Decentralised Wastewater

Treatment Systems (DEWATS)

and Sanitation
in Developing Countries

A Practical Guide
Editors: Andreas Ulrich, Stefan Reuter
and Bernd Gutterer

Authors: Bernd Gutterer, Ludwig Sasse,

Thilo Panzerbieter and Thorsten Reckerzgel
All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronical, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise.

Ulrich, A., Reuter, S. and Gutterer, B. (eds)

with Sasse, L., Panzerbieter, T. and Reckerzgel, T. (contributors)

WEDC, Loughborough University, UK in association with BORDA,

Germany (2009)

Please note that views expressed in this publication are not necessarily
those of WEDC, Loughborough University.
Decentralised Wastewater
Treatment Systems (DEWATS)
and Sanitation
in Developing Countries

A Practical Guide
Editors: Andreas Ulrich, Stefan Reuter
and Bernd Gutterer

Authors: Bernd Gutterer, Ludwig Sasse,

Thilo Panzerbieter and Thorsten Reckerzgel
 ISBN: 978 1 84380 128 3
BORDA, 2009
Designed and produced by Bremen Overseas Research
and Development Association (BORDA), Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 421 137 18 Fax: +49 (0) 421 165 53 23 E-mail: [email protected]

Published by the Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),

Loughborough University, UK
Postal address: WEDC, The John Pickford Building, Loughborough University,
Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
Phone: +44 (0) 15 09 22 28 85 Fax: +44 (0) 15 09 21 10 79
Email: [email protected] http://www.lboro.ac.uk/wedc

WEDC is one of the worlds leading education and research institutes for
for developing knowledge and capacity in water and sanitation for low- and
middle-income countries. Education and training programmes at postgraduate-
level include Water and Waste Engineering and Water and Enviromental
Management.
WEDC research and consultancy is directed towards the study of aspects
of infrastructure and services (especially related to water and sanitation) in
low- and middle-income countries.

BORDA was founded in 1977 in Bremen Germany as a non-profit professional

organisation with the goal of developing new methods of using renewable
energy to alleviate poverty and, through the implementation of development pro-
grammes, to improve the living conditions and social structures in disadvantaged
communities abroad.

Unlike other organisations, in the struggle against poverty BORDA focuses on

the facilitation of basic needs services in the sectors of water, wastewater, solid
waste and energy. To achieve this, partner structures, with the participation of all
stakeholders, are advised and assisted in the stablishment and organisation of
innovative basic needs services (BNS); this occurs during all phases of planning
and construction up to the stages of operation and maintenance.

4
Editors of the publication are:
Andreas Ulrich (BORDA Director)
Stefan Reuter (BORDA Vice Director)
Bernd Gutterer (PhD, International Consultant)
Authors of the publication are:
Bernd Gutterer (PhD): Chapters 17
Ludwig Sasse: Chapters 710, Sections 11.411.5
Thilo Panzerbieter Sections 11.111.3
(Section 11.3 in collaboration with Andreas Schmidt)
Thorsten Reckerzgl has provided substantial documentation.
Editorial contributions: Mary Breen and Michael Smith

Acknowledgements
This publication is a collective effort. Since the early 1990s BORDA has
collaborated with a multitude of individuals and institutions throughout Europe
and Asia to develop the DEWATS approach. The first DEWATS Handbook was
published by Ludwig Sasse in 1998. It served as an instruction manual focusing
on the technical design. A wealth of experience in demand-oriented technology
adaptation and dissemination has evolved since then, including public health and
community-based sanitation. This book presents the collaborative efforts made
by a wide range of professionals from local and central authorities, from private
businesses and international donors, NGOs, community-based organisations and
academia. Therefore, this publication could not have been realised without the
generous contribution of the many individuals and organisations who shared their
experience and expertise. In particular the editors would like to express their
gratitude to following partner organisations and individuals:
Indonesia: LPTP (Surakarta); BEST (Tangerang); BaliFokus (Denpasar)
India: Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination Society (CDD, Bangalore)
and the associated partner network
China: Sustainable Development Strategy Institute (SDSI) at
Zhejiang University of Technology (ZUT), Hangzhou
BORDA's Regional Programme Co-ordinators Frank Fladerer (BORDA
South-East Asia), Pedro Kraemer (BORDA South-Asia) and Andreas Schmidt
(BORDA Southern Africa)
Prof. Chris Buckley (Pollution Research Group, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa) and Ludwig Sasse (retired, pioneer of BORDA's Biogas and
DEWATS solutions)

5
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction 12

2 Towards comprehensive wastewater

and sanitation strategies 14
2.1 World water resources under threat 14
2.2 The protection of water resources achievements and challenges 17
2.3 A short assessment of the sanitation and wastewater sectors
in developing countries 20
2.4 Signs of change elements of efficient and sustainable
sanitation programmes 27
2.5 Towards service orientation the conceptual framework
of basic needs sanitation programmes 29
2.6 The increasing demand for efficient and reliable decentralised
wastewater-treatment solutions 31

3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater

at the local level 32
3.1 DEWATS a modular system approach to ensure efficient
wastewater treatment performance 33
3.2 DEWATS a brief insight into technical configuration 35
3.3 DEWATS good practice examples/applications 37
3.3.1 DEWATS/CBS Community-Based Sanitation programme
in Alam Jaya, Tangerang, Java, Indonesia 37
3.3.2 DEWATS/CBS Community-Based Sanitation programme
in Ullalu Upanagara, Bangalore, India 40
3.3.3 DEWATS at public institutions Sino-German College of
Technology, Shanghai, China 43
3.3.4 DEWATS at public institutions Aravind Eye Hospital
in Thavalakuppam, Pondicherry, India 46
3.3.5 DEWATS/SME-Cluster approach Kelempok Mekarsari
Jaya small-scale industry cluster, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia 49
3.3.6 DEWATS/SME Alternative Food Process Private Ltd. Bangalore,
Karnataka, India 52
3.3.7 Infrastructural development in rural China Longtan Village,
Danleng County, Szechuan Province, China 54
3.3.8 DEWATS in integrated municipal planning Wenzhou University,
Zheijang Province, China 56

6
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning and
implementation of sustainable infrastructure 58
4.1 Strategic planning of sanitation programmes 58
4.2 Legal framework and efficient law enforcement 62
4.3 Target-oriented local and municipal planning 66
4.3.1 Features of urban infrastructure development 66
4.3.2 Sanitation mapping as a tool for efficient urban-infrastructure
development 68
4.4 Financial analysis 74
4.4.1 Comparative cost analysis for infrastructure development 74
4.4.2 Economic analysis in times of global warming and energy scarcity 77
4.4.3 Economic considerations for point-source polluters 80
4.4.4 Parameters for economic calculation 82
4.4.5 Sustainable financing schemes for sanitation programmes
multi-source financing and willingness to pay 88

5 CBS programme planning and implementation 92

5.1 Stakeholders in CBS programmes 92
5.2 Responding to basic needs active involvement of beneficiaries
and residents 96
5.3 Local government and municipality bodies 97
5.4 Non-governmental organisations 99
5.5 Private sector 99

6 CBS Programme detailed procedure for implementation 100

6.1 First planning activities 100
6.2 The pilot project 103
6.3 Preparation phase 105
6.3.1 Kick-off workshop 105
6.3.2 Planning workshop 106
6.3.3 Community pre-selection and community assessment 108
6.4 Planning phase 110
6.4.1 Site assessment 110
6.4.2 Informed technology choice 112
6.4.3 Detailed engineering design 114
6.4.4 Economic planning 116
6.4.5 Agreement on implementation and landholding 117

7
 6.5 Implementation phase 118
6.5.1 Task planning 118
6.5.2 Quality management 120
6.5.3 Construction 121
6.5.4 Pre-commissioning test 123
6.5.5 Parallel training measures 123
6.6 Operation phase 124
6.6.1 Start operation 124
6.6.2 Operation & maintenance 126
6.6.3 Use of biogas 129
6.6.4 Monitoring and evaluation 131

7 DEWATS components & design principles 132

7.1 Basics of wastewater treatment 132
7.1.1 Definitions: pollution & treatment 132
7.1.2 Biological treatment 133
7.1.3 Aerobic anaerobic 135
7.1.4 Physical treatment processes 136
7.1.5 Elimination of pollutants 141
7.1.6 Ecology and self-purification in nature 145

8 Treatment in DEWATS 150

8.1 Parameters for wastewater-treatment design 152
8.1.1 Control parameters 153
8.1.2 Dimensioning parameters 163

9 Technical components 168

9.1 Overview of DEWATS components 168
9.2 DEWATS modules 176
9.2.1 Grease trap and grit chamber 176
9.2.2 Septic tank 177
9.2.3 Fully mixed digester 182
9.2.4 Imhoff tank 184
9.2.5 Anaerobic baffled reactor 187
9.2.6 Anaerobic filter 191

8
9.2.7 Planted soil filters 195
9.2.7.1 Horizontal gravel filter 197
9.2.7.2 Vertical sand filter 207
9.2.8 Ponds 211
9.2.8.1 Anaerobic ponds 212
9.2.8.2 Aerobic ponds 216
9.2.9 Hybrid and combined systems 221
9.3 Non-DEWATS technologies 223
9.3.1 UASB 223
9.3.2 Trickling filter 225
9.3.3 Aquatic-plant systems 228

10 Designing DEWATS 230

10.1 Technical spreadsheets background 230
10.1.1 Usefulness of computer calculation 230
10.1.2 Risks of using simplified formulas 231
10.1.3 About the spreadsheets 233
10.2 Technical spreadsheets application 236
10.2.1 Assumed COD/BOD ratio 236
10.2.2 Domestic wastewater quantity and quality 237
10.2.3 Septic tank 238
10.2.4 Fully mixed digester 241
10.2.5 Imhoff tank 247
10.2.6 Anaerobic baffled reactor 250
10.2.7 Anaerobic filter 255
10.2.8 Horizontal gravel filter 261
10.2.9 Anaerobic pond 264
10.2.10 Aerobic pond 270
10.3 Spreadsheets for costings 274
10.4 Using spreadsheets without a computer 278

9
 11 Project Components: sanitation and wastewater
treatment technical options 282
11.1 Toilets 283
11.1.1 Common practices to be discouraged 284
11.1.2 Closed pit toilets 286
11.1.3 Composting toilets 289
11.1.4 Dry, urine-diversion toilets 290
11.1.5 Pour-flush toilets 292
11.1.6 Community toilet blocks 296
11.2 Collection systems 297
11.2.1 Rainwater drains 297
11.2.2 Conventional gravity sewerage 298
11.2.3 Simplified gravity sewerage 299
11.2.4 Vacuum sewerage 303
11.3 Sludge accumulation and treatment 306
11.3.1 Sludge removal 307
11.3.2 Sludge treatment 308
11.3.2.1 Small-scale application drying and composting 309
11.3.2.2 Large-scale application sludge and septage-treatment facility 313
11.4 Reuse of wastewater and sludge 318
11.4.1 Risks 318
11.4.2 Groundwater recharge 321
11.4.3 Fishponds 321
11.4.4 Irrigation 324
11.4.5 Reuse for process and domestic purposes 324
11.5 Biogas utilisation 325
11.5.1 Biogas 325
11.5.2 Scope of use 327
11.5.3 Gas collection and storage 328
11.5.4 Distribution of biogas 333
11.5.5 Gas appliances 334

10
12 System malfunction symptoms, problems, solutions 336
12.1 Insufficient treatment of wastewater 336
12.2 Reduced flow at the outlet of the facility 344
12.3 Other problems and nuisances 349

13 List of abbreviations 350

14 Appendix 352
14.1 Geometric formulas 352
14.2 Energy requirement and cost of pumping 352
14.3 Sedimentation and flotation 353
14.4 Flow in partly filled round pipes 354
14.5 Conversion factors of US-units 355

15 Bibliography 356

11
1 Introduction

Water is a key feature of public concern worldwide. Inappropriate use and poor
management of water resources have an increasingly negative effect on econo-
mic growth, on social welfare and on the worlds eco-systems.

For a long time the need for efficient wastewater treatment was ignored by
many public authorities. As a result the performance of existing treatment
technologies and the conditions of sanitation facilities are rather poor. At many
locations the sewage is just drained to surface or ground waters without
adequate handling.

Recently, decision makers, planners, engineers and civil society stakeholders

have launched multiple initiatives to answer the question facing many developing
countries: How to ensure a good performance and a high coverage of wastewa-
ter treatment under rather difficult conditions with financial constraints and limi-
ted human and institutional capacities?

In the 1990s an international network of agencies and NGOs drew conclusions

about the deficiencies of existing infrastructure development and produced
the so-called DEWATS approach. DEWATS is designed to be an element of
comprehensive wastewater strategies: not only the technical requirements for
the efficient treatment of wastewater at a given location, but the specific socio-
economic conditions are also taken into consideration.

By its principles of reliability and longevity, the permanent and continuous

treatment of wastewater flows ranging from 11000m per day, from both do-
mestic and industrial sources, should be guaranteed. With its flexibility, efficiency
and cost effectiveness, these systems are planned to be complementary to cen-
tralised wastewater treatment-technology and to strategies reducing the overall
generation of wastewater.

The international discussion about the conservation of water resources and more
target-oriented poverty-alleviation strategies create a favourable environment for
new sanitation approaches and innovative wastewater treatment solutions.
In many countries a rapidly upcoming market for DEWATS and a demand for
efficient Community-Based Sanitation (CBS) can be observed.

12
Based on the experiences and good practice of numerous programmes and
projects, this book aims to present the most important features for successful
DEWATS dissemination:
driving forces and decision parameters for innovative wastewater and
sanitation strategies.
options for a comprehensive technology choice
planning instruments for wastewater treatment and sanitation mapping
presentation of the DEWATS approach and good practices in DEWATS
basic knowledge about the process of wastewater treatment
the technical components of DEWATS
design principles for DEWATS
guidelines for programme development and implementation of DEWATS
based CBS programmes.

Since wastewater treatment and sanitation, with all its implications, is such a
complex subject, the content focuses on providing a basic knowledge that is
relevant for DEWATS dissemination. As a practical guideline it should support
decision making, planning and implementation activities. For very specific que-
stions, additional literature can be consulted. A selection of books and articles
can be found in the appendix.

Andreas Ulrich Stefan Reuter Dr. Bernd Gutterer

Bremen / Berlin November 2009

13
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

2.1 World water resources under threat

1 Water stress occurs Water is the essential basis for all forms of life. Water is of utmost importance
when the demand for
for human health and dignity. Water is crucial for sustainable social and economic
water exceeds the
available amount development. However, world water resources are under threat. In the past 250
during a certain years the world has seen a tremendous increase both in population and econo-
period or when poor
mic activities. This development process has resulted in extensive social trans-
quality restricts its
use. Water stress formation and a rapidly increasing demand for natural resources. Urbanisation,
causes deterioration industrial development and the extension of agricultural production have a signi-
of fresh water ficant impact on the quantity and quality of water resources. Overexploitation of
resources in terms
of quantity (aquifer
water bodies and deterioration of water quality are global trends.
over-exploitation,
dry rivers, etc.) Today one-third of the worlds population lives in countries suffering from mode-
and quality
rate to high water stress.1 Since the mid-1990s, some 80 countries, representing
(eutrophication,
organic matter 40 per cent of the worlds population, have been suffering from serious water
pollution, saline shortages in urban and rural areas in a lot of cases, the result of the socio-
intrusion, etc.).
economic development over the recent decades.
Source: European
Environment Agency,
EEA glossary, 2006 The increasing demand for freshwater sources and rapidly changing production
and consumption patterns are directly linked with the pollution of ground and
surface waters. More than half of the worlds major rivers are seriously depleted
and polluted, degrading and poisoning the surrounding ecosystems, threatening
2 World Commission
on Water 1997 the health and livelihoods of those who depend on them.2

Picture 2_1:
Paris Beijing
Water stress (2000) New York
Tokyo
in regions around Los Angeles Cairo New Delhi
Osaka
Shanghai
megacities. This
Mexico C ty
map is based on Karachi Dhaka
Bombay
estimated water Calcutta

withdrawals for
the year 2000, and
Rio de Janiero
water availability Sao Paulo
during the climate Buenos Aires
normal period
(19611990). Results
shown in this map
were calculated on
river basin scale.
Source:
WaterGAP2.1e withdrawal-to-availability ratio
by CESR, Kassel, 0 0.2 0.2 0.4 more than 0.4
Germany low water stress medium water stress severe water stress

14
 Picture 2_2:
More than half of
the worlds major
rivers are seriously
depleted and
polluted

Although the threat to water resources is not only a phenomenon in developing

countries, it is particularly the worlds poor that are most affected: worldwide,
0.9 billion people still lack access to safe drinking water and 2.5 billion lack
access to adequate sanitation. While improvements are monitored on the drin-
king water side, the challenge on the sanitation side obviously is much bigger
than it was thought to be. Estimates indicate that approximately half the 3 JMP-WHO/
Unicef 2008
population of the developing world is exposed to polluted water resources,
which increase disease incidence; most of these people live in Africa and Asia.3

Picture 2_3:
Half the develo-
ping world are still
without improved
Percentage of population using improved sanitation sanitation;
Source: JMP-WHO/
91% 100% 76% 90% 50% 75% Less than 50% Insufficient date UNICEF, 2008

15
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

The challenges ahead are obvious: the urban population of the less-developed
world is expected to nearly double in size between 2000 and 2030 from just
under 2 billion to nearly 4 billion people, with the greatest urban growth occurring
in Asia. By that time, 58 per cent of the worlds population will live in urban or
semi-urban areas. Pessimistic scenarios forecast that nearly 7 billion people in
60 countries will live in water-scarcity by 2050, whereas even rather optimistic
projections estimate that just under 2 billion people in 48 countries will be
affected.

Over the last 30 years, a multitude of national and multi-national initiatives have
addressed the emerging water crisis. In 1980 the International Water Supply
and Sanitation Decade (IWSSD) was launched. At the so-called Rio Conference
in 1992 water was identified as one of the key elements for sustainable
development:

The general objective is to make certain that adequate supplies of water

of good quality are maintained for the entire population of this planet, while
preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems,
4 Agenda 21, adapting human activities within the capacity limits of nature and combating
Chapter 18 vectors of water-related diseases.4

In September 2000, 189 UN member states adopted the so-called Millennium

Development Goals, setting well-defined targets for the worlds most pressing
development issues. The seventh goal is to sustain the human environment. Its
target number 10 is related to water supply and sanitation. Access to sanitation
has been added at the Johannsburg Sustainable Development Summit.
Target 10 is:
5 Johannesburg Plan
of Implementation, To halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access
Paragraph 8 to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. 5

In order to meet this sanitation target, an additional 1 billion urban dwellers and
almost 900 million people in rural communities have to be served with adequate
facilities by 2015; this equates to approximately half a million extra people to be
serviced each day.

16
2.2 The protection of water resources achievements and challenges

A number of encouraging results have been achieved by various initiatives

launched on very different levels since the Eighties. While in 1990, only 77
per cent of the worlds population used improved drinking-water sources, in 2002
a global coverage of 83 per cent was achieved. The deterioration of water-supply
infrastructure in many developing countries the per capita water-supplies had
decreased by a third between 1970 and 1990 was stopped in most places.

In the past few years, governments have developed more efficient approaches to
halt the increasingly urgent water crisis:
more efficient legal frameworks are being developed and, in many places,
law enforcement has been improved
water policy is increasingly recognised as a cross-cutting task for socio-
economic development
water resources are more comprehensively assessed through the application
of new planning methods and technologies
the conservation and sustainable use of water for food production and other
economic activities receives more emphasis
institutional and human capacity to assess and manage water resources are
being created

Nonetheless, considering the number

of people who are still without a safe
water supply, the tasks required to meet
the Millennium Development Goals are
enormous.

In the fields of sanitation and waste-

water treatment, the challenges are
even greater. Although global sanitation
coverage increased from 54 per cent in Picture 2_4:
1990 to 62 per cent in 2006, 2.5 billion Slow progress in
water and sanitation
humans still live without improved sani- will hold back
tation.3 advances in other
areas

17
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

In India and China alone, nearly 1.3 billion people live without adequate facilities;
in Sub-Saharan Africa, coverage extends to only 31 per cent of the population,
and in Latin America and the Caribbean about 121 million people have no access
a critical situation.3

The impact of poor sanitation and water pollution is obvious:

6 DALY is a time-
based measure that In fact, some 1.5 million children die each year from preventable diarrhoeal
combines years diseases.3
of life lost due to In terms of disability adjusted life years (DALY), some 44 per cent of the annual
premature mortality
and years of life lost
global burden attributable to water, sanitation and hygiene are caused by
due to time lived in diarrhoeal diseases. In other words, every year more than 52 million years of
states of less than healthy life are lost (UN-WWDR3, 2009).6
full health (WHO)

% pt. change 1990-2006

+8 0 +12 +5 +11 +14 +17 +17 0 +12 +5

Coverage (%)
100 99

84
79
80 76

67
65
62
60

53 52

40
33
31

Picture 2_5:
Sanitation coverage 20
is lowest in sub-
Saharan Africa
and South Asia.
JMP-WHO/UNICEF,
2008 0
nia
a

Af ran
ia

be &
Re oping

sia
ia
As n
Re loped
rld

ric

a
an
As
ns

ia

As
ns

ste
Ca erica

ric
ea

ha
Wo

Af
gio
gio

th
rn

Oc
-Ea

-Sa
l
ve

ve

ter

rn
rib

u
Am

ste

So
De

the
De

uth
s

uth
We

Ea
tin

No

So

So
La

18
It is the poor sections of these populations who are most affected by the
increase of water-borne diseases. Many live in a vicious cycle of unhealthy living
conditions, faecal-oral disease, illness and poverty.

The statistics on water borne disease underline the scale of the challenges that
lie ahead:
443 million school days get lost each year from water-related illness
one third of the world population (2 billion infections) affected by intestinal
parasitic worms
6 million are blind from trachoma 7 UNDP, HDR 2006
200 million people are affected with schistosomiasis7

Sanitation facility

Flush toilet Pit latrine No facility

Acces to sanitation by wealth quintle (%)

Colombia Kyrgyzstan Namibia Peru Zambia
2005 1997 1997 2000 2001-02
100

80

60

40

Picture 2_6:
Access to sanitation
20 by wealth quintile in
selected countries;
Source: UNDP, HDR
2006

0
20 st
20 st
20 st

20 st
20 st

20 st
20 st

20 st

20 st
20 st

%
%
%

%
%

%
%

%
%

he
he
he

ore
ore

ore
ore

ore

he
he

Ric
Ric
Ric

Ric
Ric

Po
Po

Po
Po

Po

19
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

2.3 A short assessment of the sanitation and wastewater sectors

in developing countries

Poor sanitation should be perceived as an element of an overall process of

inadequate use of water. Poorly treated wastewater has negative effects on
public health. Furthermore, its high oxygen demand damages eco-systems,
causing eutrophication in open water bodies, due to excessive nutrient supply;
aquatic life is destroyed. Toxic substances also reach the groundwater, which
approximately 2 billion people about one-third of the worlds population
depend on for water supply.

The three main sources of water pollution in developing countries are domestic,
industrial and agricultural. The volume and characteristics of each type of waste-
water differ by source and location (urban, rural). In total, domestic wastewater
generally contributes the greatest organic load. In the Philippines, for instance,
municipal (domestic) wastewater generates 48% of the national BOD (bio-
8 World Bank, 2005 chemical oxygen demand) (Industry 15%, Agriculture 37%); in Thailand, municipal
wastewater generates about 54% of the total BOD.8

9 CERNA, 2003 Water pollution from domestic, agricultural and industrial sectors results in
tremendous public and private economic losses. Calculations of external costs
10 World Bank, indicate that in China about 2.6%, in Mexico about 3.3%, in India about 4.53%,
Philippines in Eastern Europe up to 5% and in industrial countries between one and two
Environment per cent of the GDP is lost due to water pollution.9 The World Bank estimates
Monitor, 2003
the annual losses to the Philippines national economy to be about PhP 67 billion
(US$ 1.3 billion); this can be broken down into PhP 3 billion for the health sector,
11 World Bank, PhP 17 billion for fishery production, and PhP 47 for tourism.10 In Indonesia,
Indonesia
economic losses are conservatively estimated at US$ 4.7 billion per year,
Environment
Monitor, 2003 which is roughly equivalent to US$ 12 per household per month.11

20
Comprehensive sanitation strategies must therefore protect public health and the
environment; they should include the collection, the treatment, the disposal, the
recycling and, especially, the avoidance of waste. Wastewater strategies must
address an array of different wastes:
human excreta (urine + faeces = blackwater)
household wastewater (shower + washwater = greywater)
stormwater
waste from industrial production
hazardous waste, as from hospitals
solid waste

Picture 2_7:
Water pollution
causes tremendous
public and private
economic losses

Picture 2_8:
Open drainage of
untreated wastewater
is a prime source of
serious disease

For a long time, wastewater treatment systems in the developed world were
seen as the ideal solution, which should also be applied in the developing
world. Wastewater treatment was perceived as a highly technical engineering
task; flush toilets were used to transport the human excreta through big sewer
systems to rather technically sophisticated wastewater-treatment plants.

