areas are sometimes called
wooden decks are suited for sloping land and are
"good night" areas, because they provide an effective
cooled by air flow beneath them. Brick and sand is
transition between the indoors and the vehicle
less expensive than brick and cement and if installed
parking outside.
properly can be quite durable. Stained concrete and
Living area. Elements in the living area, concrete with an aggregate surface are also
primarily the backyard, depend upon the desires and alternative surfaces for patios.
needs of the family. These desires and needs were
A water feature could be a swimming pool, spa,
determined during the interview outlined previously.
or a simple reflection pool. Moving water creates a
This area must be clearly organized to avoid wasted
secure, relaxed feeling in a private area and is often
space. Living area space must be organized based on
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 12

overlooked for this use. Expense of these items is cans, firewood and a vegetable or cut-flower garden.
often the limiting factor. It is possible to have service functions in two or more
locations in the landscape.
The designer should be concerned with traffic
flow and circulation in the living area. Each unit in Definition and Separation of Areas. Once the
this area should be a part of the whole and contribute activity areas have been located and ideas for
to the overall circulation pattern. This is especially development of these areas have been formulated, the
true in the areas where entertaining is planned. Areas need for separation of these areas is often apparent.
of limited access, like service areas, may not be a part Space can be the medium for separation when
of this circulation pattern. Circulation refers to the working with a larger piece of property. Most often
movement of people's eyes and then their bodies some other type of separation is required due to the
through a specific pattern in the landscape. For number of separate activities planned in a small area.
example, a quiet sitting area located in the back Sometimes it is only necessary to define space with a
corner of the lot is hidden from view of the patio rail fence, etc., rather than providing a complete
(Figure 23). Proper bed arrangement and plant screen or barrier. Spaces can also be separated by
selection will lead the observer to one focalization changes in elevation. Planters can separate areas and
point in the landscape. The person, now located at can be a very attractive means of defining space.
that point sees another focalization point and so on
until the sitting area is seen. This systematic method A visual screen from one direction without being
moves people from one point to another until the a physical barrier fits the bill for some situations.
desired circulation and traffic flow patterns are Groupings of plants can be positioned to give a visual
created. Walt Disney World is a working example of block in one direction while allowing air flow into the
planned traffic flow by this technique. activity area as previously shown in Figure 12.

The required height of a screen depends upon the

elevation of the view to be screened. A screen for
privacy from the neighbor's two story window will
require a taller screen than one for blocking the view
of a neighbor down in the valley (Figure 24).
Generally, a screen should be placed as close as
possible to the item to be screened.

Figure 23.

Service Area. The outdoor service area is an

extension of the indoor service rooms like the
kitchen, utility room and/or garage. It is a part of the
overall design, but is usually screened from most
parts of the living and public areas. Access from the
house and from other parts of the landscape will be
Figure 24.
necessary. Sometimes vehicular access is desired.
The family interview previously discussed, will
Plant materials provide an inexpensive screen
determine what must be included in this area. The
with color and interest. They generally require more
amount of space available and number and type of
space than fences and it takes time for them to grow
activities to be included will determine the required
to mature size. Fences provide an immediate screen,
size. occupy little space and are quite expensive. The
A service area could include tool storage, work budget and available space will be the determining
space, clothesline, garden supplies storage, trash factors in this decision.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 13

Screens can be combinations of raised land form, Plant architecture consists of form, size, texture
ground covers, small shrubs, large shrubs, and trees and color. Plant form is classified as columnar,
to give a complete or strong barrier. This combined upright, spreading, broad spreading and prostrate.
planting is especially suited for noise abatement Plants should be selected on the basis of their mature
where the lot adjoins a busy public street (Figure 25). size or a size at which they can be maintained easily.
Texture is referred to as fine, medium or coarse. It is
determined by branching habit, leaf size and shape,
leaf arrangement, leaf color and leaf surface texture
(dull or glossy). Plant color is determined by the
foliage, flowers and/or fruits. Knowledge of a plant's
seasonal color variations is essential.

Landscape designers must also be aware of

insect and disease problems for plants they expect to
Figure 25. include in a plan. Desirable plants are those resistant
to or tolerant of pests like mites, scale, nematodes,
Plant Selection and Placement borers, root rots, powdery mildew, wilts, galls,
blights, and leaf spots. Plants in some locations must
Plant selection is the last step in the design be tolerant of human abuse, air pollution and
process. Up until this point, plant form, texture, color animals.
and size have been visualized, but now a name must
be assigned to each plant. Plants are selected on the Usually, plants should be spaced with
basis of climatic adaptability to the microclimate of consideration to their mature size. Plants in large
the location, plant architecture and availability. areas or groups are generally spaced to cover an area
in 3 to 5 years. Plants should be spaced far enough
No matter how well a plant meets the physical from the house so that there is adequate air
characteristics for a location, if it is not adaptable to circulation near the house. Generally, space plants
the conditions there, it will fail. These microclimate from the house by at least the distance of the plant
conditions include sun intensity and duration, soil radius at maturity. Spacing plants too close to the
conditions, rainfall, air circulation and temperature. house is a common mistake.
Some plants perform better in partial or full shade
than in full sun. The length of daily exposure to a Minimal Maintenance Considerations.
particular light level also influences plant responses. Maintenance cannot be avoided, but it can be
Soil pH, soluble salts level and drainage properties minimized. Even the perfectly designed and installed
influence plant adaptability greatly. Plants can be landscape will fail if maintenance fails. However,
selected to tolerate varied soil conditions, but the many maintenance problems are designed into
designer must have a working knowledge of available landscapes.
plant materials.
Complex designs usually require more
Some locations in a landscape may be maintenance. Simplicity can be achieved by avoiding
characterized by little or no air movement. Plants unnecessary detail. Limit the number of plant species
susceptible to mites, scales and other insects will and create well-defined planted areas by not scattering
usually be attacked more severely in areas with poor plants throughout open areas.
air circulation. Also locations in the landscape differ
as to the maximum or minimum temperatures and Design the appropriate size of maintained area
daily fluctuation between these extremes. Plants can and arrange plants in groups of like species to create a
be selected to tolerate one or more of these mass effect. Tree beds can eliminate trimming, reduce
conditions. lawn mower damage to tree trunks and increase the
speed of mowing. Edging of beds creates a sharp
clean line and reduces maintenance requirements.
Basic Principles of Landscape Design 14

Make sure bed lines encompassing a lawn area

meet at angles greater than 90 degrees. Walk,
driveway and patio surfaces that are in grassed areas
should be above the ground level. Avoid improper
plant selection, spacing and installation that can
cause maintenance headaches.