However, a study carried out in 116 cities worldwide indicated a low connec-
tion of households to sewers in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and
Oceania. Surveys show the rather weak efficiency of centralised wastewater-
treatment systems.12 12 UN-WWDR1, 2003

21
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

House or yard connection for water

% Connected to sewer
100

80

60

40

Picture 2_9:
The proportion
of households in 20
116 major cities
connected to piped
water and sewers
Source: UN-
WWDR1, 2003
0
nia

e
l

ia

ca
a

be d
ba

rop
ric

n
As

an

eri
Ca ca a

ea
Glo

Af

Eu

Am
Oc
rib
the meri

rn
the
A
tin

No
La

Most of the sewage in developing countries is discharged to nature without ade-

quate treatment. An assessment published by the Central Pollution Control Board
in New Delhi indicates that only a small quantity of sewage flows to treatment
plants in India. While in so-called Class I cities 33% of the collected and 24%
of the total wastewater is treated, only 5.6% of the collected and 3.7% of the
total wastewater is treated in smaller Class II cities.
Class I cities are urban agglome-rations with a population of 100,000 or more,
followed by: Class II (50,000 to 99,999), Class III (20,000 to 49,999), Class IV
(10,000 to 19,999) and Class V (5,000 to 9,999).

22
 Type Number wastewater wastewater collected wastewater treated
of cities/ generated %
MLD % (of MLD % (of
towns (MLD) (of total)
generated) generated)
Class I
299 16,662.5 11,938.2 72 4,037.2 33.8 24.0 Table 1:
Cities
Sanitation coverage
Class II in India, Central
345 1,649.6 1,090.3 66 61.5 5.6 3.7
Towns
Pollution Control
Board, Delhi, 2005
Total 644 18,312.1 13,028.5 71 4,098.7 31.5 22.4 1MLD = 1 million
liters per day

These figures correlate with experiences in other countries. In the Philippines,

only 7% of the total population is connected to sewers and more than 90% of
the sewage generated in the Philippines is not disposed of or treated in an
environmentally acceptable manner. Figures from Latin America and the 13 Global Water
Caribbean show that only 14% of the effluent is treated.13 Partnership, 2004

A closer look at the performance of existing wastewater-treatment systems

reveals further reasons for the rapid deterioration of coastal waters and the dead
waterbodies found in many countries. Technical and maintenance problems
result in low treatment efficiency and a discharge of still highly contaminated
effluent.

Picture 2_10:
Power cuts and
maintenance
problems are
frequently
encountered at
conventional and
decentralised
wastewater-treat-
ment units

23
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

Poor performance is also observed in many so-called decentralised wastewater-

treatment solutions, such as the:
rotating disk reactor
the trickling filter
the activated sludge process
the fluidised bed reactor and
the sequencing batch reactor

US$ (millions per year, 20062015)

300 Unmet funding missing

to meet the Millennium
Development Goal target

250 Planned investments

200

150

100

Picture 2_11:
The gap between
planned investments
and funding required
50
to meet Millennium
Development Goal in
Sanitation;
Source:
UNDP HDR 2006

0
Re o,
ia

so

da
a

i
da
al

nin
ue

ia
ia

law
ny
g
iop

eg

tan
zan

Fa

an

an
De Con

biq

Be
Ke

Ma
n
Eth

Ug

Rw
uri
na
Tan

Se

zam
m

Ma
rki

Mo
Bu

24
The main causes for these treatment failures are insufficient operation and
maintenance, lack of spare parts and frequent power-supply cuts.
A survey, carried out in 1999, showed that one-third of the centralised waste-
water treatment plants in Thailand were malfunctioning or did not operate at all.
Most of the facilities suffered from equipment failure or damage, as well as
deficiencies in staff-skills levels. Performance data showed that due to poor
maintenance the collection systems collected only 55% of the wastewater
that the treatment plants were designed to treat.

Picture 2_12:
Conventional cen-
tralised systems fre-
quently suffer from
poor performance

The increase of sanitation coverage has been slow because the extension of
existing centralised systems has to be more complex than anticipated. In China,
for instance, where increasing emphasis is placed on the treatment of the rapidly
growing wastewater volumes, official reports state that the construction of about
700 or half of the major wastewater-treatment projects planned by central
government for the period 2001-2005 had not yet been launched by the end
of 200414. 14 State Environmental
The dive for such high sanitation standards is the result of a complex development Protection Agency
Administration of
process at local, regional and national levels. It includes elements such as: China (SEPA) ref.
public awareness-raising and stakeholder involvement of civil society groups SINA 2005
at all levels
human and institutional capacity-building in engineering, private companies,
science and public services
application of relevant techniques and standards
development of adequate legal frameworks and efficient law enforcement and
availability and efficient allocation of financial resources.

25
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

Due to the technological, institutional and organisational requirements, such

complex wastewater projects are unthinkable in many parts of the world. There
is not the availability of sufficient funds. Moreover, the high water demand for
flushing toilets (3050% of domestic water consumption) further increases water
stress, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.
The desperate need for the establishment and implementation of efficient sanitation
programmes becomes even more apparent on viewing the slow progress between
1990 and 2006. The term sanitation frequently only refers to the collection,
removal or disposal of human excreta. Improved sanitation facilities ensure
hygienic separation of human excreta from human contact. Technical solutions are:
flush or pour-flush toilet / latrine to:
piped sewer system
septic tank
pit latrine
ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine
pit latrine with slab
composting toilet
Although these technologies are fairly simple to implement and maintain,
progress in implementing them remains rather slow in many countries.

Picture 2_13:
Progress in
sanitation,
19902006
Source:
JMP-WHO/UNICEF,
2008

on track progress but not on track no or insufficient data

insufficient

WHO estimates that meeting the target of the United Nations Millennium
Development Goal for improved sanitation requires annual funds of approximately
15 WHO, Geneva 2008 US$14 billion from the beginning of 2005 until the end of 201415.

26
2.4 Signs of change elements of efficient and sustainable
sanitation programmes

The reasons for slow progress in the sanitation sector are manifold. Performance
both at the policy and implementation levels has been unquestionably weak in the
past, resulting in unclear, contradictory or non-existent sanitation policies.

Typical political and administrative deficiencies are:

lack of political will
low prestige and recognition of the sector
poor policy at all levels
weak institutional framework
inadequate and poorly used resources
inappropriate approaches
failure to recognise defects of current excreta-management systems
neglect of consumer preferences
ineffective promotion and low public awareness
women and children considered last16 16 WHO, 1998

Within projects, considered at the implementation level, the following

deficiencies have been observed:
isolated character of the activities
poor coordination between initiatives
insufficient construction quality
poor adaptation of designs to local conditions
hardware-driven approaches
insufficient involvement of users and other relevant local and regional
stakeholders for implementation (top-down approach)

Recently, the situation has begun to change; national and international discus-
sions are beginning to show results. In 2001, for instance, the Government of
South Africa published a white paper on Basic Household Sanitation. At that
time, about 18 million citizens had no access to adequate
sanitation. Within the strategic paper, the government underlined its constitutional
responsibility to ensure sanitation access to all South Africans.

27
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

The purpose of the paper was to:

spell out government policies on sanitation
provide a basis for the formulation of local, provincial and national sanitation-
improvement strategies
provide a framework for municipal sanitation programmes
ensure that sanitation-improvement programmes are adequately funded, and
17 Government of install mechanisms for monitoring the implementation of the policy and
South Africa, 2001 sanitation-improvement programmes17

Picture 2_14:
On the outskirts of
major South African
cities, people face
poor sanitation

In 2002, the Government of Indonesia published a similar document, addressing

the countrys requirements for more efficient and sustainable implementation of
safe water supply and sanitation. Within the paper, the government drew conclu-
sions from problems faced in earlier programmes within the Water Supply and
Environmental Sanitation (WSES) sector and defined essential principles for
future programmes:
the role of all stakeholders involved in a programme must be clearly defined
18 Ministry of and their commitment ensured
Settlement programmes must meet communitys demand
and Regional
participatory management involving all segments of the user community,
Infrastructure,
Ministry of Health, especially women is essential for successful long-term operation and
Ministry of Home maintenance
Affairs, Ministry of the approach for environmental sanitation should be distinguished from that
Finance, National
Development
for clean water
Planning Agency/ high quality of services is essential for meeting the expectations of the users
Bappenas, 2002 and ensuring their willingness to pay for the services18

28
2.5 Towards service orientation the conceptual framework of basic
needs sanitation programmes

Although the documents discussed in the previous section were developed in a

specific country context, both papers reflect ongoing, worldwide discussions
concerning the development and implementation of successful sanitation
programmes. Based on a broad range of position papers and experiences, the
crucial importance of the definition of roles and tasks of different stakeholders
involved in the process are outlined in the following:
The elaboration of an efficient, adequate legal and regularity framework
and the provision of budget lines are basic tasks of the central and regional
governments, respectively
Since sanitation programmes are far more than just hardware dissemination,
the definition of the procedure for the institutionalisation process within public
bodies (horizontal and vertical level) must be defined within the regularity fra-
mework. Special emphasis should be given to the definition of responsibilities
and co-operation between different ministries and departments (public works,
environment, health, etc); as well as how they are broken down at the
national and local level
Regional and local governments should be aware of the important role that
sanitation programmes play within regional integral development. Sanitation
goals and corresponding timelines should be established; these should comply
with national legislation, norms and standards. Regional and municipal levels
should monitor and ensure efficient co-ordination between concerned public
entities.
In most cases, the provision of sanitation facilities is the responsibility of local
government, which must carry out the following tasks during implementation:
awareness building within communities, decision-making in close collaboration
with concerned communities, developing implementation schemes, budget al-
location, monitoring implementation, setting up sludge-treatment systems and
ensuring sustainability of the programmes
Sanitation schemes must be developed in close co-operation with the com-
munities. Since hygiene starts with the awareness and sanitation practices of
each individual, sanitation programmes usually fail without the active involve-
ment of the households. Community involvement is essential for ensuring
regular use, continuous maintenance and financing of the sanitation facilities

29
2 Towards comprehensive wastewater
and sanitation strategies

Private-sector companies must not only deliver good-quality hardware, but

also ensure long-term operation and maintenance as service providers. Public-
private partnership models can ensure large-scale implementation and operation
of sanitation facilities
In many countries, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) initiate and facilitate
the development and implementation of sanitation programmes. They launch
awareness raising-campaigns, facilitate decision-making within communities,
establish communication between communities and local governments, and
even work as implementing agencies or service providers. Their roles depend
on the profile and institutional competencies of each respective organisation,
as well as the local conditions of the project area

Picture 2_15:
Multi-stakeholder
involvement is vital
to successful sanita-
tion programmes

Picture 2_16
Demand-
responsive
approaches have
been developed in
order to ensure the
efficiency and
sustainability
of sanitation
programmes
The concepts of multi-stakeholder involvement and result-driven programme
portfolio correlate with a new perception of basic-needs infrastructural
development:
The demand-responsive approach should be a main feature of any sanitation
programme; the users are perceived as clients, who express a need and
create a demand for sanitation services. Since public entities and other stake-
19 The demand
holders respond to the demand of the communities, the approach is referred
responsive
approach and to as Community-Based Sanitation
the main principles The active involvement of users, clients or communities is crucial for the
of community- sustainability of the programme. Willingness to pay is not only a strong indi-
based sanitation
are discussed in
cator that the community is actually interested in the programme, but also the
chapters 5 and 6 basis for professional, long-term operation and maintenance of the sanitation
of this handbook system19

30
2.6 The increasing demand for efficient and reliable decentralised
wastewater-treatment solutions

Sanitation programmes should be an integral part of comprehensive wastewater

strategies and vice-versa. Connecting sanitation facilities to sewerage or to
septic tanks alone, however, does not ensure the adequate treatment of
domestic wastewater. In order to meet legal effluent standards, solutions for
secondary and tertiary treatment must be found.

In recent years, improved legislation and growing public awareness have led
to a rapidly growing demand for suitable wastewater solutions. Water quality
and discharge standards are defined on the basis of legislation, such as
the Philippines Clean Water Act (2002), the Vietnamese Law on Water
Resources (1999), or the Water Act in India. These standards are subject
to law enforcement, court cases and public debate.

Picture 2_17
Improved legislation
and law enforce-
ment are the main
driving forces
behind the rapidly
growing demand
for new wastewater
treatment solutions

31
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

Private and public entities are faced with the following situations:
national and regional development plans require the wastewater connection
of peri-, semi-urban and rural settlements to treatment facilities, which meet
discharge standards
new housing and real estate developments do not get clearance
without approved wastewater-treatment systems
schools, hospitals, hotels and public facilities face public pressure,
due to surface-water pollution
small and medium enterprises unable to treat wastewaters adequately
are closed down by public authorities

Only a few of the households well as public and private entities, that require
wastewater treatment can be serviced by conventional sewage and wastewater-
treatment systems. The rapidly growing demand can only be met with the assi-
stance of other technical solutions, which should ideally fulfil the following criteria:
suitable for very diverse local conditions and versatile in application
provide reliable and efficient treatment of domestic and process wastewater
require only short planning and implementation phases
moderate investment costs
limited requirements for operation and maintenance

It is evident that decentralised wastewater solutions, which fulfil these criteria,

have to become an integral part of comprehensive wastewater strategies,
complementing other approaches.

32
3.1 DEWATS a modular system approach to ensure efficient
wastewater-treatment performance

Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) were developed by

an international network of organisations and experts. In this handbook, the term
DEWATS may be applied in singular or plural form, refering to a single specific
system, to the modular systems approach or the whole range of systems, as the
case may be. The approach incorporates lessons learned from the limitations of
conventional centralised and decentralised wastewater-treatment systems,
thereby assisting to meet the rapidly growing demand for on-site-wastewater
solutions. DEWATS are characterised by the following features:
DEWATS encompass an approach, not just a technical hardware
package, i.e. besides technical and engineering aspects, the specific
local economic and social situation is taken into consideration
DEWATS provide treatment for wastewater flows with close COD/BOD
ratios from 1m to 1000m per day and unit
DEWATS can treat wastewaters from domestic or industrial sources. They
can provide primary, secondary and tertiary treatment for wastewaters from
sanitation facilities, housing colonies, public entities like hospitals, or from
businesses, especially those involved in food production and processing.
DEWATS can be an integral part of comprehensive wastewater strategies.
The systems should be perceived as being complementary to other
centralised and decentralised wastewater-treatment options
DEWATS can provide a renewable energy source. Depending on the technical
layout, biogas supplies energy for cooking, lighting or power generation
DEWATS are based on a set of design and layout principles.
Reliability, longevity, tolerance towards inflow fluctuation, cost efficiency and,
most importantly, low control and maintenance requirements

33
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

DEWATS usually function without technical energy inputs. Independence from

outside energy sources and sophisticated technical equipment provides more
reliable operation and, thereby, fewer fluctuations in effluent quality. Pumping
may be necessary for water lifting
DEWATS are based on a modular, technical configuration concept. Appropriate
combinations of treatment modules can be selected, depending on the
required treatment efficiency, costs, land availability, etc.
DEWATS units are quality products. Though they can be constructed form
locally available materials and can be implemented by the local workforce,
high quality standards in planning and construction have to be met. For sound
DEWATS design a good comprehension of the process of wastewater-treat-
ment is essential
DEWATS require few operation and maintenance skills. While most operational
tasks can be carried out by the users, some maintenance services might require
a local service provider. In some cases, both operation and maintenance can
be delivered by a service provider
DEWATS can reduce pollution load to fit legal requirements. Like all other
wastewater-treatment systems, generated solid waste (sludge) must be
handled, treated and disposed of in accordance with hygiene and
environmental standards
DEWATS consider the socio-economic enviroment of a given location.
Neglecting these conditions will result in the failure of the technology

34
3.2 DEWATS a brief insight into technical configuration

Typical DEWATS combine the following technical treatment steps in a modular

manner:
primary treatment in sedimentation ponds, settlers, septic tanks or bio-
digester
secondary treatment in anaerobic baffled reactors, anaerobic filters
or anaerobic and facultative pond systems
secondary aerobic/facultative treatment in horizontal gravel filters
post-treatment in aerobic polishing ponds

sedimentation pond fully mixed digester

Sedimentation septic tank

anaerobic baffled reactor anaerobic filter

Anaerobic
digestion

planted gravel filter

Aerobic and
facultative
decomposition

aerobic-facultative ponds and aerobic polishing ponds

Post-treatment

Picture 3_1:
DEWATS confi-
guration scheme

35
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

The selection of appropriate technical configuration depends on the:

volume of wastewater
quality of wastewater
local temperature
underground conditions
land availability
costs
legal effluent requirements
cultural acceptance and social conditions
final handling of the effluent (discharge or reuse)

DEWATS rely on the same treatment processes as conventional treatment

systems:

Sedimentation
removal of easily begin of anaerobic fermentation removal of
settleable solids of bottom sludge possible sludge

Anaerobic digestion
settling of
mineralisation of mineralised
removal of easily suspended or particles, removal of
degradable organic dissolved organic collection and sludge
solids compounds, ventilation of
biogas production biogas

Aerobic and facultative decomposition

removal of easily mineralisation
settling of removal of
and more difficult of suspended or
mineralised sludge
degradable solids dissolved organic
particles
compounds

Post-treatment
Picture 3_2: removal of settling of finest retaining of removal of
Typical succession of suspended digested suspended living and sludge
solids and active solids, removal
treatment processes dead algae
bacteria mass of algae
within DEWATS

36
3.3 DEWATS good practice examples/applications

In recent years, DEWATS have been implemented at many different locations

by various institutions. Gathered experience shows that each location demands
its own approach. Below, a number of good practice examples/applications of
DEWATS are presented. These are not meant to be exhaustive; they highlight
different aspects of DEWATS implementation.

3.3.1 DEWATS/CBS Community-Based Sanitation Programme in Alam Jaya,

Tangerang, Java, Indonesia

Alam Jaya is a slum in the middle of an industrial area in Jakarta. Most residents
work in the nearby factories. Due to a high migration rate, social structures are
weak. The level of infrastructure development is low. Housing is poor with
insufficient water supply.

Sanitation facilities in the settlement are totally insufficient in terms of quality and
quantity. Wastewater is discharged into the environment without any treatment,
posing a permanent threat to human health.

Picture 3_3:
Housing in
Alam Jaya

37
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

Bina Ekonomi Sosial Terpadu (BEST - Institute for Integrated and Social
Development), a Tangerang-based non-profit organisation, has been promoting
Community Sanitation Centres (CSC) since 1999. The centres provide basic
sanitation facilities, such as toilets, bathrooms, a laundry area and water points.
The total wastewater flow is treated in a DEWATS. Until 2008, 33 Community
Sanitation Centres have been implemented in the Tangerang and Surabaya areas,
serving 14,800 users and treating 1,197m of wastewater per day.

Picture 3_4:
Typical sanitation
facilities in Alam
Jaya

Picture 3_5:
New Community
Sanitation Centre
in Alam Jaya

An intensive discussions process within the community

preceded the decision to build a Community Sanitation
Centre:
the residents desire for on-site toilets could not be
met, due to the small size of the houses and plots
the residents already use public toilets
there was great interest in a reliable
Picture 3_6: water supply point
Toilet at the CSC
residents expressed their willingness to pay
in Alam Jaya
for water-supply and sanitation services

38
The wastewater of the residents of the Alam Jaya quarter RT 02 RW 06
(65 households with 325 people) has the following parameters:

Source of water domestic

Volume 37.5m/day
Daily peak-flow hours: 16h
COD, influent: 743mg/l
BOD, influent 391mg/l
HRT in baffled tank 30h
Minimal digester 30C
temperature
Specific organic load 0.34kg/(m x d) Table 2:
(BOD5): Data of Alam Jaya
Number of up-flow 6 chambers
plant. in 2003, the
chambers construction cost
were 167 Mio. IDR
Volume of baffled 49.39m
or 20,000 US$.
reactor
Operation cost =
COD, effluent 137mg/l 444,000 IDR or
BOD5, effluent 62mg/l 55 US$/month.
Users pay per use.

Ground level superstructure

+0.47 (roof) of CSC

Ground
level Digester water level ABR Water level
-0.90 +0.00
Open drain
Water level
+0.00

Picture 3_7:
Section of
Community
Sanitation Centre
(CSC) in Alam Jaya
with toilets and
Flow separation of black and grey water: bathrooms
- black water from toilets is treated in the bio-digester
- overflow and grey water from bathrooms is treated in the ABR

39
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

3.3.2 DEWATS/CBS Community-Based Sanitation

Programme in Ullalu Upanagara, Bangalore, India

Ullalu Upanagara is a peri-urban slum, located south-west of Bangalore, with

3,569 households and 17,325 people of different ethnic groups. The socio-
economic situation of the residents is critical: inadequate basic amenities, high
unemployment, low literacy. Women in particular face social hardship within their
families and the community.

The weak socio-economic conditions are reflected in the infrastructure develop-

ment. Access to reliable drinking-water supply, to proper housing and to clean
sanitation is virtually non-existent. Only 21% of the households have their own
toilet. The residents defecate openly hindered by recent fencing.

Grama Swaraj Samithi (GSS), a local NGO, has been working in Ullalu Upanagara
in the field of preventive health care since the 1990s. Since 2001, GSS has been
promoting Community-Based Sanitation within the community. In close collabo-
ration with the residents and local authorities, the construction of two sanitation
centres was decided on. The implementation process was carried out as a pilot-
programme, to test the application of participatory, administrative and technical
instruments of the Community-Based Sanitation programme for the area.

Picture 3_8:
Infrastructure is
poor in Ullalu
Upanagara

40
The participatory planning process resulted in the following layout of the
overall complex:
2 separate sections one for women, one for men
11 toilets and 1 bathing unit per section
12 laundry facilities 8 for women, 4 for men
fresh-water consumption:
11.5m per day
water connection and supply assured by Zilla Panchayat
- use of rainwater harvesting tank during the rainy season
source and quantity of effluent:
toilet and bathing wastewater: 7.5m per day
laundry wastewater: 4.0m per day
low maintenance:
no piped water in toilets and bathing units
minimum electrical devices
security
female and male sections visibly separated
entrance area for control and collection of service charges

Picture 3_9:
Community
Sanitation Centre
under construction

41
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

Construction costs of the sanitation centre including DEWATS in 2004:

sanitation unit: INR 550,000 (US$ 11,875)
DEWATS-unit: INR 1,000,000 (US$ 21,590)
bore well and electrical power connection: INR 275,000 (US$ 5,940)
land value: INR 1,280,000 (US$ 27,640)
total cost per complex: INR 3,105,000 (US$ 67,045)

Picture 3_10:
Newly inaugurated
sanitation centre.
Initially designed for
750 users per day,
today over 1,000
visitors due to a
nearby bus station.

Picture 3_11:
Computer drawing
of a sanitation unit

Picture 3_12:
The Community-
Based Sanitation
programme was
closely planned in
collaboration with
the future "users

42
3.3.3 DEWATS at public institutions Sino-German College of Technology,
Shanghai, China

The Fenxian campus of the Sino-German College of Technology at East China

University of Science and Technology is located an hours drive from Shanghai.
It is an engineering college and its campus was planned for 6,500 teachers and
students (no accomodation).

The challenge for the schools authorities was to find a reliable and efficient solution
for treating their wastewater in accordance with the Environmental Standard
GB/T 18921-2002 (2nd stage). Tight budget constraints for initial investment and
operation restricted the possible wastewater-treatment options.

The campus wastewater consists of toilet effluent from the teaching buildings,
as well as polluted water from machinery-maintenance processes. The DEWATS
technical configuration had to consider therefore oil, NH3-N, grease and swarf,
besides the normal parameters of COD and BOD5.

Picture 3_13:
View of the college
campus

43
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

The chosen DEWATS consists of a module for grease separation and sedimen-
tation, a three-step anaerobic digester with filter, an underground sand filter (bio-
filtration) and an irrigation tank. Operation started in September 2004. The effluent
is used to irrigate compound gardens, while biogas is used to light campus street
lamps and water heating. The project costs were calculated at 960,000 RMB
(US$ 115,942).

biogas utilisation
for lighting and heating

irrigation of gardens
and green spaces

1 2 3 4 5 6

inlet outlet

oxidation pipe, inspection

DN 300, 600m well

sedimentation 3-step anaerobic digester: aerobic water tank

tank (10m3) 1 settler plus 2-step anaerobic filter, biofiltration for irrigation
165m3 digester volume each (201m3 ) (60m3)

Picture 3_14:
Schematic drawing
of the DEWATS
solution at the Sino-
German College
of Technology in
Shanghai, Fengxian
District

44
 Picture 3_15:
View of campus
buildings and
biogas street lights

Picture 3_16:
DEWATS under
construction

The effluent of the plant shows that the required discharge standards are met:

Inflow Sedimentation 3-step Aerobic Aerobic Inspection Required

tank anaerobic sand oxidation well legal
digester filter pipe standard
Sample
Point 1 2 3 4 5 6
Daily waste- 146.25 146.25 146.25 146.25 146.25 146.25
water flow
[m]
Capacity [m] 10 495 195 5 1
HRT [h] 81 32 0.8
CODcr [mg/l] 800 720 108 91.8 87.21 87 100
(removal rate) (10%) (85%) (15%) (5%)
BOD5 [mg/l] 400 360 39.6 31.68 28.5 28.5 30
(removal rate) (10%) (89%) (20%) (10%)
SS [mg/l] 200 180 90 45 45 150
(removal rate) (10%) (50%) (50%)
Table 3:
Water-treatment
NH3-N [mg/l] 80 40 16 14.4 14.4 15 data (analysis by
(removal rate) (50%) (60%) (10%) local environmental
Oil [mg/l] 20 10 10 15 protection bureau)
(removal rate) (50%)

45
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

3.3.4 DEWATS at public institutions Aravind Eye Hospital

in Thavalakuppam, Pondicherry, India

The Aravind Eye Hospital in Thavalakuppam belongs to the Tamil Nadu-based

Aravind Eye Care System. The philosophy of the Aravind System is to provide
services to the rich and poor alike, while achieving financial self-sustainability.
This is achieved through high-quality, large-volume care and efficient management.

The hospital in Thavalakuppam has the capacity to treat 750 in patients (600 free
admissions and 150 paid) and an additional 900 out patients. 300 paramedical
staff are housed in 26 residential quarters.

Due to the water scarcity in the region, the hospital management expressed
strong interest in a wastewater-treatment solution, that permits the reuse of
treated water.

The chosen DEWATS solution was designed to treat approximately 307m/d of

domestic wastewater from toilets, bathrooms and kitchens. Water reuse (due to
high water scarcity) and efficient land use had the highest priority in treatment-
process selection.

Aravind Eye Hospital

Picture 3_17:
Schematic drawing
of the DEWATS
at Aravind Eye
Hospital Anaerobic Baffled Reactor Anaerobic Filter Planted Gravel Filter Polishing Pond

46
The effluent of the DEWATS-plant irrigates a garden with 300 trees planted in
avenues, 250 coconut trees, 50 mango trees and 4,200m of lawns, covered with
Korean grass and flowering plants. In 2004, the hospital was honoured with
the Pondicherry Governments award for the best garden. Construction started
mid 2002, start of operation was February 2003. Construction cost are 10 Mio INR
(200,000 US$).

Picture 3_18:
Polishing pond
of Aravind Eye
Hospitals DEWATS.
Through reuse
of treated waste-
water, Aravind Eye
Hospital saves
annually 100,000m3
of freshwater.

47
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

Picture 3_19:
Horizontal filter
with canas indica,
reed juncus and
papyrus plants

Picture 3_20:
Baffled reactors
are used as a
parking lot

48
3.3.5 DEWATS/SME-Cluster approach Kelempok Mekarsari Jaya
small-scale industry cluster, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia

Mekarsari Jaya is a small-scale industry cluster in Pucuksari Selatan, Banjar Batur,

Denpasar. It consists of 54 entrepreneurs, engaged in tofu production and chicken
slaughtering. At the same time, Mekarsi Jaya is a settlement area for migrants
from other parts of Indonesia. Due to the poor infrastructural conditions, the area
is considered a slum by the local residents.

Wastewater from domestic and industrial sources is generally discharged to

nearby dead water channels without any treatment. But recently enforced
environmental regulations, mean that enterprises are forced to treat their waste-
waters before discharge.

The project was planned and implemented by BaliFokus, a Denpasar-based NGO.

Due to the settlement structure and topographical condition of the area, the
implementation of a central treatment unit for Mekarsari Jaya faced major tech-
nical obstacles. In order to meet the legal requirements of the authorities, it was
decided to implement two DEWATS in the area. While one system in Northern
Pucuksari serves 11 tofu-processing units and 5 chicken-slaughter houses, a
second system in Southern Pucuksari Selatun serves 7 processing plants.

Picture 3_21:
Tofu processing
causes high
water pollution
in Mekarsari Jaya

Picture 3_22:
Domestic and in-
dustrial wastewater
is discharged to
channels without
treatment

49
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

Wastewater analysis shows high loading of the wastewater:

Northern unit 50m/d wastewater influent with a BOD of 7,000mg/l
and COD of 11,000mg/l.
Southern unit 20m/d wastewater influent with a BOD of 5,000mg/l
and COD of 8,000mg/l.

Topography and settlement structure (densely populated) were the decisive

factors for technical plant layout. A bio-digester, followed by an anaerobic filter,
were found most suitable to treat the highly loaded wastewater.

Picture 3_23:
DEWATS treats
wastewater from
several industrial
units (sewerage
system= blue lines)

50
The following data characterises the DEWATS solution of the northern unit:

Source of water domestic

Volume 50m/d
Daily peak-flow hours: 12h Table 3a:
Characteristics of a
COD, influent: 11,000mg/l
DEWATS solution
BOD5, influent 7,000mg/l for small scale food
HRT in anaerobic filter 17.5h processing indus-
try and settlement
Minimum digester 30C
at Mekarsari Jaya
temperature
(northern unit).
Number of up-flow 3 chambers Start of construction:
filter chambers
09'2003
Volume of baffled 36.45m Start of operation:
reactor 04'2004
COD, effluent 335mg/l Construction
cost: 112 Mio. IDR
BOD5, effluent 191mg/l
(US$13,500)

Bio-Digester Anaerobic Filter

Inlet

Drain
Outlet

Inlet

Outlet

Picture 3_24:
Technical layout
and view of the
DEWATS unit at
Mekarsari Jaya
(northern unit)

Bio-Digester Anaerobic Filter

51
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

3.3.6 DEWATS/SME
Alternative Food Process Private Ltd. Bangalore, Karnataka, India

The food-processing unit is located in the suburbs of Bangalore city. The

company operates a gherkin-processing plant, where selected gherkins are
washed, prepared, pickled and stored over a period of 12 days before export.

The company caters semi-finished products to leading brands. High quality pro-
duction and adherence to delivery standards of international markets are the top
priority. The company employs around 100 people and handles 8 to 10 tonnes of
gherkins per day.

Picture 3_25 and 3_26:

The products of
Alternative Food
Process Private Ltd.
meet high delivery
standards for
national and inter-
national markets

The treatment of 29.1m/d organic wastewater (COD 800 / BOD 400mg/l) is

required. Due to water shortages in the area, water reuse is desirable.

To find the best treatment solution, a comprehensive analysis of the different

wastewater streams was undertaken. By handling certain wastewater streams
separately, the right treatment solutions could be applied to each situation:

98.000 97.950 97.750

Picture 3_27:
97.690 97.290
Schematic drawing
97.230 97.190
of the DEWATS at
Alternative Food Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
Planted Gravel Filter
Process Ltd. Control Pond

52
 Picture 3_28:
The anaerobic filter
under construction

Picture 3_29:
View of polishing
pond with shallow
sections for better
UV-disinfection
and multi-levels
for better aeration

1. Washing Water of Gherkins SE P OHT

Irrigation
2. Soaking Water of Gherkins SE

PP / ST
3. Floor Wash of Base Juice Area SE Picture 3_30:
System layout
(SE: Settler, BR:
4. Floor Wash of Maceration Room SE Baffle Reactor,
PGF: Planted
Gravel Filter, ST:
5. Gen Factory Cleaning SE PGF Storage Tank, PP:
Polishing Pond,
HRBC: High-rate
6. Sanitation Block SE BR Brine Condenser
(evaporation), OHT:
Overhead tank,
7. Spill over from base juice area store HRBC Evaporation platform P: Pump)

53
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

3.3.7 Infrastructural development in rural China Longtan Village,

Danleng County, Szechuan Province, China

The Chinese government aims to improve rural livelihood by promoting the

enhancement of rural infrastructure through different public programmes. Road
construction, housing, electricity provision, biogas utilisation, water supply and
wastewater schemes as well as solid-waste management are part of multiple
village modernisation programmes.

Longtan Village has a population of 965 people living in 262 households.

Agricultural production on approximately 56.7 ha of land is the main income
source for the residents. Traditionally, paddy and oil seeds were cultivated.
However, economic reforms have brought significant changes to Longtan: the
village has begun market production of oranges, grapes and oil seeds, while
raising 1,250 pigs in 2005. In this year, a households average annual income
was about 3,113 RMB per person (US$ 420).

Public authorities in rural China have the challenge of meeting legal wastewater
discharge standards. New air-quality standards have also been issued, demanding
a different treatment of rice-harvest residues, which were traditionally burned.
As a result, decentralised wastewater-treatment systems are promoted. A com-
bination of anaerobic and of aerobic-treatment units is applied to treat animal
dung, human faeces and residues from agricultural production. Biogas provides
a renewable-energy source, while slurry can be used in organic farming.

Picture 3_31:
DEWATS treats
human faeces and
agricultural residues

Picture 3_32:
DEWATS-generated
biogas is used for
multiple purposes,
such as water
heating

54
The villages development plan stipulates that 120 households should be con-
nected to biogas units, each with a volume of 10m. Rice residues are processed in
a chaff cutter before being emptied into the digesters. Bio-digesters with a
volume of 3.5m are mandatory for households without paddy production. Where
possible, homes are connected to one of two DEWATS plants in the village. The
treated wastewater is discharged into the open drainage system, which crosses
the village.

Picture 3_33:
Infrastructural
development pro-
grammes aim to
modernise Chinese
villages

Picture 3_34
DEWATS settler,
bio-digester, anae-
robic baffled reactor
and horizontal
filters (not shown)

55
3 DEWATS Sustainable treatment of wastewater
at the local level

3.3.8 DEWATS in integrated municipal planning Wenzhou University,

Zheijang Province, China

Since the 1980s, the government of Zhejiang Province has been promoting
DEWATS, particularly in urban areas, which are not connected to centralised
systems. Today, many of the provinces sources of domestic wastewater, such
as public toilets, apartment buildings, schools, hospitals and universities are
served by these treatment systems. Apart from domestic applications,
decentralised wastewater-treatment solutions are applied at small- and
medium-scale enterprises, like slaughterhouses, food processing and
animal-husbandry units.

The Wenzhou New Energy & Environmental

Design Institute (WNEEDI), an Institute of
the Rural Energy Office Wenzhou, is active
in the dissemination of innovative renew-
able-energy and ecological wastewater-
treatment projects (biogas plants, DEWATS,
solar thermic systems, hydro rams) within
the city and Wenzhou County. WNEEDI
Picture 3_35: started by promoting biogas plants
The central admi-
50 years ago and has slowly shifted its
nistration building
of the University of main activities to wastewater treatment
Wenzhou in urban areas.

Picture 3_36:
Arial view of the
University of
Wenzhou campus

56
Within this context, WNEEDI was responsible for the planning and implemen-
tation of an integrated wastewater concept for Whenzhou University, the first
university run jointly by the government and business. In 2005, the university
had approximately 10,000 students.

The DEWATS implemented at the University campus are viewed as the ideal
long-term solution. The treatment facilities will grow incrementally, in line with the
addition of new buildings and the overall growth of the campus.

Today, the university uses multiple DEWATS, with a total reactor volume of about
90,000m. Nearly all buildings, including the dormitories, have their own primary
treatment unit, which connects to shared, secondary treatment units. Units of
approximately 20 different treatment volumes, ranging from 40 to 800m, have
been implemented.

All systems consist of pre-treatment in fixed dome biogas modules. Two to four
digesters are usually connected in series. After anaerobic treatment, the waste-
water is aerobically treated by flowing over cascades. Final treatment is provided
by two to four horizontal-flow sand filters in series.

Implementation is carried out by contractors, specialised in decentralised waste-

water treatment. To ensure gas-tight construction of biogas domes, certification
of the building contractors is required. The local Rural Energy Offices are
responsible for certification; Wenzhou County has eight certified contractors.

Picture 3_37:
The project team
tests the treatment
performance.

Picture 3_38:
Construction of the
anaerobic filter
(in front)

57
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

Nowadays public authorities are challenged to provide sanitation and wastewater-

treatment services on a large scale. Mainstreaming decentralised wastewater-
treatment solutions is one of the key elements for sustainable infrastructure
development.

4.1 Strategic planning of sanitation programmes

Comprehensive wastewater strategies may consider different options for the

treatment and discharge of wastewater:
treatment in a centralised plant, which is connected to a combined or
separate sewer system
treatment in several medium-sized treatment plants, which are connected
to a combined or separate sewer system
primary and secondary treatment in decentralised plants, which are connected
to a sewer line, leading to a common plant for final treatment
completely decentralised treatment with final discharge, reuse, or connection
to communal sewerage
controlled discharge without treatment (ground percolation, surface-
water dilution)

The final decision, on which treatment option is most suitable for a given water
pollution problem, should be based on a number of different considerations,
which are discussed in greater depth later in this book. Different options may be
considered for residential areas:
Simplified community-sewerage systems with household-based sanitation
systems are preferred in areas where the residents have sufficient financial re-
sources and households have sufficient space. On average, 20 to 100 families
are connected to one system. The system consists of toilets and bathrooms
within each household. The wastewater is directed to a DEWATS by shallow,
narrow sewer lines.
Shared septic tanks present a simpler version of the household-based sanitation
system with off-site treatment. A smaller cluster of about 10 to 50 households
is connected to a community septic tank. The system treats toilet and bathroom
effluent from each household. Wastewater is channeld to the septic tank by
shallow small-diameter sewer lines. The wastewater cannot be discharged
directly to the aquatic environment, due to the low effluent quality of the septic
tank. The system is, usually only applied, therefore where soil conditions allow
the direct infiltration of the effluent without any harm to the groundwater.

58
 Community Sanitation Centres (CSCs) are appropriate in areas where financial
resources are very limited and most residents live in rented rooms or huts,
leaving no space for in-house sanitation. The centre is established at a central
location within the settlement and offers different services as requested by
the community. Services can include water points, toilets, bathrooms and
laundry areas. Each CSC is connected to a DEWATS, usually located under-
ground below the Centre. CSCs are usually guarded and operated by paid
staff.

The experience gathered in multiple efforts to create efficient and cost-effective

sanitation and wastewater-treatment strategies clearly shows that, without com-
prehensive legal frameworks and efficient law enforcement, without institutional
capacities within public and private services, without relevant financial resources,
and without awareness at the household or enterprise level, the hoped-for health
and environmental standards cannot be achieved.

Shared Septic Tank

Simplified Community
Sewerage

Community
Sanitation Centre Picture 4_1:
Different treatment
options within a
CBS programme

59
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

In many countries, new legal regulations have favoured a rapid increase in the
demand for decentralised wastewater-treatment systems. For many public
and private entities DEWATS poses the only solution for complying with legal
requirements within the time constraints. The situation raises the question:
How can these technical options be integrated effectively into regional and
municipal planning processes, in order to reach an economy of scale?

Since the goal of public authorities is not to promote specific technical solutions,
but rather to achieve political and administrative targets, the following questions
must be considered by all key decision-makers:
Under which conditions should DEWATS be preferred over other technical
solutions?
What are the advantages of DEWATS over other wastewater-treatment
options?
How can a legal and institutional framework be created, which facilitates
comprehensive sanitation and efficient wastewater-treatment schemes?
What are the core elements of such schemes?
Who are the stakeholders, who should be involved in the process?
What kind of approach is required to ensure efficient, cost-effective and
sustainable implementation?
How can the implementation of such schemes be initiated and maintained?

The government of Indonesia, for example, evaluated multiple efforts in the sani-
tation sector, as a basis for creating an implementation scheme for a nation-wide
programme. It was concluded that the exclusive top-down approach must be
replaced by a conceptual framework, which includes demand-driven services,
multi-stakeholder involvement, and multi-task planning as guiding principles.

In order to overcome the poor long-term performance of many projects and

initiatives, the government of Indonesia has decided that further guiding principles
should play an integral part in any planning and implementation activities:
sustainability of financing
sustainability of technical know-how
sustainability of environmental management
sustainability of infrastructural management
sustainability of social interaction

60
This conceptual framework reflects the international discussion about how sanitation
and wastewater treatment services can have the optimal sustainable impact.

The following features present the underlying principles of an efficient and cost-
effective programme:
comprehensive legal regulations
efficient law enforcement
target-orientated local and municipal planning
demand-responsive approach
comprehensive assessment of local and community needs
service orientation
multi-stakeholder involvement
appropriate choice of technology
multi-task planning
financial analysis and long-term financial planning
sound planning and monitoring of the implementation process
capacity building
step-by-step implementation

Government Community Awareness Campaign

Policy Economic
Framework Commodity Community

Technology
Regional Demand Options Development
of institutions
(water
management
Participatory cooperatives,
Other Stakeholders: Willingness
Approach water utilities)
Private/NGOs to pay
Implementation or other legal, Picture 4_2:
community-
Conceptual frame-
based
O&M work of Indonesias
Provision of Demand entities.
Development & National Sanitation
facilitator Fulfillment
Replication Programme

61
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.2 Legal framework and efficient law enforcement

A comprehensive legal framework and its efficient enforcement at the local level
are essential to the success of sanitation and wastewater-treatment strategies.

Wastewater-treatment schemes must meet the legal discharge standards, defined

within the legislation of each country. Those standards, however, are rarely met
in developing countries. The reasons for this are manifold.

In most countries, legal environmental and discharge standards are based on

the most scientifically advanced treatment technologies available on the market.
Discharge standards in developing countries often refer to those from industri-
alised countries, where sophisticated treatment technologies can be applied to
treat the highly diluted municipal sewage. The different prerequisites in develo-
ping countries, including wastewater composition, economic and socio-economic
conditions as well as financial and organisational restrictions, create large discre-
pancies between desired effluent standards and the actual services that can be
provided. In some cases, standards thereby achieve adverse effects, as they are
considered unrealistic and ignored.

examples COD BOD5 COD/ SS Flow

g/cap.*d g/cap.*d BOD5 g/cap.*d l/cap.*d
India urban 76 40 1.90 230 180
USA urban 180 80 2.25 90 265
China pub. toilet 760 330 2.30 60 230
Table 4:
Some selected Germany urban 100 60 1.67 75 130
domestic waste- France rural 78 33 2.36 28 150
water-data.
Source: BORDA France urban 90 55 1.64 60 250

At point-source effluent sources, like hospitals and small-scale industries, compli-

ance with given discharge standards often proves too expensive. Thus, individual
polluters frequently decide to either completely ignore the problem or to set up
a fake treatment system to please the environmental authorities. In other cases,
complicated technology is implemented, but often soon results in the described
performance problems.

62
 Indian National Discharge Standards
discharge into
parameter unit inland surface public sewers land for marine coastal
water irrigation area
SS mg/I 100 600 200 100
pH 5.5 to 9 5.5 to 9 5.5 to 9 5.5 to 9
temperature C <+5 <+5
BOD5 mg/I 30 350 100 100
COD mg/I 250 250
oil and grease mg/I 10 20 10 20
total res. chlorine mg/I 1 21
NH3-N mg/I 50 50 50
Nkjl-as NH3 mg/I 100 100
free ammonia as NH3 mg/I 5 5
nitrate N mg/I 10 20 Table 5:
diss. phosphates as P mg/I 5 Source: Central
Pollution Control
sulphides as S mg/I 2 5
Board, Delhi

It is becoming increasingly apparent that a more realistic approach must be

sought:

Undue haste in adopting standards, which are currently too high, can lead to
the use of inappropriate technology in pursuit of unattainable or unaffordable
objectives and, in doing so, produces an unsustainable system. There is a
great danger in setting standards and then ignoring them. It is often better to
set appropriate and affordable standards and to have a phased approach to
improving the standards as and when affordable. In addition, such an approach 20 Johnson et all,
Institutional
permits the country the opportunity to develop its own standards and gives
Developments,
adequate time to implement a suitable regulatory framework and to Standards and River
develop the institutional capacity necessary for enforcement.20 Quality, 1996

Recently, an increasing number of countries have launched initiatives to draft

more realistic legal frameworks. Regulations cover a wide range of topics, in-
cluding the practices of service providers, design standards, tariffs, discharge
standards and contracts. These regulations, especially design and discharge
standards, are carefully adapted to local conditions and no longer just copied from
regulations applied in industrialised nations.

63
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

For example, in its Water Act the Government of the Republic of South Africa
defines differentiated wastewater-treatment and disposal standards, according to
wastewater type, quantity and the location of generation. While high standards
are applied to areas of high risk, in terms of ecology and health, lower standards
are defined for other locations, such as sparsely populated areas. This pragmatic
approach widens the scope of applicable technological solutions, ensuring a more
21 Ref. Government
Gazette No. 20526 site-specific treatment-option selection and thereby increasing the positive impact
8 October 1999. on health and environment on a larger scale.21

Comprehensive law enforcement was and is one of the major challenges to the
successful implementation of wastewater strategies. Due to weak institutional
capacities, the adherence to regulations was and is seldom properly monitored
by public bodies. In many countries, the relevant authorities are rarely prepared to
carry out performance-orientated site monitoring. Public agents frequently request
the implementation of sophisticated hardware, even in cases where a decrease
of wastewater pollution might be more efficient and less expensive achieved by
wastewater-prevention measures. There is a great necessity for institutional capa-
city building. On the other hand, the corruption in many countries must be over-
come, if the legal framework is to be enforced effectively.

The enforcement of comprehensive legal standards can be perceived as a major

driving force for improving the current sanitation situation with efficient and cost-
effective wastewater solutions:
existing small and medium-scale industries are urged to comply with
discharge standards in short term
new industrial sites, slaughterhouses and hospitals only receive clearance
once reliable wastewater treatment is provided
new housing colonies and residences are only approved if they ensure
efficient treatment of the generated domestic wastewater
municipalities and local governments are urged to protect surface and ground-
water bodies from the intrusion of domestic and industrial wastewaters

64
A reliable legal framework must be backed up by an efficient policy framework
and law-enforcement procedures. Institutional capacities must be created, and
standardised law-enforcement procedures must be developed.

Awareness-building campaigns within the civil society can help to create leverage
for law enforcement. In many countries, cases have been filed by individuals,
neighbourhood groups and NGOs, forcing polluters to close down operations
because they were not willing or not able to meet discharge quality standards.

It seems obvious that recent and future ecological developments will be reflected
in the legal frameworks. The extensive use of natural resources requires more
stringent regulations. Surely economic instruments on the macro level will influ-
ence the sanitation sector in the near future. The more fresh-water resources are
perceived as a valuable and scarce public asset, the higher water will be priced.
Pricing directly influences water consumption and the search for wastewater
solutions, which are based on reuse or closed loop concepts.

65
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.3 Target-oriented local and municipal planning

4.3.1 Features of urban infrastructure development

A closer look at the socio-economic structure of a city can provide a first

overview of relevant decision parameters for the final selection of appropriate
technology.

The dynamic economic growth of most cities in the developing world caused
deep social transformation within these societies. Rural areas and villages were
rapidly integrated into spreading urban settlements. Agricultural land was conver-
ted into new residential and industrial areas. These trends can be still observed
almost everywhere.

In most cases, this development lacks systematic planning of land use and ade-
quate infrastructural development. By studying urban land-use patterns, one can
gain insight into the social stratification and economic diversification of an area.
While wealthy neighbourhoods are supplied with relevant infrastructure, in-
formal settlements are left with only limited or no access to basic infrastructure.
Even if a central sewage system cannot be extended everywhere, formal set-
tlements are usually connected to septic tanks, while informal settlements ha-
ve no treatment at all. Wastewater from industrial areas is commonly channelled
directly to the closest surface waters.

Since informal settlements are a major driving force in most urbanisation

processes, the following land-use pattern is quite common in the larger cities
of developing countries.

Close to the city centre, a number of informal settlements exist. These are often
found in so called risk areas, such as dump sites, railway crossings, etc. The
livelihood of the dwellers is usually dependent on activities in the informal sector
or day labour.

66
Similar peri-urban settlements are found at the outskirts of urban areas.
Dwellers of these settlements commonly generate income from day labour and
small-scale commercial activities or business. If possible, self-subsistence farming
is practised on nearby lands. Due to the unclear situation regarding land owner-
ship and the general negligence towards the urban poor, there is little public
investment in infrastructure in these regions.

Since these areas are most responsible for urban growth, their importance to
comprehensive urban-infrastructure development is obvious. Particular entities,
such as small-scale industry clusters, schools and hospitals in semi- and peri-
urban areas, face the greatest problems in meeting discharge standards.

Picture 4_3:
Informal settlements
in greater urban
areas of developing
countries
Source: GTZ, 2002

67
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.3.2 Sanitation mapping as a tool for efficient urban-infrastructure development

In recent years Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become an integral

part of comprehensive urban-development strategies. GIS is a tool for visualising
parameters, which are relevant for infrastructure development. Sanitation map-
ping permits the analysis of collected data, like the current situation of sanitation
infrastructure, the impact of poor infrastructure on environment, and the driving
forces, such as the socio-economic dynamics, of a given location. A database of
the following parameters is beneficial for efficient sanitation mapping:
topography
natural water-drainage systems rivers, streams, creeks
land-use patterns residential zones, industrial and agricultural areas
existing city master-plan
existing water-related infrastructure sewers and water supply
main water-pollution sources
residential structure
population density
socio-economic situation of residents
existing sanitation facilities
community health conditions

GIS can be a powerful tool for poverty-alleviation programmes. Shelter Associates,

an NGO based in Pune, India, implements housing programmes in poor areas.
Shelter Associates applies GIS to generate a reliable database, which supports
systematic programme approaches, as practised at the Community Water and
Sanitation Facility at Sangli-Miraj-Kupwad Municipal Corporation (SMKMC).

SMKMC is located on the banks of the Krishna River in southern Maharashtra. In

2001, SMKMC had a population of 478,500. It covers about 118 km. Although
the Municipal Corporation is only four years old, almost 15 per cent of its popula-
tion live in slum settlements. The lack of access to basic infrastructure and civic
amenities is a main feature of the area.

68
In order to get an overview of the existing sanitation situation, all the SMKMC
settlements were mapped by plane table survey methods and each household
was surveyed individually. The information was entered in GIS software and a
detailed analysis of each slum pocket was compiled. The data generated gave
a detailed picture of the existing water and sewage situation. Maps of the dilapi-
dated water-supply network and sanitation facilities were developed.

It became apparent that the city has not undertaken any major improvements
or extensions in the past 20 years. As a result, more than 11,500 households in
Sangli were left without any basic sanitation access. Information gathered on a
household level underlined the linkage between poor sanitation and weak socio-
economic structures.

Picture 4_4:
Satellite photo of
SMKMC (Source:
by google earth)

69
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

Structure (157)

Locked houses (34)

Shops1

Toilets (55)

Bathrooms1 (56)

Families below poverty line (63)

Join of structure and KhutabacMangalPeth (157) (63)

Picture 4_5:
Existing sewage
system in SMKMC

Picture 4_6:
Sanitation-relevant
data on household
level in SMKMC

70
Similar features can be observed in the City of Lusaka, Zambia. A GIS-generated 22 Urban Development
Plans and
sanitation map shows that there are two main sewage-disposal methods within
Infrastructure
the urban area:22 Services for the
centralised waterborne methods, which comprise a sewer network, City of Lusaka.,
sewage-pumping stations and sewage-treatment works and Lusaka Water
and Sewerage
on-site sanitation methods, like septic tanks and soakaways, pit latrines, Company, 2005
aqua privies and cesspools

Additional information, relevant to the future development of a wastewater

strategy and the identification of suitable technological options, was compiled:
only about 30% of the areas, which receive water supply from the Lusaka
Water and Sewerage Company, are serviced by a sewer network
the sewer network is divided into six catchment areas, each serviced
by a sewage-treatment plant
storm water and sewage waste are drained through separate systems.
the sewage network operates mainly on gravity flow; few areas are served
by pumping stations

sewer

septic tanks
Picture 4_7:
latrines
Lusaka Sanitation
Map

71
 4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

The Community-Based Sanitation programme in Ullalu, Upanagara, Bangalore,

India, described in section 3.3.2 also applied sanitation mapping to find the most
effective way to improve the sanitation situation of the large slums dwellers.
Besides the careful assessment of physical parameters, such as topography, land
availability and existing infrastructure facilities, comprehensive household surveys
were carried out. After detailed analysis, participatory methods for project plan-
ning were applied. The combination of physical and social data within the same
maps showed the connections between the availability of sanitation facilities at
the household level, the socio-economic situation of the dwellers and their pre-
paredness to contribute to the overall improvement of sanitation infrastructure
(willingness to pay). The insights-gained were key decision parameters for
sanitation-centre site selection. Chosen sites provide both the required physical
preconditions as well as a strong acceptance of the new utility by the users.

Picture 4_8:
Position of two
sanitation com-
plexes within
Ullalu slum

For application in full-scale urban planning, sanitation mapping must combine

a wide range of relevant parameters. Besides all the data mentioned above, the
overall dynamics of current developments and the available resources within
the sanitation sector should be included. The tool can then be used to assess
whether decentralised wastewater-treatment solutions are appropriate for a
given location.

The following locations are the most favourable types for the implementation
of DEWATS:
locations far away from central sewerage and wastewater-treatment
systems, or where a connection to such a system is unlikely due to financial
reasons
locations suffering from water scarcity

72
 locations which are difficult to attach to central sewage systems, due to the
topographical profile of the area (hilly areas, ravines, etc.)
23 Further planning
locations with polluters, such as schools, hospitals, slums, new housing colo- details will be dis-
nies, and small and medium industries, needing immediate and intermediate cussed in chapters
wastewater-treatment solutions23 5 and 6

A sanitation map containing all relevant data and parameters should help
identify those areas of a city, that are most suitable for centralised and/or
decentralised wastewater-treatment approaches.

Picture 4_9:
Example of how
a sanitation map,
detecting areas sui-
table to centralised
and decentralised
wastewater-treat-
ment solutions
might look

Picture 4_10:
GIS-optimised
positioning of
decentralised se-
wage and waste-
water-treatment
facilities within a
housing scheme in
Karnataka, India

73
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.4 Financial analysis

4.4.1 Comparative cost analysis for infrastructure development

Economic parameters have a major influence on technology selection. Available

funds must be allocated in such a way that the required treatment efficiency
is met, while being cost-efficient in providing treatment of the desired
quantity of wastewater.

Centralised sewage-treatment systems usually require high investments not

only for the treatment unit itself, but particularly for the sewerage system.
Decentralised solutions, therefore, often have a comparative advantage over
conventional systems, especially when they are located in dispersed settlements
or serve scattered pollution points.

Tetriary wastewater treatment

Sewer connection and secondary

wastewater treatment

Connection to conventional sewer

Sewer connection with local labour

Septic-tank latrine

Pour-flush latrine

Ventilated improved pit latrine

Simple pit latrine

Picture 4_11:
Costs of different
sanitation options.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Source: UNDP,
HDR 2006 Estimated cost per person (US$)

74
Solutions such as VIP latrines and pit latrines are at the other end of the invest-
ment scale. Their safe application, however, is usually restricted to rural areas
with low groundwater levels, in order to prevent negative effects on the environ-
ment and on public health.

The highest potential of DEWATS lies in peri-urban areas. Costs for the sewerage
network of a centralised system can be up to five times higher than the sewage
treatment plant itself. On-site DEWATS reduce sewerage network costs signifi-
cantly. Furthermore, the cost of the treatment unit should also be lower, due to a
less-sophisticated technical layout.
Picture 4_12:
DEWATS, Indonesia:
Indonesia India
Initial investment
800 USD 2.500 USD
costs vs. daily
700 USD
2.000 USD
treatment capacity
600 USD in m, 2004
500 USD 1.500 USD
400 USD Picture 4_13:
300 USD 1.000 USD DEWATS, India:
200 USD Initial investment
500 USD
100 USD costs vs. daily
0 USD 0 USD treatment capacity
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 m3/d 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 m3/d in m, 2004

The exact cost of a DEWATS unit depends on the configuration of the system
and the location. DEWATS are configured according to the desired treatment effi- 24 Additional para-
meters, such as
ciency and various site-specific conditions. Since highest priority should be given
insect breeding,
to treatment efficiency and smooth handling of operation and maintenance, ponds may need to be
rather than tanks and tanks rather than filters are recommended.24 considered as well.

However, the ever-increasing value of real estate not only in city centres, but
also in fast growing peri- and semi-urban areas eliminates treatment ponds as a
viable option, due to their requirement for large surface area. Intensive treatment
in compact anaerobic digesters proves more cost-effective in many locations.
Due to restricted land availability, DEWATS are frequently constructed as a
series of underground settlers, baffled reactors or anaerobic filters, followed by
constructed wetlands and polishing ponds.

75
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

Convenience

CBS-Technical
Options

Conventional centralised
Common On-site and high-cost systems
Sanitation Systems

Picture 4_14:
Cost and
Convenience
a comparison of
sanitation and
wastewater-treat-
ment systems in
peri-urban areas

Costs

A study carried out in India and Indonesia shows the relationship between the
scale of a project and the required DEWATS investment costs (land, materials and
construction). The cost per volume of treated wastewater per day
decreases significantly as the treatment capacity of the plant increases. The
high variation of cost data within the study results mainly from varying property
prices at the different locations.

In comparing different wastewater-treatment options, a comprehensive financial

analysis should consider the following:
investment in equipment and construction
price of the land
costs for financing
operation and maintenance cost

76
4.4.2 Economic analysis in times of global warming and energy scarcity

The advantages of DEWATS over centralised systems become more apparent

when external costs are included in the financial analysis. At a time of water
scarcity, of rising energy prices and of global warming, decision-makers have to
find their way through a multitude of important economic and ecological para-
meters. For example, most centralised systems rely on flush toilets, which
contribute significantly to water consumption in growing urban water systems
and, along with the increase in demand for clean safe water and the problem of
large water losses, contribute to the deterioration of water resources. Particularly
in present and future regions of water scarcity, this leads to greater water stress
and higher prices for fresh-water generation. Increased water usage reduces the
natural recovery capacity of water-catchment areas and, thereby, increases the
cost to the national economy, as more of its
environmental assets are depleted. Furthermore, the energy need for water
transport and wastewater treatment is far higher than commonly perceived.

Given the complexity of the issue, it is obvious that the discussion about sustainable
energy and water use has just started. But there is evidence that such strategies
have to consider the real costs of the use of resources. Incorporating real
costs into water and energy prices will influence utilities and institutions in their
search for the most cost-effective technological option. In particular, technologies
permitting water reuse as DEWATS do may gain significant, comparative
advantages. Addressing complex urban water systems with a more holistic view 25 See publications
by Pillay, Friedrich
can be achieved through the framework of life cycle management (LCM). At the
& Buckley on the
core is the application of environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) as one of the LCA of sanitation
most important tools.25 systems.

As mentioned earlier, wastewater management plays an important role with

regard to the sustainable use of water. According to the California Energy
Commission, about 4% of Californias demand for electricity is for the purpose
of water transport and water treatment. Though such a figure might differ signifi-
cantly from region to region and country to country, this electricity demand results
in an important generation of CO emissions. Looking at the impact of wastes
26 See: Perry L.
and waste treatment, analysis data from the US EPA show that in the year 2000, McCarty: "Towards
4% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions are caused by methane (CH4) and Sustainability A
nitrous oxide (N2O) from anthropogenic wastewater, manure and solid waste. Paradigm Shift in
Concepts, Analyses,
Wastewater itself represents about 1.3% of these emissions mostly generated
and Goals, presen-
in ponds, septic tanks and sewer lines where the methane is not collected and tation at WEFTEC,
burned.26 2007

77
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

In order to find out how energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
from wastewater treatment can be reduced, Perry L. McCarty did a comparative
analysis of three treatment layouts in California.
the first: a traditional aerobic treatment with nitrification of the excess sludge
the second: a traditional aerobic treatment with nitrification followed by
anaerobic digestion of excess sludge
the third: high-rate aerobic ponds for algae production followed by anaerobic
digestion of the removed algae. The further treatment steps after algae remo-
val are: stabilisation ponds, flotation, nitrification, filtration and disinfection

In this calculation it is taken into account that

CO2 emissions will be penalised and
biogas generated in anaerobic digestion is used for cogeneration of heat and power

The analysis shows, that the third layout not only produces 80% less greenhouse
gas emissions than the first layout; moreover, the absence of both oxygen supply
and incineration allow for an unrivalled positive energy balance (Table 6).

The study concludes that wastewater treatment alternatives need to be evaluated

against climate change concerns:
methane from wastes must be contained
desired alternatives are those that reduce both greenhouse gas emissions
and power consumption
anaerobic digestion is likely to be an attractive component of the
alternatives and
wastewater is considered a resource for water, energy and plant nutrients

Figures on how the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from
production of manufactured mineral fertiliser and its transport over long distances
can be prevented through recovery of nutrients from wastewater is given in the
SuSanA factsheet "Links between sanitation, climate change and renewable
energies" (Sustainable Sanitation Alliance, working group 3).

As shown in section 3.3 (good practice), DEWATS solutions can serve as a model
case for sustainability coming in response to climate change concerns:
securing access to basic sanitation services,
protecting natural resources and
providing opportunities for reuse of water, energy and nutrients.

78
 CO2 equivalents (1,000kg/day) energy costs US$ 1000/year
based on the treatment of 10,000kg BOD5/day treatment of 10,000kg BOD5/day

No. layout BOD incine- digestion CH4 oxi- CH4 nitrifica- energy Total oxygen CO2 excess Total
re- ration CO2 dation losss tion usage supply penalty power
moval [1%] [US$20/
tonC]
1 Aerobic + 3.6 20.4 2.8 2.2 29 178 58 236
Incineration
2 Aerobic + 3.6 2.6 5.4 1.1 2.8 (3.3) 12.2 178 24 (299) (97)
Digestion
3 Algae + 3.4 6.8 1.4 1.2 (6.6) 6.2 12 (378) (366)
Digestion

Table 6:
Greenhouse gas
emissions and
energy consumption
from wastewater
treatment in California
Source: Perry L.
McCarty, 200726

Picture: 4_15:
Timbuktu, Mali.
Not only in semi-
arid regions: flush-
based toilet systems
are often economic-
ally and ecologically
unsustainable

79
 4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.4.3 Economic considerations for point-source polluters

Regional or urban planners may apply different economic-decision criteria to those

of the owners of hospitals, small or medium enterprises, or residential estates,
who are urged to find an efficient and cost-effective wastewater-treatment so-
lution. While planners focus on the long-term overall development of a region,
those running institutions or businesses are concerned with the compliance of
legal-discharge standards, often at short notice. In these cases, decentralised
wastewater-treatment solutions are frequently the only option; so the most ap-
propriate decentralised option must be chosen. Decentralised treatment can be
provided by:
rotating, biological disc reactors
trickling filters
activated sludge processes
fluidised bed reactors
sequencing batch reactors
or DEWATS, as described in this book

Picture 4_16
Many high-tech
wastewater-treat-
ment systems
function inefficiently
because its not pos-
sible to have quali-
fied staff to operate
and maintain them

80
Since DEWATS are based on simple technology, which requires minimal
operation and maintenance, they are favourable with regard to investment and
running costs. Other technologies may require continuous support by qualified
staff often this is neither available nor affordable.

In theory, sound economic analysis requires comparable data about the various
systems to be compared. In reality, the specific site conditions and the priorities
of the decision-makers prevent the formulation of a standardised comparison and
decision process. Every site requires its own assessment.

At the very least, the following parameters should be considered:

potential for reduction of wastewater quantity
potential for reduction of pollution load
geography, geology and topography
space availability
availability of qualified staff for the required tasks
discharge standards
social environment and neighbourhood

Depending on the situation, the final decision usually has a strong socio-
economic bias:

It has been shown that, under certain local circumstances, large variations in
economy are to be expected, but the general conclusion (...) is that the eco-
nomy of the various treatment processes does not differ that much. In many
cases the costs are approximately the same. This increases the importance of
those factors which cannot be included in an economic survey. Some of these
factors are limiting factors in the sense that they limit the free selection
between the various methods. If large areas of land are not available, then
oxidation ponds must be disregarded even if it is the most economically favou-
rable solution. If electricity supply is unreliable, then activated sludge systems
27 The Danish
cannot be considered. (...) It can be argued that the factors mentioned above Academy of
are purely economic in nature, e.g. a reliable electricity supply is merely (!) a Technical Sciences:
matter of economy. However, the costs involved in changing these factors to industrial waste-
water treatment
non-limiting factors are so high that there is no point in including such conside- in developing
rations here.27 countries, 1984

81
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.4.4 Parameters for economic calculation

Global estimates of return on investments in water and sanitation published by

WHO and the World Bank show that the return on a US$1 investment is in the
order of US$ 5-34, depending on the intervention.
The benefits reflect a range of expected financial and economic savings to the
intervention beneficiaries, including time savings due to easier access, gain in
productive time and reduced health care costs saved due to less illness, and pre-
vented deaths. The results are impressive and provide evidence that all water and
sanitation improvements are cost-beneficial in all developing world sub-regions.
While investments in water and sanitation today are recognized as highly cost-
effective interventions contributing to all Millennium Development Goals, it has to
be added that the above mentioned studies are based on social and not financial
cost-benefit analysis: costs reflect mainly financial costs whereas economic bene-
fit is measured in terms of public health and social welfare (focussing on a real
but hypothetical set of benefits) and not financially measurable benefits.
In other words: wastewater-treatment systems are not implemented to generate
income. Although valuable by-products are created, such as biogas as a renewable-
energy source, sludge as an organic fertiliser, or recycled water for the reduction
of overall fresh-water consumption, wastewater-treatment systems are primarily
infrastructural services, which must be financed by public/private bodies or indi-
viduals.
As the price of natural resources, such as oil or phosphorus, continues to
increase, the valuable by-products of wastewater-treatment units will begin to
play a greater role. In most cases, these products currently do not generate

Picture 4_17:
The integration of
DEWATS into the
infrastructure here
is a parking lot in
Java can reduce
investment costs

82
enough return to reach a financial break-even point. However, new macro-
economic tools, like regulations that promote electricity supply to the grid
and new power-generating technologies, are beginning to affect the market.
Significant returns should be possible at sites with intensive animal husbandry
in the very near future. As a general rule of thumb, however, classical financial
cost-benefit analysis does not fit the economy of wastewater treatment yet.

The annual cost method appears to be a more apt economic indicator. It creates
a more comprehensive picture of the economic implications by factoring depre-
ciation on capital investment and operational costs into the calculation. Expenses
to the polluter, like discharge fees, or income from the reuse of by-products are
analysed on an annual basis. A spreadsheet for computerised calculations is
presented in chapter 10.

Cost of land

Data about the cost of land may be essential when comparing different treatment
systems. The applicability of sand filters or ponds is affected more by the price of
land than the applicability of compact anaerobic digesters; where land prices are
high, compact tanks not ponds or filters will be the natural choice. The value
of real estate can vary widely, depending on the location. In some cases, it may
contribute up to 80% of the investment cost.

Construction costs

Annual costs are influenced by

the lifetime of the hardware. It
may be assumed that the buil-
ding and ground structures have
a lifetime of 20 years, while filter
media, most pipelines, manhole
covers, etc. are only likely to last
for 10 years. Other equipment,
such as valves, gas pipes, etc., Picture 4_18:
DEWATS are quality
remains durable for six years. products planning
All structural elements should and monitoring of
be categorised into one of these implementation
must be carried out
three categories.It is assumed by experienced staff

83
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

that full planning costs will reoccur at the end of the lifetime of the main struc-
ture, i.e. in about 20 years. In any individual case, the costs of planning can be
estimated. Costing will be carried out by an experienced local engineering team
being also responsible for designing and supervising the implementation of
DEWATS used for. Due to the high-quality requirements of decentralised systems,
engineering costs are likely to be relatively high. In addition, other labour costs
plus laboratory costs for the initial testing of unknown wastewaters must also be
included.

Items of work Unit Quantity

1 Earth work, excavation for baffled reactor m 478.40
2 Plain cement concrete (PCC), m 23.92
10cm thickness, floor of the tank
3 Sand filling, 10cm thickness m 23.92
4 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC), m 70.65
vertical slabs for outer walls, internal baffle walls
5 RCC, cover slab, 15cm thickness m 23.23
6 Plastering inside the baffled reactor using 1:4 mortar m 1,078.00
7 Pre-cast ferrocement baffle walls, 3cm m 236.87
thickness with necessary brick pins
Table 7:
Materials required 8 Supplying and fixing 6-inch pipes for inlet & outlet m 12.00
to construct 9 Supplying and fixing 6-inch T-pipes no 4.00
DEWATS to treat
10 Filter media for anaerobic filters m 18.50
the wastewater of
approximately 1,000 11 Manhole, size: 450mm x 450mm no 15.00
people (sewage 12 Manhole, size: 600mm x 600mm no 2.00
production per day
13 Filter drains for reusing treated water for irrigation m 200.00
80m3/d)

Running costs

Running expenses include the cost of personnel for operation, maintenance

and management, including monitoring. Cost is based on the amount of time
needed for qualified staff (including staff trained on the job) to attend to the plant.
The time required for plant operation is normally assessed on a weekly basis.
If inspection and attendance are covered by permanent staff, cost calculation
is simple. Special services, requiring external work force, incur additional costs.
Shared facilities, created by attaching 5 to 10 households to one DEWATS, are
likely to be 10% cheaper than individual plants. In such a case, operational
responsibility must be clearly defined to ensure reliable maintenance and
sustainable operation.

84
Open systems, such as ponds or constructed wetlands, require more regular at-
tendance than closed systems, as they may be damaged or disturbed by animals,
stormy weather or falling leaves. The cost for desludging and sludge treatment,
however, will be higher for heavily loaded tanks than for ponds, which receive on-
ly pre-treated wastewater.

Picture 4_19:
Service vehicle
in Vietnam
desludging costs
are important for
financial analysis

Additional benefits from wastewater treatment

The market value of wastewater treatment by-products can be estimated by

calculating the price of the products that they substitute.
Especially in dry regions, water is a major cost factor for consumers. Recycling
DEWATS-treated wastewater, therefore, may considerably reduce the water bills
of private consumers, companies and other entities. As described in section 3.3
good practices, the Aravind Eye Hospital in Pondicherry, India reuses 307m/d
of its treated wastewater for gardening or toilet flushing purposes, while the
Bangalore-based Alternative Food Ltd. feeds a major part of its daily treated
30m/d of wastewater back to its production processes.

Biogas has an economic value as a renewable-energy source, which can substi-

tute other fuels. Approximately 200 litres of usable biogas are produced per kilo-
gram of removed COD. The actual gas production equals 350 litres of methane
(500 litres of biogas) per kilogram total BOD; however, a part of the biogas re-
mains dissolved in water, especially at low wastewater strength. Biogas contains
60 to 70% methane. One cubic metre of methane is equivalent to approximately
0.85 litres of kerosene.

85
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

To allow biogas utilisation, the structure must be gas-tight and additional volume
must be provided for storage. Pipes and valves are required to transport the gas
to the place of consumption. The cost of operational and maintenance attendance
is likely to be approximately 50% higher if biogas is used. Further additional
investments enabling the use of biogas include, approximately, 5% to the cost
of long-lasting structures (20 years, lifetime), another 30% to the cost of internal
structures (10 years, lifetime) and an additional 100% of the cost of equipment
(6 years, lifetime). The finance costs of the additional investment must also be
considered.

If the use of biogas proves to be too costly or complicated, capturing and flaring
(direct burning without use) should be considered for environmental reasons:
methane is a greenhouse gas with a high global warming potential.

Picture 4_20:
Aravind Eye
Hospital reduces
its water bill
reusing treated
significantly by
wastewater
Picture 4_21:
Modern rice boiler
the use of biogas is
not only of interest
as a way of creating
return; it should be
mandatory for eco-
logical reasons

Treated wastewater can also be used to generate income through agricultural

production or fish-farming. Safety issues are treated in section 11.4 "Reuse of
wastewater and sludge" (page 318). Knowledge about the size and management
of the farm, as well as an assessment of the market for selling the products, will
assist in making economic predictions. Experience has shown, however, that
exact predictions are difficult to make.

86
Capital costs

If investment capital is borrowed from a bank, direct capital costs in the form
of interest must be paid. On the contrary, if ones own money is invested, the
cost of this capital is indirect because it could be used in other profitable ways
(purchase of raw material for production, investment in shares or bank deposits,
etc.).

For calculation purposes, annual capital costs of 8 to 15% of the investment can
be assumed, depending on location and current economic-market developments.

Picture 4_22:
Floriculture in
China slurry from
bio-digesters is a
resource for organic
farming

87
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

4.4.5 Sustainable financing schemes for sanitation programmes

multi-source financing and willingness to pay

At point-source discharges, such as small and medium enterprises, hospitals,

etc., wastewater-treatment may be financed exclusively by the polluter with or
without subsidies or credit lines. Generally, however, sanitation and wastewater
treatment must be viewed as a service provision, similar to water and electricity
supply. Comprehensive analysis of local conditions is necessary to develop
reliable financing schemes for residential areas.

The economic situation of the users plays a large role in the determination of
applicable financing schemes. In industrialised countries, sanitation services are
in most cases, paid for by the users themselves (in-house toilets are paid for
directly, sewage lines and treatment systems are paid for through user-fees
and tax systems). In most developing countries, however, large sections of the
population cannot afford to participate in a full-cost coverage system. So the
question arises: to what extent are users able to participate financially, and what
alternative cost-recovery systems can be applied?

The World Bank promotes the following financing schemes for improvements in
the sanitation sector:
Households pay the bulk of the cost incurred in providing on-site facilities,
including on-site sewer connections
Residents of a block collectively pay the additional cost incurred in collecting
wastes from individual houses and transporting these to the boundary of the
block
Residents of a neighbourhood collectively pay the additional cost incurred in
collecting wastes from blocks and transporting these to the boundary of the
neighbourhood
Residents of a city collectively pay the additional cost incurred in collecting
28 Source:
www.irc.nl/ wastes from blocks and neighbourhoods and transporting these to the
page/6456 boundary of the city or treating it in the city28

88
Full-cost coverage should be achieved in residential areas with higher income
levels. In poorer areas this cannot be expected, as surveys frequently indicate
that sanitation is rather low on residents priority lists for spending. At the
same time, 100 per cent of charity driven approaches have failed repeatedly in
the past; A substantial contributions from users, therefore, is perceived as an
indicator for community appreciation of the project and should be considered a
must for successful sanitation programmes, even if the contribution covers
only a small fraction of the total cost. No sanitation activities without a substantial
contribution by users!!

The local situation and relevant financial-boundary conditions of all stakeholders

must be assessed to determine the appropriate contribution levels for the poorer
members of the population. In dealing with sanitation issues, public decision-
makers must achieve balance between social-equity issues and their financial
constraints. Sanitation and wastewater-treatment services can be provided
through multi-source financing, based on recovering costs from users and from
public sources from local, regional and central governments and/or international
donor organisations.

Alternatively, good experience has also been gathered in projects, where well-off
areas cross-subsidised their poorer counterparts. No matter which approach is
favoured, financial schemes should always focus on the long-term objective,
to ensure sustainable operation of the sanitation and wastewater-treatment
systems.

The following elements are essential in the development of a financial scheme

for a sanitation programme:
assessment of available public and private funds, users economic status,
willingness to pay, etc.
technical feasibility study identification and analysis of different layouts for
sanitation and wastewater-treatment facilities
calculation of overall project costs, including operation and maintenance
based on experience from pilot projects and/or preliminary tendering
informed-choice assessment of different long-term, multi-source financing
schemes resulting in development of financing mechanisms and definition
of user fees

89
4 Mainstreaming DEWATS strategic planning
and implementation of sustainable infrastructure

Sound financial planning must take not only the initial investments into account,
but also the long-term costs of continuous operation!

Sanitation programmes must gain the acceptance of the user; without user
acceptance any financial scheme will fail. Users must express a definitive
willingness to pay to guarantee sustainability. Experience shows that willing-
ness to pay is often restricted to amounts, perceived by the user as benefiting
them and in line with their priorities. Public health benefits like reduction in
medical cost and lost working time do not necessarily rank very high among
these. In many cases, studies to determine the willingness to pay show that
users in weak economic situations are not willing and/or not in the position to pay
for wastewater treatment (sewage systems and wastewater-treatment units).
Under these circumstances, user fees covering the cost for operation and main-
Picture 4_23: tenance services can be considered a substantial and acceptable contribution.
In developing finan-
cial schemes, sani-
tation and waste-
water treatment
should be viewed as
a service provision,
comparable to ener-
gy and water supply

Picture 4_24:
Residential areas
with high income le-
vels should achieve
full-cost coverage
for sanitation and
ideally assist in
cross-subsidising
poorer areas

90
 Picture 4_25:
Community
Sanitation Centre
in Bali, Indonesia
unlike water and
energy supply,
sanitation service
provision has few
mechanisms for
making users pay

Besides this problem, providers of sanitation and wastewater-treatment services

face an additional challenge: unlike water and electricity supply, the service can-
not be cut off if users refuse to pay. Once sanitation and wastewater equipment
has been installed, few sanction mechanisms exist; users will find other ways to
dispose of their waste with adverse public health consequences for the whole
community.

91
5 CBS programme planning and implementation

The profile of each CBS (Community-Based Sanitation) programme has to be

country, site and situation specific. Nevertheless, in this chapter we will intro-
duce the core elements of successful CBS implementation. The outlined pro-
gramme-implementation steps are based on the project experience of good
practice examples and guide the reader through his or her own programme and
project development.

The institutional background has a significant impact on programme initiation.

While organisations experienced in infrastructural development in poor areas
might be able to develop institutional capacities fairly rapidly, other organisations
might depend on the collaboration with other institutional players. In such a case,
the greatest challenge will be to streamline the process and contributions of all
partners.
The goal of any sanitation programme should be long-term sustainability with ma-
ximum positive impact. From the preliminary needs assessment in the very early
stage of a programme, up to the disposal and treatment of sludge, a multitude of
tasks have to be completed. The efficient setting-up and implementation of such
a programme requires early identification of the different necessary tasks and
who is responsible for carrying them out.

5.1 Stakeholders in CBS programmes

Sustainable infrastructure development and sanitation programmes must co-

ordinate and streamline a multitude of stakeholders and resources. The active par-
ticipation of different parties should span the entire development process, from
the preparation phase, to planning, implementation, monitoring, and final evalu-
ation. Participation improves the sustainability and performance of the project.
Ownership ensures stakeholder commitment and participation, thereby reducing
supervision costs.

Efficient, cost-effective and sustainable implementation requires systematic

involvement of different stakeholder groups:
Primary stakeholders residents and direct users of the implemented
measures
Secondary stakeholders groups with a direct or indirect responsibility
in the programme. These include the leading agencies (public, NGOs, etc.),
planning authorities, and health and environmental departments
Tertiary stakeholders providers of special services for construction,
maintenance and sludge management

92
5.2 Responding to basic needs active involvement of beneficiaries
and residents

CBS programmes respond to the needs of residents in a given area. In most

cases, the programmes target residents of poorer areas to provide them with
improved in-house toilets or with additional sanitation services, such as toilets,
showers or washrooms in Community Sanitation Centres.

The active involvement of communities in the planning and implementation

process is crucial to the success of a sanitation programme because the
residents:
will use the sanitation facility the facilities must fit their needs and practices
have to contribute significantly to the system financially or in kind
may have an important role in the operation and maintenance of the sanitation
and wastewater-treatment facilities

Picture 5_1:
CBS programmes
should respond
to resident needs

Picture 5_2:
Sanitation pro-
grammes should
offer different
options for im-
proved sanitation
facilities here a
pour-flush toilet

93
5 CBS programme planning and implementation

To ensure that poor residents are actively involved, the following factors are
important:
Sanitation programmes should be accompanied by health and hygiene
awareness-raising campaigns
Programme acceptance by local leaders helps to avoid unnecessary
interference with social hierarchies
Social-settlement structure and stratification, sanitation practices, informal
land-holding customs, and reservations about infrastructure implementation
should be understood and taken into account
Women are often the household decision-makers with regard to domestic
sanitation and sanitation practice. Therefore, they must be actively involved in
determining problems, identifying underlying causes, recommending possible
solutions and, ultimately, making decisions to solve the problems

Developed over recent years, demand-responsive approaches have become the

conceptual framework of sustainable sanitation programmes. The approach treats
users as clients, who express their needs, but must provide contributions in
monetary terms or in kind.

Neither demand nor willingness to pay are easily measurable.

Comprehensive methods have been developed to cater to users needs: informed
choice generates indicators for communities and individuals willingness to
29 See: UNDP, Willing
to pay but unable to participate in the project. Contingent valuation (CV) provides information on
charge, 1999 potential demand and willingness to pay for different sanitation options.29

Depending on the location, demand-responsive approaches can result in quite

different technical solutions and management configurations:
In most parts of Eastern Java, coherent social structures mean there is a high
capacity for community self-organisation and management. Decision-making
processes, concerning the choice of sanitation facilities and the layout of the
DEWATS, can be initiated by external facilitators and tend to run smoothly.
On the whole the community manages cost recovery, operation and main-
tenance. Only desludging is organised by an external service provider

94
 In Tangerang, Indonesia, the involvement of future users in the planning pro-
cess showed not only the residents interest in improved sanitation but also
in shower and laundry facilities. As the residents are mainly migrant workers,
social structures are rather weak. To ensure sustainable management of the
sanitation project, it was decided that BEST, a local NGO, should function as
service provider. BEST ensures daily operation, maintenance and desludging of
the system. The costs are covered by a fee that residents pay when they use
the facility
In Ullalu Upanagara, Bangalore, a slum with inherent social frictions, an
operation and maintenance system run by the community, was set up. The
Community-Based Sanitation programme was facilitated by the local NGO.
Strong emphasis was put on the involvement of women in the awareness-
building process for sanitation demand. One of the women groups later took
over the operation and maintenance of the Sanitation Centre. Users pay a fee
per use. Desludging is organised in co-operation with local government
Although categories like available income, existing sanitation facilities and
hygienic behaviour are important parameters for a comprehensive assess-
ment, willingness to pay is one of the strongest indicators. In a slum area
of Mysore, India, a range of low-budget sanitation options were discussed
with the residents. The potential users were only willing to pay a very small
amount for the most-desired facility, a 20-toilet sanitation centre. It was only
through the intervention of an experienced facilitator that it became clear that
the residents had a long-term vision for each house to be supplied with an
in-house toilet. Although this was a very expensive option, they were prepared
to contribute much more towards this solution. The sanitation centre would
probably not have been acceptable in the long term

95
5 CBS programme planning and implementation

The following suggestions may help successful collaboration in poorer residential

areas:
Residents must contribute to the programme financially or in kind. However,
there is no blueprint for how much must be contributed to a CBS programme.
The contribution profile must be developed in accordance with the local
social situation and the interests of the residents
Participation needs time and resources; it is essentially a process with no
guaranteed outcome. For these reasons, the financial cost of participation
has to be carefully weighed against its benefits. A reasonable balance between
input and output should be achieved
CBS may interfere with the social structures of a community. Under certain
conditions, participation can have a destabilising effect by creating an imbalance
in existing socio-political relationships. Participatory approaches can result in
conflict because existing power relationships are threatened. A sensitive
approach is vital to avoid worsening the position of those who are already
marginalised
A fact-driven approach is suggested. Although the residents of poor areas
must be provided with basic-needs services, an exaggerated emphatic approach
may result in skewed perception of ground realities and a CBS programme
Picture 5_3: with too much wishful thinking
In Tangerang, resi-
dents have to pay
the equivalent of
0.07 US$ for each
time they use the
facility. The service
provider employs
one operator, who
ensures operation
and maintenance

Picture 5_4:
In Ullalu Upanagara,
local women were
trained to ensure
continuous operation

96
5.3 Local government and municipality bodies

Local public bodies play a pivotal role in successful sanitation and wastewater-
treatment projects. Although the specific responsibilities of a body may vary
from country to country, it is the local government (or municipality) that is
usually accountable for providing sanitation and wastewater-treatment services.
Furthermore, it is also responsibile for promoting health and hygiene awareness,
to ensure the health of its communities and to monitor the environmental
impacts.

Local government and municipalities should formulate and implement a policy

addressing the sanitation backlog and water-pollution problems. They are
responsible for driving the local processes set out in its policy. They must create
an enabling regulatory environment through municipal by-laws and ensure
both appropriate and affordable service implementation. Furthermore, the local
government must ensure that environmental standards are met, including the
establishment of a system for sludge removal, treatment and disposal.

In an ideal world, local-government agencies would integrate sanitation and

wastewater strategies into their local development plans and take the lead in
implementing them. In the real world, different stakeholders may take the
initiative to provide sanitation services, particularly to the poor. Beside public
bodies, international agencies, NGOs and Community-Based Organisations may
be active. In such cases, a co-ordinated strategic alliance between different
stakeholders can create a greater drive for the implementation of efficient
sanitation and wastewater-treatment options. Nevertheless, local government
and municipalities must be fully involved.

97
5 CBS programme planning and implementation

To assist the implementation of wastewater-treatment infrastructure, the relevant

bodies should:
create a demand for sanitation improvement through health and hygiene-
awareness programmes
respond to this demand by identifying appropriate sanitation options
prioritise these options
integrate these working results into a planning process
allocate funds to achieve the planned objectives
ensure there are enough appropriately skilled people to carry out the plan
implement the plan
monitor and report on the results and
ensure sustainability

Picture 5_5:
Strategic alliances
between different
stakeholders ease
CBS programme
implementation

98
5.4 Non-governmental organisations

A number of NGOs have launched CBS programmes and/or have become

programme partners to government bodies. Which roles NGOs play within CBS
programmes depends mainly on their competencies and the local situation.

NGOs can play a leading role in CBS programmes. As specialists in poverty allevi-
ation and environmental protection, many NGOs have in-depth knowledge about
the low-income groups with whom they work. They know about local sanitation
practices, decision-making processes within the communities, income and ex-
penditure patterns, and other factors, crucial to successful sanitation programme
implementation.

Furthermore, many NGOs have good working relationships with the communities.
So they can facilitate awareness-raising campaigns, decision-making processes or
other forms of communication.

Over time, many NGOs have developed competencies as service providers.

Some are active in the fields of solid-waste management, environmental coun-
selling and/or urban planning. Other NGOs have the capacity to set up and run
complete sanitation and wastewater-treatment projects, including the provision of
operation and maintenance services.

5.5 Private sector

In most cases, the private sector can and should cover important CBS programme
tasks. The private sector may:
plan, design and construct sanitation infrastructure
plan, design and construct wastewater-treatment infrastructure
manufacture equipment
ensure operation and maintenance of the overall scheme
operate desludging and sludge-treatment facilities

These services may be provided on a contractual basis. Close quality monitoring

of the delivered services is crucial to the sustainability of the programme.

99
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

The success of a CBS programme depends significantly on implementing the

steps in the right order. The organisation or the group of initiating bodies, taking
the lead in launching a project should be aware of the complexity and usefulness
of a comprehensive approach. Success depends on the co-ordinated implemen-
tation of a multitude of tasks and the integration of all stakeholders into the
process.

6.1 First planning activities

An initial workshop helps to establish a common foundation between key stake-

holders. Members from the leading agency (LA), NGOs or representatives from
future beneficiary groups should be invited to form a core team. The following
issues should be addressed:
targets of the envisaged programme
assessment of the current situation in the relevant area, regarding sanitation
and wastewater
key existing problems in sanitation, wastewater and environmental pollution
existing experiences with relevant projects
awareness building concerning the tasks to be fulfilled throughout the
programme
identification of relevant stakeholders to involve in the project

Picture 6_1:
Stakeholder roles
and responsibilities
must be clearly
defined at an
early stage CBS
programme steps
should be under-
stood by everyone

100
The key programme tasks should be identified at an early stage. With these in
mind, the steps of implementation should be defined to enable smooth operation.
Key tasks include:
overall programme management, including process monitoring
developing a feasibility study
community preparation, including health and hygiene awareness-raising
campaigns
construction
operation and maintenance
monitoring sanitation and environmental standards
final sludge management

Sludge Feasibility Overall

management Study programme
management

Community
Maintenance
preparation
CBS
programme
Health awareness
Operation
campaigns

Construction Health control Picture 6_2:

CBS programme
core tasks

Workshop participants should identify the specific competences and resources

of the various stakeholders. Their roles and main responsibilities within the pro-
gramme should be assigned. The collaboration and roles of partners may vary
greatly from location to location.

101
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

Furthermore, the workshop should help to establish an efficient working

structure. In particular, the role of the leading agency should become clear,
including its core management and monitoring responsibilities. Questions to be
answered include:
What are the tasks and responsibilities of the leading agency?
What roles and responsibilities can the communities fulfil?
In what areas can the private sector contribute to achieve higher quality
and cost effectiveness?
What competencies can other stakeholders, such as government agencies
or NGOs, contribute?
Which tasks cannot be fulfilled by the available stakeholders? Which mea-
sures, including staff recruitment, are needed to bridge the existing gaps?

Private Local goverment/ Local goverment/

sector NGO/Private sector NGO

NGO Pivate sector/NGO

CBS
programme
Local goverment Community-based
agencies organisation

Picture 6_3: Private sector Local goverment

CBS programme
stakeholders

The signing of a contractual agreement or Memorandums of Understanding

between the stakeholders at an early stage in the programme helps to establish
a solid foundation for the following steps of co-operation.

102
6.2 The pilot project

Setting up a large programme is facilitated by a successful pilot project.

Experience shows that it is better to implement a simple pilot, which can be
extended, than to be too ambitious and create a complex programme that cannot
be handled by the implementation body.

A pilot project should:

clarify and strengthen the working structure of the implementing body
provide all stakeholders with a firm understanding of the challenges and
technical, social and financial requirements for an implementation programme
develop and test appropriate instruments and tools for large-scale
application
integrate the relevant stakeholders into the implementation process
equip executing bodies to be constructors for further activities
create standardised procedures for the overall approach

The location of a pilot project should be representative of other local locations

in the municipal area, with regard to quantity and quality of wastewater, socio-
economic structure, settlement layout, etc. It should also allow for fairly smooth
implementation and operation to set a positive example.

The CBS programme in Ullalu Upanagara, Bangalore, India, for example, was used
to test the implementation procedure. The experience gained from the project
was later used to effectively target other sites within the programme area.

A pilot project provides valuable information for future projects within the
programme:
Which feasibility-study parameters are relevant in different parts of the city?
Which planning tools are most efficient?
How should a demand-responsive approach look for similar target groups?
Which DEWATS configurations would be most appropriate at similar sites?
Which informed-choice options proved most useful?
Which stakeholders must be involved in which implementation stages?
Which public authorities are relevant for overall project clearance?
Which informal leaders must be involved?

103
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

How can women be targeted through special awareness-raising campaigns?

Which problems are likely to emerge (i.e. with land-holding)?
Which contractual arrangements with which stakeholders proved most
useful?
How can the overall implementation process be monitored?
What financial and in-kind contribution can be expected from the users?
How can operation and maintenance be organised?
What can be expected from the users and which tasks must be fulfilled
by a service provider?

Evaluating a pilot project helps to optimise future planning processes.

LEGAL GOVT COMMUNITY-SOCIAL TECHNICAL/FINANCIAL

Appraising GP, ZP, Revenue Community Plan of action

dept, local leadership mobilisation

Sensitising & Timeline / phasing

opinion building

Public relation, Participatory community

liaisoning appraisals

informed choice of Funds allocation

sanitation infrasturcture

Formation of CBS Designs & cost estimation,

commitee action plan architects

Water, power, Appraising community of

land allocation technical aspect-systems

Site selection Tendering contract

Picture 6_4: (construction)
Chart indicating
the implementation
Ownership (transfer) Capacity building training Construction
process in Ullalu for O & M management
Upanagara
ZP = Zilla Parishad
CBS solution
(government admi-
nistration on District
level, GP = Gram
Panchayat (village by local facilitating NGO by local facilitating NGO by BORDA-CDD
level administration)

104
6.3 Preparation phase

6.3.1 Kick-off workshop

Experience shows that it is beneficial to officially launch the programme with a

kick-off workshop to which the various stakeholders are invited:
senior government officials at the local, regional and national levels
relevant NGOs
representatives of the target groups
relevant researchers
private-sector participants
international agencies
media, etc.

Picture 6_5:
The kick-off work-
shop introduces
the scope of the
programme and in-
volves senior stake-
holders on various
levels

105
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

The workshop should:

communicate the results of the pilot project
demonstrate the scope and relevance of sanitation and wastewater-treatment
programmes in relation to different fields of policy and different government
levels
clarify the importance of target driven co-operation between stakeholders

The workshop is aimed at:

creating awareness amongst decision-makers about the legal requirements,
required resources and institutional backing for the programme
developing a supportive environment getting different stakeholders and
local authorities to offer their competencies to the programme
launching a process for the provision of financial and human resources
on different government levels
gaining support for extending the programme into other municipalities,
departments, or provinces

6.3.2 Planning workshop

The planning, implementation and monitoring activities of a programme should be

launched at a planning workshop. The workshop participants analyse the results
of the pilot project and draw conclusions for dissemination on a larger scale. The
main out-comes of the workshop might include:
formulation of stakeholder responsibilities, timeline and resource planning
standardisation of procedures, such as site selection, community involvement,
tendering, construction, sludge management, etc.
drafting supporting documents, such as training kits, contract forms,
monitoring sheets, etc.
formulation of capacity-building plan for key stakeholder groups

106
Participants of the workshop should be:
local authorities
NGOs
members of the target group
relevant private-sector participants

Ideally, the workshop results in an approval agreement between the stakeholders

involved in the implementation of the programme. Discussing and agreeing on
responsibilities and the stages of the project in advance helps to avoid conflict
during the later stages of implementation or operation.

Picture 6_6:
Clear agreements
between project
partners ease the
implementation
process

107
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.3.3 Community pre-selection and community assessment

Sanitation mapping is a powerful tool for identifying and long-listing communi-

ties eligible for sanitation and decentralised wastewater-treatment projects (see
section 4.3.2, page 68). If comprehensive sanitation mapping is not possible, the
long-list can be based on the experience of government authorities, NGOs or
other agencies. Local authorities tend to have their own classification methodo-
logy for poor urban areas, which may be useful for the identification of potential
sites.

Other criteria, which may be useful, include:

health risks within the area
vulnerability of the ecological system or possible environmental threats
legal status of the settlement
income classification.

The long-listed communities should be assessed and ranked. To enable

comparison, the following information should be collected:
current situation of sanitation and wastewater-treatment
reports on existing sanitation programmes in comparable areas
indicators for the communitys willingness to participate in a programme
social structure and decision-making procedures within the community
legal status of the settlement
land availability
geological and topographical data

The community is provided with information about CBS and invited to a stakehol-
der meeting. The meeting agenda should be adapted to the specific local context.
During the meeting, the CBS programme is presented and the sanitation condi-
tions in participating communities are discussed. The contributions expected from
the community must be stated clearly. Interested communities are asked to sub-
mit an expression of interest (EoI) in taking part. The EoI includes an invitation for
a rapid participatory assessment (RPA).

108
 The RPA determines if the site is suitable for DEWATS applications:
natural gravity flow should be assured the natural slope of the land should
lead the wastewater from where it is generated to the treatment plant and
then to the discharge point
availability of water and land for construction are essential for DEWATS im-
plementation. Illegal settlements are excluded from participation. If an area is
prone to flooding, community sanitation centres are usually recommended.
community sanitation centres require vacant land for construction. Land
availability and ownership must be clear
as sanitation and wastewater systems often have a negative image, residents
living close to the planned CBS or treatment unit must agree to the chosen
location. Planning procedures must take account of the time necessary for
obtaining community acceptance of the facilities in their immediate
neighbourhood

To make sure results are objective, representatives of all community stakeholder

groups should be actively involved during the RPA process. The following RPA
tools can be applied:
ladder assessing community willingness to contribute to the new sanitation
infrastructure
transect walk identifying and analysing the condition of existing sanitation
systems in the neighbourhood through direct observation
problem trees identifying and analysing community sanitation problems,
their cause and effect, and whether the community intends to improve its
sanitation conditions
timeline identifying and analysing residents experiences with previous
community-participative infrastructure projects. Picture 6_7:
Flow chart: from
venn diagram identifying and studying existing local community institutions, sanitation mapping
their benefits and their relationship with the community. This tool is also used to community
to assess community readiness to operate the facility selection

Community Community Community survey (RPA)

Sanitation Short list Community
stakeholder expression of Need indicated
mapping communities selection
meeting interest Awareness exists
Willingness to pay
Legal settlement
Water available
Land available
Incline of site appropriated

109
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.4 Planning phase

6.4.1 Site assessment

Successful CBS planning depends on a detailed technical survey carried out by

technical experts. The relevant information can come from local government and
community surveys. Government authorities and stakeholders on the ground,
therfore, should be involved in the process. Some of the necessary information
can also be obtained from the Rapid Participatory Assessment carried out during
community selection.

Picture 6_8:
Detailed knowledge
of the local situation
is the basis for ap-
propriate planning

110
The technical survey procedure is identical, with or without community partici-
pation. However, the process differs according to the selection of technology.
Household-based sanitation systems, including simplified sewerage or off-site
treatment, demand more complex surveys, planning and establishment activities
than community sanitation centres with on-site treatment. The technical survey
consists of four sections:

1. Assessment of general site conditions

cartographic and topographic surveys and mapping focused on settlement

structure, topography (elevation) and site accessibility
location and general data collection about local industries and enterprises, in-
cluding home working, peripheral farming activities, restaurants and food stalls
assessment of the number of potential users and their habits regarding water,
sanitation and waste-related subjects
survey of soil conditions at potential construction sites

2. Assessment of water and wastewater-related subjects

assessment of water sources, including quantitative and qualitative security

assessment of water-consumption levels of industries and households, and
required quality for different uses
assessment of domestic and industrial wastewater-generation processes,
volumes, composition, discharge patterns and reuse options
assessment of existing sanitation and wastewater-treatment systems
applied technologies, performance, responsibility for operation and
management
assessment of the rainwater-runoff infrastructure
assessment of discharge options survey of local water bodies with regard to
quality, flow volume and location, including groundwater quality, use and level
gathering of precipitation data for different times of the year

3. Legal background on wastewater

gathering of wastewater-discharge standards and environmental-protection

regulations

111
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

4. Building materials and tools

assessment of local availability of building materials and tools

General Existing
conditions wastewater
at the locations situation

Technical Survey

Availibility of
Legal
building
Picture 6_9: situation
materials
Technical survey

6.4.2 Informed technology choice

By providing the potential users with different options for sanitation facilities and
services, the principle of more expensive systems will cost more is communi-
cated. The users themselves can eliminate options that do not apply to their situa-
tion.

In the informed-choice process, users learn about many possible options:

different toilet types and layouts of toilet facilities
different functions and layouts of community sanitation centres
different service levels to be expected

112
Informed choice is usually focused on the users preferences concerning sanitation
equipment. However, the following components can also be addressed within
community meetings to assess the public acceptance of their application:
sewer layout
treatment components
disposal or reuse of effluent
disposal or reuse of effluent sludge

Picture 6_10:
Toilet-facilities
options

Picture 6_11:
Experienced experts
should facilitate
assessments on wil-
lingness to pay and
informed choice
substantial financial
contributions by the
users are crucial to
the sustainability of
sanitation schemes

113
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.4.3 Detailed engineering design

Experienced technical experts prepare the detailed engineering design applying

the results obtained from the technical survey, the technology-choice discussions
and the assessment of other local factors. The solutions should be discussed
with local decision-makers and community leaders to identify potential problems
at different stages of the design process.

The superstructure of CSCs can be constructed with standardised designs. But,

public acceptance will increase significantly if the users get to have their say.
The number of toilets, showers, water points and laundry places is calculated
in accordance with the estimated number of users.

Picture 6_12:
The design should
take into account
the specific local
conditions and the
super preferences

Picture 6_13:
Experienced technical
experts prepare the
design

For in-house sanitation, the appropriate location for toilets, showers and wash-
basins is determined together with the users. The sewerage system, including
inspection chambers, must be designed according to the flow volume, peak flows
and slope.

The most appropriate discharge or reuse option is selected and designed in

accordance with possible applications, the local surroundings, the legal situation
and the treatment efficiency of the chosen technology.

114
The connection of small home-industries (e.g. tofu production), restaurants or
food stalls can have a strong impact on the performance of the system. Where
a simplified sewerage system with off-site treatment is constructed, special
attention must be paid, therefore, to commercial wastewater. If additional inflow
of such wastewater is likely in the future, this should also be considered in the
plant design.

Innovative designs can reduce the cost of the facility. Examples include:
baffled reactors and anaerobic filters located under pavements, carparks,
playgrounds or streets
positioning the facility to minimise land use and length of sewerage systems
application of reliable standards to minimise sewer diameters

Picture 6_14:
Detailed engineering
design

115
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.4.4 Economic planning

Economic planning includes calculating the overall project costs and developing
a strategy for covering these costs.

The costs to be considered are for:

land
materials
labour
supervision including optional planning
operation electricity, water, service provision etc.
maintenance desludging and sludge treatment.

Where Community Sanitation Centres (CSCs) and DEWATS are to be constructed,

the question of land ownership must be resolved. In order to purchase real estate,
negotiations must be held with the owner a site is either private or municipal
property. If the owner is not willing to sell the land, perhaps a long-term lease
of 15 to 20 years can be obtained. Alternatively, a usufruct may be granted for
publicly owned sites. Agreements on the land ownership or renting scheme
should be finalised before more activities start.

The quantity and volume of the necessary building materials can be calculated
using the detailed engineering design. The total costs for construction depend
on the local context:

if construction is carried out by employees, local wages and material costs

30 A local government
apply;30 in-kind community contributions should also be included in the
makes a financial
contribution to a calculation
project, market pri- if there is a bidding process, estimated prices should be used their final
ces may not apply;
prices factored in after the tender is accepted
many authorities
have price codes, if operation and maintenance is supplied by a service provider, a call for
which must be used tenders can be launched
instead if operation is carried out by the community itself, local labour and running
costs should be added in

116
Cost coverage can be achieved with possible financial contributions from:
residents
public authorities and
international donors

The fee structure for a CSC should be based on the completed assessment of
the users willingness to pay. If full-cost coverage cannot be expected, further
implementation should be postponed.

6.4.5 Agreement on implementation and landholding

In some locations it was helpful to formalise the overall process by signing a

Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). The document, signed by a legal repre-
sentative of the community and relevant municipal bodies, became a central
part of the CBS-development plan. It is very important to ensure that the whole
community supports the project, as individual disagreements can jeopardise the
entire process at a later stage. A community meeting should be held, therefore,
to discuss the results of the project planning and to smoothe out any remaining
concerns before commencing with implementation.

The main points of the MoU included in the development plan are:
geographical and topographical maps
detailed engineering design
budget plan including the schedule for disbursements and detailed state-
ments about the contributions from different stakeholders
implementation schedule
operation and maintenance plans
ownership
responsibilities during implementation (planning & construction)
responsibilities after implementation (operation & maintenance)

117
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.5 Implementation phase

6.5.1 Task planning

The implementation schedule is developed from the tasks and respective

workloads defined during the economic-planning phase. Tasks are grouped
into categories and listed on a spreadsheet.

No. Tasks Quantity Unit

A. Wastewater-treatment system tasks

1 Prepare building site & levelling 1.00

2 Provide office space and storage 1.00
3 Documentation 3.00
1 Levelling 64.43 m
2 Prepare sand-bed 12.00 m
3 Refill earth 16.11 m
1 Lay brickwork 77.93 m
2 Prepare concrete reinforcement 40.64 m
3 Plaster 124.27 m
4 Prepare working subgrade 6.00 m
5 Lay brickwork 560.32 m
1 Pipes PVC 6, l = 20 feet (~6m) 2.00 pieces
2 Pipes PVC 4, l = 20 feet (~6m) 61.00 pieces
3 Pipes PVC 2, l = 20 feet (~6m) 2.00 pieces
4 T-piece 80.00 pieces
5 Manhole cover 13.00 pieces
B. Sewerage system tasks

1 Exavation 305.00 m
2 Refill earth 101.67 m
3 Prepare sand-bed 75.50 m
1 Prepare concrete reinforcement 0.94 m
2 Watertight plastering of manholes 0.00 m
3 Open road surface 398.00 m

Table 8: 1 Pipes PVC 6, l = 20 feet (~6m) 152.50 pieces

Example of an 2 Pipes PVC 4, l = 20 feet (~6m) 48.00 pieces
implementation
3 Mount prefabricated manhole 35.00 pieces
schedule

118
The amount of work predicted in the detailed engineering design and economic
planning is entered into the table. Task sequences are determined and the
required time for each task is estimated.

Time planning requires CBS project experience and knowledge of local conditions
(e.g. weather conditions during different seasons, cultural and religious events
and holidays, financial allocation patterns of governments and the community).
The schedule must be prepared, therefore, by experienced local staff, or by
experts in co-operation with people who have local knowledge.

The average time required to construct a community sanitation centre in

Indonesia ranges between 70 and 90 days. For household-based sanitation
systems, including simplified sewerage and off-site treatment, 90 to 110 days
can be estimated.

Picture 6_15:
Task planning
should be carried
out by experts

119
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.5.2 Quality management

The requirements for a sound planning and implementation are too often under-
estimated. Quality management during construction, therfore, is an essential
element of the successful long-term operation of CSC/DEWATS. The systems
must be constructed as high-quality products. Poor construction quality and minor
faults, such as bad plastering or the use of poor-quality bricks, may result in the
failure of the entire system. Construction should only be carried out, therefore,
by contractors and companies who can be guaranteed to use of high-quality
materials and labour. Different quality-control models have proven successful in
the construction of anaerobic wastewater-treatment systems:
In Nepal, only licensed contractors are entitled to construct biogas plants. If
the qualitiy of work is unacceptable, the constructor risks losing his/her licence
and will be excluded from the programme.
In Indonesia, a network of NGOs promoting DEWATS and CBS has developed
an internal certification system to assure the proper application of new quality
Picture 6_16: standards. Only certified products
Ensuring good- and personnel may participate in
quality workman- the implementation of such facili-
ship is essential for
a successful CBS
ties. High standards are ensured
programme by certified:
planners
31 Requirements
foremen
include:
1) education: mini- site engineers
mum level or expe- supervisors
rience,
design engineers and
2) training com-
pletion of a training senior design engineers31
programme
3) examination Efficient quality management goes hand in hand with capacity building; on-site
training combined
with tests,
training measures should be an integral part of any programme. Especially in pro-
4) repeated exa- grammes aimed at large-scale implementation, quality-control and standardisation
mination every procedures must become common elements to ensure effective and efficient use
second year,
of the resources.
5) practical expe-
rience adequate
involvement in the
different steps of
DEWATS implemen-
tation.

120
6.5.3 Construction

The construction process and its main components are summarised in Table 9:

Community sanitation centre Simplified sewerage, Shared septic tank

incl. off-site treatment
Preparation work Preparation work Preparation work
Survey and prepare site Survey and prepare site Survey and prepare site
Arrange materials procurement Arrange materials procurement Arrange materials procurement
Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery
Arrange work force Arrange work force Arrange workforce
Install sanitary equipment at Install sanitary equipment at
Earth work appropriate location appropriate place
Excavate
Levell Concrete work Concrete work
Fill earth and compact Cast concrete slab Cast concrete slab
Sanitation module

Fill sand and compact Carry out brickwork Carry out brickwork
Plastering Plastering
Concrete work Install and connect piping Install and connect piping
Cast concrete slab to collection system to collection system
Carry out brick work
Plastering Assembly work Assembly work
Mount piping Mount piping
Carpentry & roofing Sanitary equipment Sanitary equipment
Topping-out the truss Water supply Water supply
Roofing Other interior fittings Other interior fittings

Assembly work
Mount piping
Sanitary equipment
Water & electricity supply
Other interior fittings

Preparation work Preparation work

Survey and prepare location line Survey and prepare location line
Arrange materials procurement Arrange material procurement
Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery
Arrange workforce Arrange work force
Install and connect piping
to treatment system Earth work Earth work
Collection module

(sub-soil below CSC) Excavate Excavate

Levell Levell
Fill earth and compact Fill earth and compact
Fill sand and compact Fill sand and compact

Install inspection chamber Install inspection chamber

Cast concrete slab Cast concrete slab
Carry out brickwork Carry out brickwork
Plastering Plastering

Lay sewer pipes Lay sewer pipes

Fill construction ditches and compact Fill construction ditches and compact

Table 9:
Detailed description of
construction process

121
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

Table Community sanitation centre Simplified sewerage, Shared septic tank

9 cont. incl. off-site treatment
Preparation work Preparation work Preparation work
Survey and prepare site Survey and prepare site Survey and prepare site
Arrange materials procurement Arrange materials procurement Arrange materials procurement
Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery
Arrange workforce Arrange workforce Arrange workforce

Earth work Earth work Earth work

Treatment module

Excavate Excavate Excavate

Levell Levell Levell
Fill earth and compact Fill earth and compact Fill earth and compact
Fill sand and compact Fill sand and compact Fill sand and compact

Concrete work Concrete work Concrete work

Cast concrete slab Cast concrete slab Cast concrete slab
Carry out brickwork Carry out brickwork Carry out brickwork
Plastering Plastering Plastering

Assembly work Assembly work Assembly work

Mount piping Mount piping Mount piping
Fill filters Fill filters Fill filters
Preparation work Preparation work Preparation work
Survey and prepare location Survey and prepare location Survey and prepare location
Arrange materials procurement Arrange materials procurement Arrange materials procurement
Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery Arrange tools and machinery
Arrange workforce Arrange workforce Arrange workforce

Earth work Earth work Earth work

Discharge module

Excavate Excavate Excavate

Levell Levell Levell
Fill earth and compact Fill earth and compact Fill earth and compact
Fill sand and compact Fill sand and compact Fill sand and compact

Install inspection chamber Install inspection chamber Install inspection chamber

Cast concrete slab Cast concrete slab Cast concrete slab
Carry out brickwork Carry out brickwork Carry out brickwork
Plastering Plastering Plastering

Lay sewer pipes Lay sewer pipes Lay sewer pipes

Fill construction ditches and compact Fill construction ditches and compact Fill construction ditches and compact

122
6.5.4 Pre-commissioning test

In order to ensure good construction quality, the system is tested upon completion
by technical experts from the local authority. All technical modules are evaluated
with regard to engineering design, quality of workmanship and functional efficiency.
System flow and the water-tightness of the piping and treatment system are
scrutinised closely. Technical drawings and checklists serve as tools for the
pre-commissioning test.

Test water
Flow test of
tightness of
piping
piping

Pre-commissioning test

Picture 6_17:
Inspections of other Test water Pre-commissioning
Flow test of test
appliances and tightness of
treatment system
building infratructure treatment system
Picture 6_18:
Only fully functio-
ning systems are
6.5.5 Parallel training measures accepted

Environmental-health training is encouraged in all CBS projects. The training is

targeted at everyone in the community all members and individuals involved
in operational activities. The aim of the training is to explain the importance
of sanitation facilities for personal and environmental health and to provide an
understanding of the broader context of sanitation. The main subjects include
personal hygiene, handling human excreta and rubbish, disease transmission
and background information on particular diseases, such as diarrhoea, typhoid
and dengue fever. Training is based on the guidelines of the PHAST (Partici-
patory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation) Initiative, jointly developed by
WHO and UNDP/World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme.

123
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

Function and application training is a basic training module for all users of the
new sanitation infrastructure. The aim is to impart basic knowledge about
how the system works. Correct use of the system is explained along with
information about what may harm functional efficiency. The training comprises
a theory and a practice module. The practical training should be carried out on
site after construction is finished.
Operation and maintenance training is only given to people directly involved
in the operation and maintenance activities. Basic information on wastewater
treatment and the function of the system is provided as well as an overview
of all routine tasks for operation and maintenance. The various operational
faults and necessary maintenance steps are also discussed.

6.6 Operation phase

CBS Operation

Picture 6_19:
System Operation & Normal operation Monitoring & CBS operates
Flow chart: Start operation
commissioned Maintenance established Evaluation successfully
operation phase

6.6.1 Start operation

Operation is usually initiated by technical experts from the local authorities in

collaboration with the intended operators. For fast start-up, baffled reactors and
biogas plants should be inoculated with digested sludge from existing anaerobic
wastewater-treatment units, such as septic tanks. After starting the system,
operators are briefed on operation and maintenance.

124
The system formally starts operation at a hand-over ceremony with the community
and/or the operating agency. Particularly in poor areas, such events should
be perceived as a positive gesture towards the development of the area.

Practical Briefing Practical Briefing

for Operator for Community
and Staff (optional)

Start operation

Open inflow and Official ceremony

inoculation of and hand-over the
Picture 6_20:
wastewater system
Start operation

Picture 6_21:
The opening cere-
mony is welcomed
by the residents

125
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

6.6.2 Operation & maintenance

Operation and maintenance should be backed by a detailed contract. Depending

on the approach, the community operating body or an external operator, such as
an NGO, a public entity or private company, can be responsible for the operation
and maintenance. The lead agency should sign formal agreements with the
relevant parties, clearly defining the terms of reference. A contract with a service
provider could, for example, include the following terms:

Repair or exchange
Inspect & Clean
faulty appliances

Desludging and
Guard
descruming

Operation &
Maintance

Picture 6_22:
Provide required
Possible operation Collect user fees Pay expanses
and maintenance supplies
tasks

community sanitation centres have to be operated and guarded from

5:00 until 22:00
the entrance areas (terraces) must always be maintained properly
(must be cleaned at least twice a day)
toilets, shower cells, laundry places and the rest of the plot must be
inspected and cleaned daily
faulty appliances, such as light bulbs and leaking pipes, must be replaced.
the seal of the bio-digester has to be checked for gas tightness and water
has to be re-filled on a weekly basis
inspection chambers have to be checked and cleaned every week

126
 the water tank has to be cleaned and cobwebs have to be removed every
month.
every six month, the system must be inspected by professional technical
staff, who will sample wastewater, analyse of effluent water and de-scum
treatment modules.
the treatment system must be desludged every two years
user fees must be collected
all operation and maintenance activities must be documented

Picture 6_23:
Operation & main-
tenance manual

127
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

As described in section 11.3,, sludge collection, treatment and disposal are an

integral part of an overall wastewater-management scheme. On-site sludge treat-
ment and disposal is usually not advisable in urban and suburban areas. In such
cases, infrastructure must be provided to allow environmentally sound off-site
handling.
Some municipalities have a sludge-treatment facility, which can be used. Where
none is available, the responsibiling for establishing central sludge-treatment and
disposal facility usually lies with the local government or municipality.

To permit the use of vacuum trucks, treatment facilities, which require regular
desludging, should not be more than 50m (length of flexible desludging pipes)
away from a street accessible by such a vehicle. The trucks sludge container
is connected to a sludge pump with a flexible pipe. The pipe is put through the
inspection shaft to the bottom of the treatment tank before the vacuum pump is
switched on. During desludging only matured black sludge should be removed.
Establishing this type of sludge-management service is one of the main challenges
for public bodies. Without such services wastewater-treatment systems stop
functioning. Without adequate regulations and law enforcement many housholds
and public and private entities practise uncontrolled discharge of their sludge,
leading to great environmental risks and health hazards.

Picture 6_24:
Monitoring is re-
quired to ensure
that service pro-
viders handle, treat
and dispose sludge
in accordance with
regulations

Picture 6_25:
Operation & main-
tenance manual
for DEWATS
developed by the
Indian partner CDD
download: www.
borda-sa.org/
uploads/o&m_
manual-lowres.pdf)

128
Even if the desludging infrastructure has been established, the services must be
monitored. Positive results have been achieved with a model, in which users pay
the service provider with a chip, for which the service provider gets reimbursed
by the municipality after delivering the sludge to the treatment facility; users
purchase the chips from representatives of the local government. This system
prevents corruption and the service provider dumping the waste.

6.6.3 Use of biogas

Details on biogas utilisation are given in section 11.5 (page 325). This section
focusses on the use of biogas with regard to the operation phase of CBS
programmes.

The use of DEWATS-generated biogas is highly recommended because it:

makes use of a renewable-energy source
reduces greenhouse gases, which would otherwise escape from
the treatment process
Further details are given in section 4.4.2 (page 77).

The efficient and sustainable use of the biogas requires:

sufficient production of biogas (see sections 10.2.4, page 241 and 11.5,
page 325)
maintenance of the biogas equipment (see also section 11.5, page 325)
clear definition of who is entitled to use the biogas

Within CBS projects, biogas is normally used for applications, such as cooking,
water heating or lighting. Experience shows that tensions can arise within the
community if it is unclear who is entitled to use the biogas leading to a waste
of the resource in some projects. Positive results were achieved where the
service providers or individuals responsible for the operation and maintenance
of the overall system received the benefit. Since they handle the CBS on a daily
basis, these individuals already have a deeper understanding of biogas production
and can be trained to incorporate the maintenance of the biogas equipment into
their other maintenance duties.

129
6 CBS programme detailed procedure for implementation

Maintenance duties for biogas appliances include:

cleaning biogas burners and pipes to prevent clogging with water vapours
replacing biogas lamp mantles regulary

The project leaders should make sure the decision about biogas use is made
early on in the project. Once the stakeholders agree, the future users can be
trained to maintain the biogas equipment, while it is being installed.

Picture 6_26:
Only fully
functioning systems
are accepted

Picture 6_27:
Biogas equipment
has to be well-
maintained

130
6.6.4 Monitoring and evaluation

The performance of the wastewater-treatment system should be checked every

6 to 12 months. The inlet and outlet quality should be analysed to verify that legal
standards are being met. Results can be compared to the target performance
(planning phase) to optimise the design of future plants.

Daily records should be kept by the operator and operating body so that the
service can be evaluated. Records should include data on the daily number of
users, specific problems and the operation and maintenance activities carried out.
Where systems are badly operated, or the number of users decreases with time;
the local authority should investigate the reasons and take appropriate action.
This might include replacing the service providers or revising the operation and
maintenance scheme.

Picture 6_28:
Monitoring of the
operation and main-
tenance scheme
contributes to
sound treatment
performance
of CBS solutions

131
7 DEWATS components & design principles

DEWATS can be constructed and operated successfully almost anywhere because

they rely on natural wastewater-treatment processes, without special equipment,
chemicals, or energy supply. This chapter explains the treatment processes and
how they apply to different DEWATS components, in order to guide the reader in
appropriate technical selection and design.

The chapter is sub-divided into the following sections:

basics of wastewater treatment
parameters for wastewater-treatment design
DEWATS technical components
dimensioning of DEWATS

7.1 Basics of wastewater treatment

7.1.1 Definitions: pollution & treatment

Pollution is the undesirable state of the environment being contaminated with

substances, which disturb the natural balance of nature and can lead to health
consequences for flora, fauna and humans.

Although domestic wastewater is mainly organic, the high concentration of the

substances has a polluting effect on open-water bodies, groundwater or soil, due
to the oxygen-draining chemical and bio-chemical reactions that result.

Pathogens, including helminth eggs, protozoal cysts, bacteria and viruses, are
responsible for innumerable cases of disease and death in the world.

Phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrients for plant growth. Their introduc-
tion to water bodies can generate great algae populations, which limit the amount
of sunlight that can shine into the water, thereby leading to excessive oxygen
consumption within the water body until other aquatic life-forms can no longer
survive. Furthermore, nitrogen is poisonous to fish in the form of ammonia gases
and may also become poisonous to other life-forms, including humans, in the
form of nitrite.

Most heavy metals are toxic or carcinogenic. They harm the aquatic life of the
receiving water and affect humans through the food chain.

132
Treatment consists of a wide range of procedures that relieve the negative effect
of the pollutants, by removing or changing harmful substances into a harmless
or less-harmful state. DEWATS treatment depends on natural bio-chemical and
physical processes including:
degradation of organic matter until the point at which chemical or biological
reactions stop (stabilisation)
physical separation and removal of solids from liquids
removal or transformation of toxic or otherwise-dangerous substances (for
example, heavy metals or phosphorous), which are likely to distort sustainable
biological cycles, even after stabilisation of the organic matter

7.1.2 Biological treatment

Stabilisation occurs through degradation of organic substances via chemical

processes, which are biologically mediated (bio-chemical processes). The pro-
cesses are the result of the metabolism by micro-organisms, in which complex
and high-energy molecules are transformed into simpler, low-energy molecules.
Metabolism is the break-down of organic matter (from feed to faeces) to gain
energy for life, in this case for the life of micro-organisms, which store and
release the gained energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). A few
chemical reactions happen without the help of micro-organisms. Most of the
micro-organisms involved are biologically classified either as bacteria or as archaea.
In the past, archae were viewed as an unusual group of bacteria (archaebacteria).
Due to their different evolutionary history, they are now classified as a separate
domain. That is why "methanobacteria" according current classification are no
longer bacteria but archae. In order to avoid confusion, the generic term "micro-
organisms" is used.
In the main, wastewater treatment is the degradation of organic compounds,
and subsequent oxidisation of carbon (C) to carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N) to
nitrate (NO3), phosphorus (P) to phosphate (PO4) and sulphur (S) to sulphate (SO4).
Hydrogen (H) is also oxidised to water (H2O). In anaerobic processes, some of the
sulphur is formed into hydrogen sulphide (H2S), producing the typical rotten-egg
smell. The largest amount of oxygen (O) is required for burning carbon
(wet combustion).

133
7 DEWATS components & design principles

The process of oxidation happens aerobically with free dissolved oxygen (DO)
present in water, or anaerobically without oxygen from outside the degrading
molecules. Anoxic oxidation takes place when oxygen is taken from other organic
substances such as nitrate or sulphate.
Facultative processes include aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions, which
prevail at the same time at various parts of the same vessel or at the same
place after each other. In anoxic respiration and anaerobic fermentation, as there
is no free oxygen available, all oxygen must come from within the substrates.
Anaerobic treatment is never as complete as aerobic treatment because there is
not enough oxygen available within the substrate itself. The chemical reactions
under aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions are illustrated by the decomposition
of glucose:

Decomposition via aerobic respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 = CO2 + 6H2O

Decomposition via anoxic respiration: C6H12O6 + 4NO3 = 6CO2+6H2O+2N2

Decomposition via anaerobic fermentation: C6H12O6 = 3CH4+3CO2

Micro-organisms need nutrients to grow. Any living cell consists of C, H, O, N,

P and S atoms. Consequently, any biological degradation demands N, P and
S atoms beside C, H and O. Trace elements are also needed to form specific
enzymes. Enzymes are specialised molecules, which act as a kind of key to
open-up complex molecules for further degradation.

Carbohydrates and fats (lipids) are composed of C, O and H atoms and cannot be
fermented in pure form (Lipids are ester of alcohol and fatty acids; an ester is
a composition that occurs when water separates off). Proteins are composed of
several amino acids. Each amino acid is composed of a COOH-group and a NH3-
group plus P, S, Mg or other necessary trace elements. Thus, proteins contain all
the necessary elements and, consequently, can be fermented alone. A favourable
proportion between C, N, P and S (varying around a range of 50:4:1:1) is a
pre-condition for optimum treatment.

134
7.1.3 Aerobic anaerobic

Aerobic decomposition takes place when dissolved oxygen is present in water.

Composting is also an aerobic process. Anoxic digestion occurs when dissolved
oxygen is not available, but bacteria get oxygen for energy combustion by
breaking it away from other, mostly organic substances present in wastewater,
predominantly from nitric oxides. Anaerobic digestion breaks up molecules
composed of oxygen and carbon to ferment them to carbohydrates.

organic matter + water organic matter + oxygen

carbohydrate proteins
carbohydrate proteine lipids

hydrolosing bacteria
oxidation of enzymes
carbon
fatty acids

dehydration/
citric acid cycle
acetogenic bacteria hydration

enzymes
acetate hydrogen carbohydrate respiration of
carbon
splitting
methanogenic archaea Picture 7_1:
The anaerobic
methane + methane +
water + mineral sludge process in principle
carbohydrate water
The aerobic process is very diverse; the above diagram has
mineral sludge been almost unacceptably simplified. Picture 7_2:
However, it shows that carbohydrates and proteins undergo The aerobic
different steps of decomposition. It also shows the importance
Karstens/Berthe-Corti
of enzymes for breaking up proteins. process in principle

The aerobic process happens much faster than anaerobic digestion and therefore
dominates when free oxygen is available. The high rate at which decomposition
takes place is caused by the shorter reproduction cycles of aerobic bacteria as
compared to anaerobic micro-organisms. The latter leave some of the energy
unused, which is released in the form of biogas. Aerobic micro-organisms use a
larger portion of the pollution load (about 50% of the COD) for production of their
own bacterial mass compared to anaerobic ones (only about 5% of the COD).
That is why anaerobic processes produce 90% less sludge compared with aero-
bic ones. For the same reason, anaerobic sludge is less slimy than aerobic sludge
and is easier to drain and dry.

135
7 DEWATS components & design principles

Aerobic treatment is highly efficient when there is enough oxygen available.

However, compact aerobic treatment tanks need external oxygen, which must
artificially be supplied by blowing or via surface agitation. Such technical input
consumes technical energy.

The anaerobic treatment process proceeds at a lower rate. It benefits from a

higher digestion temperature. Therefore, it is well suitable for DEWATS in tropical
and subtropical countries. Ambient temperatures between 15 and 40C are suffi-
cient. Anaerobic digestion (fermentation) releases biogas (CH4 + CO2), which can
be used as a fuel (see section 6.6.3, page 129).

7.1.4 Physical treatment processes

Wastewater treatment relies on the separation of solids, both before and after
stabilisation. Even dissolved particles are decomposed into the three main
fractions: water, gases and solids, of which the solids have to be removed. The
choice of method for solid removal depends on the size and specific weight of
the suspended solids.

Screening

Screening of larger solids is the foremost step in conventional treatment plants.

In DEWATS, screening is not advisable because screens require cleaning at very
short intervals, i.e. daily or weekly, which demands a safe storage and treatment
space in the immediate vicinity for the removed screenings. A blocked screen is
an obstacle that plugs the entrance of the plant. DEWATS should allow for the full
amount of wastewater to pass through the plant without obstructions. If this fails,
it may happen and, in fact, happens quite often that the operator organises
a trouble-free by-pass, which pollutes the environment, as if the treatment plant
did not exist. For this reason it is recommended to avoid screens and, instead,
provide sufficient additional space to accommodate larger solids within the first
sedimentation chamber.

136
Sedimentation

Separation of solids happens primarily by gravity, predominantly through sedimen-

tation. Coarse and heavy particles settle within a few minutes or hours, while
smaller and lighter particles may need days and weeks to finally sink to the bot-
tom. Small particles may cling together, forming larger flocs that also sink quickly.
Such flocculation happens when there is enough time and little to no turbulence;
stirring hinders quick sedimentation. Sedimentation is slow in highly viscose sub-
strate.

Sedimentation of sand and other discrete particles works best in vessels with a
relatively large area. These vessels may be shallow, since depths of more than Table 10:
50cm have no influence on the sedimentation process in the case of discrete par- Settling velocities
of coarse particles
ticles. (m/h).

Suspended sludge
grain size in mm 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.005
particles have
quartz sand 502 258 82 24 6.1 0.3 0.06 settling properties
coal 152 76 26 7.6 1.5 0.08 0.015 different from
coarse particles.
SS in domestic 120 60 15 3 0.75 0.03 0.008
Source: K.+K. Imhoff,
wastewater
p. 126

This is different for finer coagulant particles, where sedimentation increases with
basin depth. This is because settling particles meet suspended particles to form
flocs which continue to grow larger and settle faster on their way to the bottom.
A slow and non-turbulent flow still and undisturbed water supports natural
coagulation for sedimentation.

137
7 DEWATS components & design principles

Settled particles accumulate at the bottom. In the case of wastewater, any sedi-
ment also contains organic substances, which begin to decompose. This decom-
position, which occurs in any sludge sedimentation basin and, to a lesser extent,
in grit chambers, results in the formation of carbon dioxide, methane and other
gases. These gases are trapped in sludge particles of the vessel which then float
to the top when the numbers of gas molecules increase. This process not only
causes turbulence; it also ruins the success of the sedimentation that has taken
place. The Imhoff tank, through its baffles, prevents such gas-driven particles
from surging and spoiling the effluent. The UASB process deliberately utilises this
balance of sedimentation (= downstream velocity) and up-flow of sludge particles
(= upstream velocity).

After decomposition and the release of gases, the stabilised (mineralised) sludge
settles permanently at the bottom, where it accumulates and occupies tank
volume. It must be removed at regular intervals. Since many pathogens,
especially helminths, also settle well, sedimentation plays an important role in
the hygienic safety of domestic or husbandry wastewater treatment.

Flotation

Flotation is the predominant method for fat, grease and oil removal. In conventional
wastewater treatment the process is also used to remove small particles by
injecting fine air bubbles to the bottom of the tank.

Picture 7_3:
Principle of lamella
solids separator to
improve sedimen-
tation lamella may
be made of plastic
sheets, concrete
slabs or PVC pipes

138
Most fatty matter can be identified by simple observation tests, similar to
settleable solids. If fats, which are detected by laboratory analysis, are not
separated by floatation, they present themselves as colloids, which can only
be removed after pre-treatment (e.g. after acidification).

Unwanted flotation occurs in septic tanks and other anaerobic systems, where
floating layers of scum may form. Accumulating scum can be removed manually,
or can be left purposely to seal the surface of anaerobic ponds, preventing
bad odour.

Flotation and sedimentation can be improved by installing slanted lamella sheets

or several layers of slanting pipes. These surfaces artificially increase the separa-
tion of solids from liquids by facilitating floc and gas accumulation.

Picture 7_4:
Baffle wall re-
taining scum, inlet
is at the right side,
water flows under-
neath the downflow
baffle into the com-
partment at the left
side

139
7 DEWATS components & design principles

Filtration

Filtration is necessary for the removal of suspended solids, which do not self-
flocculate, settle or float within a reasonable time. Most filters have a double
function: while forming a physical obstacle for smaller solid particles, they also
provide a fixed surface on which treatment micro-organisms can grow. Both
organic growth of micro-organisms and accumulated solids can lead to the
clogging of the filter. Physical filters retain solids which accumulate, unless they
are removed. Coarse filters, where physical filtration occurs primarily with the
help of micro-organisms, can be cleaned by back-flushing. In this way, micro-
organisms and suspended solids are flushed away simultaneously as, for
example, is typically done with trickling filters. Upstream filters may be back-
flushed. The filter media of sand and finer gravel filters must be removed,
cleaned and replaced after several years of use.

Needless to say, filters with smaller grain size provide more efficient particle
removal. On the other hand, effective filtration requires the retention of many
solids and, therefore, leads to faster clogging. The permeability and durability of
filters is always reciprocal to its treatment efficiency. Filter material of round and
almost equal grain size is more efficient and renders longer service than filters
of mixed grain sizes.

Aerobic filters produce more sludge than anaerobic filters and, consequently,
block faster. However, they also have a self-cleaning effect when given sufficient
resting time, as the aerobic bacteria in the sludge practise a kind of cannibalism
(autolysis) when the nutrient supply stops.

Sludge accumulation

Sedimentation and filtration lead to sludge accumulation at the bottom of vessels.

With time, the sludge compacts; consequently, older sludge occupies less volume
than fresh sludge. Sludge-removal intervals are, therefore, important design criteria.
The sludge must be handled and treated adaquately (see section 11.3).

140
7.1.5 Elimination of pollutants

Elimination of nitrogen

Nitrogen removal occurs in two steps: nitrification followed by denitrification,

which results in pure nitrogen diffusing into the atmosphere.

Nitrification is oxidation. Nitrate is the most stable form of nitrogen and its presence
indicates complete oxidation. Denitrification is reduction, or the separation of that
very oxygen from the oxidised nitrogen. The pure gaseous nitrogen that remains
is insoluble in water and, therefore, evaporates easily. Nitrogen escaping from
the denitrification process may cause floating foam or scum, similar to the effect
seen from the gas release by settled anaerobic sludge. Since nitrogen is the major
compound of air it is ecologically harmless.

During nitrification NH3 (ammonia) is oxidised by two special groups of bacteria

nitrosoma convert ammonia to nitrite (NO2) and nitrobacter convert nitrite to NO3
(nitrate). Since nitrobacter grow slowly, a higher sludge age and, thereby, longer
retention time is needed for oxidation of nitrogen (= nitrification) than is required
for oxidation of carbon (see section 8.1.1 "Control parameters", page 159).

Denitrification occurs faster than nitrification, as several groups of bacteria are

able to utilise nitrate oxygen under anoxic conditions (absence of free oxygen).
Incomplete denitrification may lead to formation of the poisonous nitrite (NO2),
instead of nitrate (NO3).

This happens because the time left for the bacteria to consume all the oxygen
is not enough or because there is not enough organic material left to absorb the
NO3-oxygen. Some non-DEWATS treatment processes recycle nutritious sludge
to prevent such nutrient deficiency. A certain amount of nitrate in the effluent
could also be a source of oxygen for the receiving water. In DEWATS, nitrate
removal usually does not receive special attention, in that additional technical
measures are not taken.

141
7 DEWATS components & design principles

Elimination of phosphorus

Micro-organisms cannot transform phosphorus into a form in which it loses its

fertiliser quality permanently. Phosphorus compounds remain potential phosphate
suppliers. This implies that no appropriate biological process, either aerobic or
anaerobic can remove phosphorus from wastewater. Phosphorus removal from
water normally takes place by removal of bacteria mass (active sludge) or by
removal of phosphate fixing solids via sedimentation or flocculation. Iron chloride,
aluminium sulphate or lime fixes phosphates, a fact that can be utilised by selec-
ting suitable soils in ground filters. However, the removal of phosphorus in root
zone filters has not proven to be as efficient and sustainable as expected by the
pioneers of these systems.

Elimination of toxic substances

Heavy-metal compounds occuring in bigger molecular structures may settle

easily. Their removal is not difficult. Heavy-metal contaminated sludge must be
handled accordingly and disposed of safely, at proper landfill sites. Heavy-metals
occuring in the form of dissolved ions do not settle at all. Along with other
soluble toxic substances, they are difficult to remove. There are numerous
ways of eliminating or transforming toxins into non-toxic matter, which cannot
be described here. You should consult more specialised literature.

noxious substance group 1 NSU is eqal to

oxidisable matter 50kgCOD
phosphorous 3kgP
Table 11:
nitrogen 25kgN
Noxious
Substances Units organic fixed halogenes 2kgAOX
(NSU) according mercury 20gHg
to German federal
cadmium 100gCd
wastwater charges
act chromium 500gCr
Mercury is the most nickel 500gNi
dangerous sub-
lead 500gPb
stance on the list.
Source: Imhoff,1990 copper 1,000gCu
dilution factor for fish toxicity 3,000m

142
High salt content inhibits biological treatment and is very difficult to remove.
In the case of saline water used for domestic or industrial purposes, for example,
the water remains saline even after treatment. So it should not be used for irri-
gation and should not be allowed to enter the groundwater table or receiving
rivers that carry too little water.

Removal of pathogens

Even after treatment, wastewater should be handled carefully. Underground

filtration and large pond systems are relatively efficient in pathogen removal, but
not necessarily to the extent that wastewater can be called safe for bathing let
alone drinking. However, reuse for irrigation is safe under certain conditions
(see section 11.4).

Helminth eggs and protozoa accumulate in sediment sludge, so are largely

retained inside the treatment system, where they stay alive for several weeks.
Most micro-organisms and viruses bound to the sludge die more quickly.
Pathogens, which are not caught in the sludge and remain suspended in the
effluent, are hardly affected. This is especially true in high-rate reactors, like filters
or activated-sludge tanks. These bacteria and viruses exit the plant alive, although
the risk of virus infection from wastewater has proven to be low.

type of infection, country dose of contact time total rest

type of chlorine h chloride
wastewater g/m mg/l
intestinal China > 1.0 5
pathogens
tubercular China > 1.5 7
pathogens
Table 12:
raw wastewater Germany 10 - 30 0.25 traces
Comparing the use
post treatment India 3 of chlorine for diffe-
post treatment Germany 2 0.25 traces rent requirements at
various places.
odour control Germany 4 0.25 traces
Different sources

143
7 DEWATS components & design principles

Exposure to UV rays has a substantial hygienic effect, in addition to sedimentation,

predation and die-off in a hostile environment. The highest rate of pathogen removal
can be expected from shallow ponds with long retention times, for example three
ponds in series with HRT of 8 to 10 days each. Constructed wetlands with their
multifunctional bacterial life in the root zones can also be very effective. However,
it is the handling after treatment, that ensures hygienic standards.

Using chlorination to kill pathogens in wastewater is only advisable for hospitals in

the case of epidemics and similar circumstances. It may also be applied in slaughter-
house treatment plants, which are only a short distance from a domestic water
source. Permanent chlorination is never advisable, as it has adverse effects on
the environment: Water is made unsuitable for aquatic life, and chlorine can react
with organic matter to produce dangerous chemicals.

Bleaching powder (chlorinated lime) containing approximately 25% free chlorine

is the most common source of chlorine. Granular HTH (high test hyperchlorite)
containing 60 to 70% Cl is available on the market under different brand names.
Since chlorination should not be a permanent practice, a chamber for batch supply,
followed by a contact tank of 0.5 1h HRT will be sufficient (picture 7_5).

Picture 7_5:
Post-treatment
chlorination car- basic
ried out in a batch treatment chlorination treatment chambers
chamber for small tank chamber HRT 1 2 h
scale applications.
The bucket is filled
with bleaching
perforated
powder, which is bucket
dissolves automa-
tically. This plant
is acceptable for
emergency disin-
fection of effluent
from rural hospitals
only because con-
trolled dosing is not
possible.

144
7.1.6 Ecology and self-purification in nature

An understanding of the self-purification ability of the natural environment helps

in designing DEWATS intelligently. On the one hand, only harmless wastewater
should be discharged; on the other hand, nature may be incorporated into the
design for the completion of the treatment processes.

Surface water

The biological self-purification effect of surface waters depends on the climate,

weather and on the relative pollution load in the water. The presence of free oxygen
is a precondition for the self-purification process. The higher the temperature,
the higher the rate at which the degrading bacteria, which are responsible for
purification, multiply. At the same time, the intake of oxygen via surface increases,
but oxygen solubility drops with increasing temperature. Rain and wind increase
the oxygen-intake capacity. Consequently, acceptable pollution loads or waste-
water volumes must be dimensioned according to the season with the least
favourable conditions
(for example, winter or summer in temperate zones, dry season in the tropics).
It is difficult to reanimate water once the self-purification effect has stopped as
from then on, it enters the anaerobic stage.
Extreme seasonal changes make it difficult to maintain the self-purification effect
of water throughout the year. However, nature has a way of helping itself, as in
the case of lakes and rivers that dry out in long dry seasons when the remains of
organic matter compost and are fully mineralised before the next rains come.

recovery factor kR
0,5

0,4

0,3 Picture 7_6:

Ability of surface
0,2 waters to recover
0,1 oxygen after pollu-
tion. Turbulence
0 increases oxygen
small large slow normal fast cascades intake and reduces
ponds lakes streams streams streams time for recovery
(Garg, p. 220)

145
7 DEWATS components & design principles

factor
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
Picture 7_7:
Oxygen intake of 1.1
natural waters via 1.0
surface contact. 0.9
Relative concentra- 0.8
tion of dissolved 0.7
oxygen decreases 0.6
5 10 15 20 25 30
with increasing
temperature in C
temperature.

Minerals retain their fertilising quality even after drying. This is why it is better to
bring sludge at the bottom of dried lakes, canals or rivers to the fields before it is
washed away into the receiving water by the first heavy rains and its rich nutrient
value is lost. However, the content of toxic matter in sludge should be observed.

The most important source of oxygen for natural water in an ecosystem is oxygen
from the air, which dissolves in water via surface contact. Floating fat, grease or
oil films restrict oxygen transmission from the air and, moreover, require additional
oxygen for their decomposition.

The nutrients contained in wastewater increase algae growth. In a healthy eco-

system, algae produce oxygen during the day and consume part of this oxygen at
night. If the algae population were to become unduly dense, sunlight would not
be able to penetrate the dark-green water. As a result, the algae would consume
oxygen during the day as well and the supply of free oxygen that is needed for
aquatic life would decrease.

The degree of pollution and, particular, in the content of dissolved oxygen (DO),
can be gauged by the variety of plant and animal species found in the water. The
colour of the water of rivers and lakes is yet another indicator of the quality of the
water. Green or green-brownish water is indicative of high nutrient supply due to
algae; a reddish-rosy colour indicates facultative algae and a severe lack of free
oxygen; black is often indicative of complete anaerobic conditions of suspended
matter.

146
Nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO3) is the main polluting nutrient. In the form of
ammonia (NH3, toxic to fish) it is also a major, oxygen-consuming toxic substance,
therfore nitrogen should be kept away from living waters; notwithstanding that
nitrate may also function as an oxygen donor in certain instances.

The next most-important polluting nutrient is phosphorus, which is mainly present

in the form of hydrogen phosphate (H2PO4). Since phosphorus is often the limiting
factor for the utilisation of other nutrients, its presence in surface waters is
dangerous, as even in small doses it may lead to an oversupply of nutrients
(eutrophication). Nitrogen that is normally plentiful needs 10% of phosphorus to
be assimilated by plants. That means phosphorus activates ten times as much
nitrogen and, therefore may be considered the most polluting element to any
receiving water. At the same time, it is this property that makes wastewater rich
in phosphate an excellent fertiliser when used for irrigation in agriculture.

Picture 7_8:
DEWATS at a hotel
in Cochin, India;
large-size ponds
are used for post-
treatment

147
7 DEWATS components & design principles

Phosphorus accumulates in closed ecosystems, for example in lakes. Unlike

nitrogen that can be eliminated as N2 or N2O2 etc., phosphorus remains potentially
active in the residue of dead plants, which have previously incorporated it.
For example, phosphate fixed by iron salts can be set free under anaerobic
conditions in the bottom sludge, where it is available for new plant growth. It is
for this reason that continuous supply of phosphate into lakes is prohibited. While
this may seem less dangerous for flowing waters, it must be realised that all
rivers end somewhere, at which point phosphorus will accumulate.

While chlorine may be used for disinfecting effluents from hospitals and slaughter-
houses, it must be remembered that chlorine also disinfects the receiving
waters, thereby reducing their self-purification ability. Moreover, they form
chlorinated compounds being potentially carcinogenic.

It is self-evident that toxic substances should not enter any living water. Most
toxic substances become harmless in the short term, particularly if they are
sufficiently diluted. However, most toxic materials are taken in by plants and living
creatures and, in the long run, accumulate in the aquatic lifecycle. Fish from such
waters become unsuitable for human consumption and heavy metals accumulate
in the bottom sludge of receiving waters, where they remain as a time-bomb for
the future.

Groundwater

Groundwater was once rainwater. It is the most important source of water for
domestic use, irrigation and other purposes. The supply of groundwater is not
infinite. To be sustainable, it must be recharged. Rather than simply draining
used water into rivers that carry it to the sea, it would be better to purify this
water and use it to recharge the groundwater.

Organic pollution of groundwater happens in cases where wastewater enters

underground water-streams directly. A crack-free, 3m-thick soil layer above
groundwater is sufficient to prevent organic pollution. Pollution by mineralised
matters is possible, however, as salts like nitrate and phosphate are soluble in
water and cannot be eliminated by physical filtration when passing through soil
or sand layers. Some pathogens may also reach the groundwater despite soil
filtration. Viruses can be dangerous, due to their infectious potential, irrespective
of their absolute number.

148
Nitrate is readily soluble in water. So it is easily leached out from soil into ground-
water, especially in sandy soil during periods when vegetation is low (for example,
winter in cold climates). Groundwater, therefore, will always contain a certain
amount of nitrate (mostly above 10mg/l).

Nitrate (NO3) in itself is rather harmless. For example, in the European Union,
drinkingwater may legally contain nitrate up to 25mg/l. It is, however, latently
dangerous, as nitrate is capable of changing to nitrite (NO2) under certain biological
or chemical circumstances. This process can even occur inside human blood,
where nitrite attaches itself to haemoglobin, reducing the capacity of the haemo-
globin to transport oxygen leading to suffocation. Nitrite poses the greatest
risk to babies, who have a greater tendency to form nitrite. For this reason, water
used for the production of baby food must always contain less than 10mg/l NO3.

Soil

Pollution can render soils useless for agricultural production. For example, the pH
may drop as a result of incomplete anaerobic digestion of organic matter. This is
particularly common in clay or loamy soils, where oxygen supply is insufficient
due to the physical closure of pores in the soil by suspended solids from waste-
water irrigation. Furthermore, soil pollution poses a threat because of washout
effects that harm surface- and groundwater alike. Mineral salts in small doses do
not pose a problem for wastewater treatment. Using saline wastewater for irri-
gation over a long period of time, however, may cause complete and irreversible
salination of the topsoil. Clay and loamy soils with slow downward percolation
are the most affected, as water evaporates from the top layers, leaving the salt
behind.

On the other hand, sandy soils may benefit from irrigation with wastewater even
when the organic load is high, provided that oxygen can be supplied to deeper
soil layers. Well-treated wastewater, containing mineralised nitrogen, phosphorus
and other trace elements, can improve soil conditions and is environmentally
safe, as long as the application of nutrients is balanced with its in-take by plants.
Applying of treated wastewater throughout the year, regardless of demand, may
have adverse effects. Nutrients will be leached out into water bodies at times
when plant growth is negligible, with the result that nutrients are not available to
the plants when needed.

149
8 Treatment in DEWATS

DEWATS make use of the natural biological- and physical-treatment processes

discussed above to reduce and remove pollutants from wastewater. External
energy supply, dosing of chemicals and movable parts are avoided to minimise
both possible flaws in operation and maintenance.

As the various natural-treatment processes require different boundary conditions

to function efficiently, DEWATS are comprised of a series of treatment units, each
providing an ideal environment for the removal of certain groups of pollutants.
Stability of the treatment system is ensured, as each treatment step only remo-
ves the easy part of the pollution load, sending the leftovers to the following
step.

Sedimentation Anaerobic digestion Aerobic decomposition Post-sedimentation

removal of easily removal of easily removal of more difficult removal of digested solids
settleable solids degradeable organic solids degradable solids and active bacteria mass

Picture 8_1:
Several steps are The term phase separation has a double meaning. On the one hand it is used
required for full
treatment for the separation of gas, liquid and solids in anaerobic reactors; on the other hand
it is used to describe the technical separation of different stages of the treatment
process, either in different locations or in sequences of time intervals. The latter
kind of phase separation becomes necessary when suitable nutrients cannot be
provided simultaneously to micro-organisms, which have differing growth rates
and prefer different feeds. Some micro-organisms grow at a slower rate than
others. As not all the enzymes required for degradation are initially found in all
substrates, the micro-organisms take time to produce adequate amounts of the
missing enzymes. As disscussed previously, enzymes act as the key which
opens the lock of the food box for micro-organisms.

Substrates, for which enzymes are immediately available, can be readily degraded;
substrates, which first require the microbial production of specific enzymes, are
degraded much more slowly. In an environment which hosts substances that are
both easy and difficult to degrade, the microbial population responsible for easy
degradation tends to predominate.

150
To protect the weaker (slower) micro-organisms, it is advisable to artificially
separate microbial populations in phases by providing each with its own favourable
environment. The characteristics of the wastewater and the desired treatment
results must be identified, before the dimensions of the treatment vessels for the
different phases can be designed.

In the case of DEWATS, it is often easiest to provide longer retention times, so

that the slow micro-organisms find their food after the fast ones have satis-
fied their demand. This process is easier to manage and, in the case of smaller
plants, it is cheaper to design certain units this way. In other units, like the
baffled reactor, the efficiency of the treatment in subsequent chambers justifies
its higher cost; processes, which require sequencing batch operation involving
technical equipment and process control, are thereby avoided.

Phase separation becomes unavoidable if different phases require either anaerobic

or aerobic conditions. In the case of nitrogen removal, longer retention times
alone do not provide adequate treatment conditions because the nitrifying phase
needs an aerobic environment, while denitrification requires an anoxic environ-
ment. Anoxic means that nitrate (NO3) oxygen is available, but free oxygen is
not. Anaerobic means that neither free oxygen nor nitrate-oxygen is available.
Nevertheless, the aerobic phase can only lead to nitrification if the retention
time is long enough for the slow nitrifying bacterium to act, as compared to
the fast carbon oxidisers.

In the case of the addition of plant material to an anaerobic digester, pre-

composting of plant residues before anaerobic digestion is another example of
simple phase separation. As lignin cannot be digested anaerobically (it requires
peroxidase enzymes usually produced by fungi), it is decomposed aerobically.
Afterwards, anaerobic micro-organisms can reach the inner parts of the plant
material in the digester.

151
8 Treatment in DEWATS

8.1 Parameters for wastewater-treatment design

Treatment must remove or reduce pollutants within the wastewater sufficiently

to prevent harm to the environment and humans. Before deciding, what kind of
treatment is necessary and the dimensions of each unit, planners and designers
must identify the following:
quality and quantity of the raw wastewater
local conditions and their influence on treatment processes
standards to be fulfilled in final use or discharge

Laboratory analysis is used to determine the quantity and quality of the pollution
load, the feasibility of treatment, the environmental impact under local conditions
and whether a particular wastewater is suitable for biogas production. Some
parameters can even be seen and understood by experienced observation.

As the quality of wastewater changes according to the time of day and from
season to season, the analysis of data is never absolute. It is far more important
that the designer understands the significance of each parameter and its nor-
mal range than to know the exact figures. Ordinarily, an accuracy of 10% is
more than sufficient.

This chapter gives a concise overview, introducing:

control parameters, essential for characterising wastewater and
dimensioning parameters, utilised in DEWATS design

Textbooks on the analysis of wastewater should be consulted for laboratory

techniques or comprehensive handbooks on wastewater, such as Metcalf and
Eddys Wastewater Engineering.

152
8.1.1 Control parameters

Volume

The daily volume or the flow rate of wastewater determines the required size of
the building structure on which the feasibility or suitability of the treatment
technology is decided. It is essential not to underestimate the peak flow.

Surprisingly, the determination of flow rate is often rather complicated, due to the
fact that flow rates change throughout the day or with the season, and that volumes
have to be measured in full size. It is not possible to take a representative
sample. In the case of DEWATS, it is often easier and more practical to measure
or enquire about the water consumption (per capita consumption of water from
taps and/or wells) rather than try to measure the wastewater production. The flow
of wastewater is not directly equal to water consumption, since not all the water
that is consumed ends up in the drain (for example, water for gardening), and
because wastewater might be a mix of used water and stormwater. If possible,
stormwater should be segregated from the treatment system, especially if it
is likely to carry substantial amounts of silt or rubbish. Rainwater drains should
never be connected to the treatment plant, however, ponds and planted gravel
filters will be exposed to rain (and evaporation). The volume of water in itself is
normally not a problem as hydraulic loading rates are not likely to be doubled and
a certain flushing effect might even be advantageous. Soil clogging (silting) could
become a problem, however, if stormwater reaches the planted gravel filter after
eroding the surrounding area.

For high-rate reactors, like anaerobic filters, anaerobic baffled reactors and UASB,
the flow rate could be a crucial design parameter. If exact flow data are not
available, the hours of the day, which account for most of the flow, should be
determined and used. Hydraulic retention-time calculations should take into
account the flow rate fluctuation.

The flow rate is calculated by collecting and measuring volumes per time period.
Possible measurement techniques include monitoring the rise in level of a canal
that is closed for a period of time, or the number of buckets filled during a given
period. Another good indicator of the actual flow rate is the time it takes, during
initial filling for the first tank of a treatment plant to overflow.

153
8 Treatment in DEWATS

In larger plants the flow rates are normally measured with measuring flumes (for
example, the Parshall flume) where a rise in level across the flume is related to
the flow.

Solids

Total solids (TS) or dry matter (DM) include all matter, which is not water. Organic
total solids (OTS) or volatile solids (VS) are the organic fraction of the total solids.
TS is found by drying the sample. The inorganic fraction is found by burning the
dry matter and weighing the ash. TS minus ash is OTS or VS. Solids may be
measured in mg/l or as a percentage of the total volume.

The parameter suspended solids (SS) is the amount of organic or inorganic

matter that is not dissolved in water. Suspended solids include settleable solids and
non-settleable or suspended solids. Settleable solids sink to the bottom within a
short time. They can be measured with a standardised procedure in an Imhoff-
cone, usually for a defined settling period of 30 minutes, one hour, two hours or
one day. Measurement of settleable solids is the easiest method of wastewater
analysis because solids are directly visible in any transparent vessel. For collec-
ting initial on-site information, any transparent vessel will do (for example, water
bottles, which should be destroyed for hygienic safety after use).
Table 13:
Domestic waste-
water derives from range source min max
various sources. g/cap*d g/cap*d
Composition of faeces (solids, 23%) 32 68
wastewater depends
ground food wastes 32 82
largely on standard
of living and do- wash waters 59 100
mestic culture. toilet (incl. paper) 14 27
Source:
urine (solids, 3.7%) 41 68
Metcalf&Eddy, 1996

Non-settleable suspended solids consist of particles which are too small to sink to
the bottom within a reasonable time (with regard to the design parameters of the
treatment processes). SS is determined by sample filtration. Suspended solids are
an important parameter because they cause turbidity in the water and may cause
physical clogging of pipes, filters, valves and pumps.

154
Colloids are very fine suspended solids (< 0.1m) which pass laboratory filter
paper, but are not dissolved in water (dissolved solids are solutes (molecules or
ions) that disperse through out the water molecules). A high proportion of fatty
colloids can create large problems in fine-sand filters.

In domestic wastewater, the BOD derives to approximately one third (33%) from
settleable solids, to half (50%) from dissolved solids, while one sixth (17%) of the
BOD derives from non-settleable SS (see Table 17, page 165).

Fat, grease and oil

Fat and grease are organic matter that is biodegradable. However, since they float
on water and have a sticky consistency their physical properties are a problem in
the treatment process and in nature. It is best to separate fat and grease before
biological treatment and dispose to sludge treatment facilities (see section 11.3)
or other specific recycling plants (e.g. soap production).

The amount of fat that remains in treated domestic wastewater is normally small.
A fat content of approximately 15 to 60mg/l is allowed in the effluent of slaughter-
houses or meat-processing plants for discharge into surface waters. Mineral
grease and mineral oils such as petrol or diesel although they may also be
treated biologically, should be kept away from the treatment system. Their elimi-
nation is not within the scope of DEWATS.

Turbidity, colour and odour

Most wastewaters are turbid because the solids suspended in them scatter and
disperse light. So highly turbid fluid indicates a high content of suspended solids.
Metcalf and Eddy define the relationship between turbidity and suspended solids
in the following equation:

SS [mg/l] = 2,35 turbidity (NTU), or

32 Metcalf & Eddy,
turbidity (NTU) = SS [mg/l] / 2,3532 1996; page 257

155
8 Treatment in DEWATS

NTU is the standardised degree of turbidity. Its value can be determined with the
help of a turbiditimeter or by standardised methods, which measure the depth
of water at which it is no longer possible to see a black cross or a circle against a
white background. Turbidity may prevent algae in surface waters from producing
oxygen during daytime, as would otherwise be the case.

The colour is not only indicative of the source of wastewater, but also of the state
of degradation. Fresh domestic wastewater is grey, while aerobically degraded
water tends to be yellow-brown, and water after anaerobic digestion turns blackish.
Turbid, black water may be easily settleable because suspended solids sink to the
bottom after digestion when given enough undisturbed time to form flocs.
A brownish colour indicates incomplete aerobic or facultative fermentation.

Wastewater that does not smell probably contains enough free oxygen to restrict
anaerobic digestion or the organic matter has long since been degraded. A
foul smell (like rotten eggs) comes from H2S (hydrogen sulphide), which is
produced during anaerobic digestion, especially at a low pH. A foul smell, there-
fore indicates that free oxygen is not available and that anaerobic digestion is
still underway. Vice versa, whenever there is substantial anaerobic digestion
there will always be a foul smell.
Fresh wastewaters from various sources have characteristic smells. Experience
is the best basis for drawing conclusions: dairy wastewater will smell like dairy
wastewater, distillery wastewater will smell like distillery wastewater, etc.
smelling the performance of treatment plants is an important skill. An alert
wastewater engineer should remember the different odours and their causes,
to build up a repertoire of experience for future occasions.

COD and BOD

COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is the most common parameter for measuring
organic pollution. It describes the amount of oxygen required to oxidise all organic
and inorganic matter found in the water. The BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
is always smaller than the COD. It describes the amount of oxygen required for
the oxidisation of matter, which can be oxidised by the biological organisms in
a body of water. It approximates the organic fraction of the COD. Under standar-
dised laboratory conditions at 20C, it takes about 20 days to activate the total
carbonaceous BOD (=BODultimate, BODtotal). In order to save time, BOD-analysis
determines the biological oxygen demand after five days. The result is called
BOD5, which in practice, is commonly referred to simply as BOD.

156
The BOD5 is a certain fraction (approximately 65 to 70%) of the ultimate BOD.
This fraction is different for each wastewater, depending (for example) on the
proportions of organic matter in soluble and suspended form. The ratio of BODtotal
to BOD5 is larger for refractory or difficult degradable wastewater and, thus, it is
also larger for partly treated wastewater.

COD and BOD are the results of standardised laboratory-analysis methods.

They do not fully reflect the bio-chemical truth, but are reliable indicators for
practical use.

Real total oxygen demand

COD
max. oxygen demand that can
be captured by defined
chemical analysis methods

BOD total = BOD ultimate

total biodegradable oxygen
Picture 8_2:
demand
Definition of oxygen
demand. The BOD5
is a part of the total
BOD5 BOD; the total BOD
biodegradable oxygen may be understood
demand that can be as part of the COD;
captured by defined and the COD is part
biological analysing of the absolute real
method within 5 days oxygen demand.
The total BOD may
be equal to the
COD and BOD are not in any case COD; the COD may
comparable to each other be equal to the real
oxygen demand

Biological oxygen demand describes the portion of the wastewater which can be
digested easily, for example, anaerobically. The COD/BODtotal approximates the
relation of total oxidisable matter to organic matter, which is degraded first by
the most common micro-organisms. For example, if a substrate is toxic to micro-
organisms, the BOD is zero; the COD nonetheless may be high, as would be the
case with chlorinated water. In general, if the COD is much higher than the BOD
(>3 times) one should check the wastewater for toxic or non-biodegradable sub-
stances.

157
8 Treatment in DEWATS

In practice, the quickest way to determine toxic substances is to have a look at

the shopping list of the institution which produces the wastewater.
The kinds of detergent bought by a hospital may be more revealing than a waste-
water sample taken at random. It is important to know that the COD in a labo-
ratory test shows the oxygen donated by the test-substance, which is normally
K2Cr2O7 (potassium dichromate). The tested substrate is heated to initiate the
chemical reaction (combustion). Occasionally, KMnO4 (potassium permanganate)
is used for quick on-site tests also known as the permanganate value (PV) or
oxygen adsorbed from permanganate (OA). The CODCr is approximately twice as
much as the CODMn; however, the two values do not have a fixed relation, which
is valid for all wastewaters.

Easily degradable wastewater has a COD/BOD relation of about 2. The COD/BOD

ratio widens after biological, especially anaerobic treatment because biological
degradation has already taken place. COD and BOD concentrations are measured
in mg/l or in g/m. Absolute values are measured in g or kg. A weak wastewater
from domestic sources, for example, may have a COD below 500mg/l while a
strong industrial wastewater may have a value of up to 80,000mg/l BOD.

When too much BOD or COD is discharged into surface waters, the oxygen
Picture 8_3: BOD mg/l
BOD-removal rates
300
are expressed by
rate constants (k) 250
which depend on k = 0.30
wastewater proper- 200
k = 0.15
ties, temperature 150
and treatment-plant k = 0.10
characteristics. 100
The curve shows k = 0.08
50
the BOD-removal
rates at 20C. The 0
value after 5 days is 0 5 10 15 20
known as BOD5 days

present in that water is consumed for the decomposition of the pollutants and,
thus, is no longer available to support aquatic life. Effluent standards for discharge
into receiving waters may tolerate 30 to 70mg/l BOD and 100 to 200mg/l COD.

158
Wastewater analysis sometimes states the total organic carbon (TOC). This
indicates how much of the COD can be attributed to carbon only. In designing
DEWATS, knowledge of BOD or COD is sufficient; TOC is of no practical
concern.

toxic metal concentration mg/l

Cr 28200
Ni 50200
Cu 5100
Zn 3100
Cd 70
Pb 830 Table 14:
Concentration of
Na 5,00014,000
toxic substances
K 2,5005,000 which inhibit anae-
Ca 2,5007,000 robic digestion.
Source: Mudrak/
Mg 1,0001,500
Kunst, 1991

Nitrogen (N)

Most of the nitrogen in human excreta is contained in water-soluble urea. The

types of nitrogen compounds found in wastewater are good indicators for which
treatment steps are currently happening or have happened. Nitrogen is a major
component of proteins (albumen). A high percentage of albuminoid nitrogen indi-
cates fresh wastewater. During decomposition, when large protein molecules are
broken up into smaller molecules, nitrogen is found in the form of free ammonia
(NH3, toxic for fish). However, ammonia dissolves in water and forms ammonium
ions (NH4+) at low pH levels. At a pH level above 7, NH4+ transforms to NH3.
There is always a mass balance between NH3 and NH4. NH3 evaporates into the
atmosphere, which leads to unwanted nitrogen losses, if the treated wastewater
is intended for irrigation (see section 7.1.5, page 141). Ammonium further oxi-
dises to nitrite (NO2-, toxic) and finally to nitrate (NO3-, not toxic for fish).

159
8 Treatment in DEWATS

From the chemical symbol, it is evident that ammonia (or ammonium) will con-
sume oxygen to form nitrate, the most stable end-product. The albuminoid and
the ammonia nitrogen together form the organic nitrogen, also called Kjeldahl-N
(Nkjel). The total nitrogen (Ntotal) is composed of Nkjel (not oxidised N) and nitrate-N
(oxidised N).

Pure nitrogen (N2) is formed when oxygen is separated from NO3 ions to oxidise
organic matter. Since pure nitrogen hardly dissolves in water, it is released imme-
diately into the atmosphere, an attribute used to remove nitrogen from waste-
water in the process of denitrification. Nitrification (under aerobic conditions)
followed by denitrification (under anoxic conditions) is the usual process of
removing nitrogen from wastewater.

For optimum growth of micro-organisms, untreated wastewater should have a

BOD/N relation of 15 to 30. Nitrogen is normally not monitored in the effluent
of smaller plants. Discharge standards for the effluent of larger plants permit
10 to 20 mg/l of Nkjel-N.

Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus (P) is an important parameter for planning the treatment of unknown

wastewater, especially in relation to BOD, nitrogen or sulphur. Microbial growth
demands approximate ratios of BOD/P and N/P of 100 and 5, respectively.
Insufficient amounts of phosphorus lead to lower microbial activity and, therefore
poorer removal of COD (BOD).

High phosphorus content in the effluent leads to water pollution by algae growth.
However, since very little phosphorus is removed in DEWATS it is the least
important parameter to the designing engineer. Discharge standards for larger
plants allow P in the range of 1 to 5 mg/l.

Temperature

Temperature is an important parameter, as warmer conditions promote microbial

growth. Anaerobic digestion requires minimal temperatures of 10C; temperatures
between 18 and 25C are good, 25 to 35C are ideal. Anaerobic processes are
more sensitive to low temperatures than aerobic ones because the micro-
organisms achieve lower energy gains for themselves, through the production of

160
biogas, as an oxidiseable, energy-rich end-product. The ambient temperatures in
tropical and subtropical zones are ideal for anaerobic treatment which is the basis
for DEWATS.

Higher temperatures are also favourable for the growth of aerobic bacteria,
but disadvantageous for oxygen transfer (Picture 7_8). A warmer environment
reduces the capability of water to absorb oxygen from the air. This is the reason
why ponds may become anaerobic at the height of summer.

pH-value

The pH-value indicates whether a liquid is acidic or alkaline. The scientific definition
of the pH is rather complicated and of no interest to practical engineering (it
indicates the H-ion concentration). Pure water has a pH of 7, which is considered
to be neutral. An effluent of neutral pH indicates optimal treatment performance.
Wastewater with a pH below 4 to 5 (acidic) and above 9 (alkaline) is difficult to
treat; mixing tanks may be required to buffer or balance the pH level. In the case
of a high pH, ammonia-N dominates, whereas ammonium-N is prevalent at low
pH-values.

Volatile fatty acids

Volatile fatty acids (VFA) are used as a parameter to check the state of the
digestion process. A high concentration of VFA always coincides with a low pH.
Fatty acids are produced at an early stage of digestion. Too high a concentration
of fatty acids indicates that the second stage of digestion, which breaks up the
fatty acids, is not keeping pace with acidification. This indicates that the retention
time is either too short or that the organic pollution load on the treatment system
is too high. Values of VFA concentrations inside the digester in the range of BOD
inflow concentration values indicate a stable anaerobic process.

Dissolved oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) describes the concentration of oxygen gas that is dissolved
in water. The parameter indicates the potential for aerobic treatment and is usually
applied to assess the quality of surface waters. DO is vital to support aquatic life:
most species of fish require a minimum of 4 to 5 mg/l DO for survival and breeding.

161
8 Treatment in DEWATS

Pathogens

The World Health Organisation (WHO) distinguishes between high-risk trans-

mission of intestinal parasites (helminths eggs), and lower-risk transmission of
diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria. Indicators for these risks are the number
of helminths eggs and the number of faecal coliforms per volume of effluent,
respectively. For uncontrolled irrigation less than 10,000 e-coli per litre and less
than 1 helminth egg per litre is permitted by the WHO standard. E-coli bacteria
are not pathogenic, but are a good indicator of faecal bacteria. Regardless of the
number of ova, bacteria or viruses, wastewater is generally unsafe to humans.

Organism Disease/symptoms
Virus (lowest frequency of infection)
polio virus poliomyelitis
coxsackie virus meningitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, fever, common colds, etc.
echo virus meningitis, paralysis, encephalitis, fever, common colds, diarrhoea, etc.
hepatitis A virus infectious hepatitis
rota virus acute gastroenteritis with severe diarrhoea
norwalk agents epidemic gastroenteritis with severe diarrhoea
reo virus respiratory infections, gastroenteritis
Bacteria (low frequency of infection)
salmonella spp. salmonellosis (food poisoning), typhoid fever
shigella spp. bacillary dysentry
yersinia spp. acute gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, abdominal pain
vibro cholerae cholera
campylobacter jejuni gastroenteritis
escherichia coli gastroenteritis
Helminth worms (high frequency of infection)
ascari lumbrocoides digestive disturbance, abdominal pain, vomiting, restlessness
ascaris suum coughing, chest pain, fever
trichuris trichiura abdominal pain, diarrhea, anaemia, weight loss
toxocara canis fever, abdominal discomfort, muscle aches, neurological symptoms
taenia saginata nervousness, insomnia, anorexia, abdominal pain, digestive distrubance
taenia solium nervousness, insomnia, anorexia, abdominal pain, digestive distrubance
necator americanus hookworm disease
hymenolepsis nana taeniasis
Protozoa (mixed frequency of infection)
cryptosporidium gastroenteritis
Table 15: entmoeba histolytica acute enteritis
Wastewater trans- giardia lamblia giardiasis, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, weight loss
mitted diseases and balantidium coli diarrhea, dysentery
their symptoms toxoplasma gondii toxoplasmosis

162
Exact pathogen counts are of limited importance for DEWATS design. Bacterial or
helminth counts are important when wastewater is discharged into surface waters,
which are used for bathing, washing, or irrigation.

Domestic wastewater and effluents from meat-processing plants and slaughter-

houses, which carry the risk of transmitting blood-borne diseases, such as hepa-
titis, are particularly dangerous. The handling and discharge of such effluents may
demand special precautions.

8.1.2 Dimensioning parameters

Hydraulic load

The hydraulic load is the most common parameter for calculating reactor volumes.
It describes the volume of wastewater to be applied per volume of reactor, or per
surface area of filter, within a given time. The usual dimension for the hydraulic
load of reactors is m/(md), meaning that 1m of wastewater is applied per 1m
of reactor volume per day. The reciprocal value denotes the hydraulic retention
time (HRT). For example, 1m/d wastewater on 3m of reactor volume results in
a hydraulic load of 0.33m/(md), which is equal to a hydraulic retention time of
three days (3m volume/1m of water per day).

The hydraulic retention time (HRT) gives a relation of volumes of feed in an empty
reactor. It does not, for example, distinguish between sludge and liquid. The
hydraulic retention time of a septic tank states nothing about the fraction of
wastewater, which stays inside the tank for longer, nor does it say anything about
the time that the bottom sludge has for digestion. In the case of vessels filled
with filter media, the actual hydraulic retention time depends on the pore space
of the media. For example, certain gravel consists of 60% stones and 40% pore
space between the stones. A retention time of 24h per gross reactor volume is
thereby reduced to 40%, which gives a net HRT of 9.6h.

For groundfilters and ponds, the hydraulic loading rates may be expressed in
m/(had), m/(md) or l/(md). Alternatively, the value may be stated in cm
or m height of water cover on a horizontal surface. For example, 150 litres of
water applied per square meter of land is equal to 0.15m/m, which in turn is
equal to 0.15m or 15cm hydraulic load.

163
8 Treatment in DEWATS

Hydraulic loading rates are also responsible for the flow rate (velocity) inside the
reactor. This is of particular interest in the case of up-flow reactors, like UASB
or baffled reactors, where the up-flow velocity of liquid must be lower than the
settling velocity of sludge particles. In such cases, the daily flow must be divided
by the hours of actual flow (peak-hour flow rate). For calculating the velocity in
an up-flow reactor, the wastewater flow per hour is divided by the surface area
of the respective chamber (v = Q/A; velocity of flow equals flow divided by area).
When splitting one large reactor into several chambers in series, it must be con-
sidered that the up-flow velocity in each chamber is greater than in the original
large reactor. This is due to the fact that the flow rate per hour remains the same,
while the area through which the flow passes is reduced to individual chambers.
The necessity to keep velocity low, therefore, can lead to relatively large digester
volumes, especially in anaerobic baffled reactor.

Organic load

For strong wastewater, the organic loading rate and not the hydraulic loading
rate becomes the determining design parameter. In the case of tanks and deep
anaerobic ponds, the calculation is done in grams or kilograms of BOD5 (or COD)
per m digester volume per day. For shallow aerobic ponds, organic loading is
related to the surface area using the dimensions grams or kilograms of BOD5 (or
COD) per m or ha per day.

Table 16: typical values aerobic maturation water hyacinth anaerobic anaerobic baffled
Organic-loading pond pond pond pond filter reactor
rates and remo- BOD5 kg/m*d 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.3-1.2 4.00 6.00
val efficiencies of
BOD5 removal 85% 70% 85% 70% 85% 85%
various treatment
systems. temperature 20C 20C 20C 30C 30C 30C
Sources: mixed optimum

The permitted organic loading rate is influenced by the time needed by the
various kinds of micro-organisms for their specific metabolism under the given
conditions (often expressed as rate constant k). This, in turn is, influenced by
the kind of reactor, the reactor temperature and the kind of wastewater. Easy-
to-degrade substrate can be fed at higher loading rates because the micro-
organisms involved multiply fast and consume organic matter quickly. For difficult-
to-degrade substrate, some of the micro-organisms require longer contact times.

164
Excessive loading rates can lead to poisoning and the process collapsing because
end-products from one step of fermentation cannot be consumed by the ensuing
group of micro-organisms. In anaerobic digestion, for example, overloading leads
to acidification of the substrate, preventing final methanisation.

At very low loading rates, almost no sludge is produced because the micro-
organisms eat each other for want of feed (autolysis). Consequently, incoming
wastewater is not met by sufficient micro-organisms for decomposition. Although
low organic loading rates do not destabilise the process, they do reduce overall
treatment efficiency.

Sludge volume

The volume of sludge is an important parameter for designing sedimentation

tanks and digesters. This is because the accumulating sludge occupies tank volu-
me that must be added to the required reactor volume. The amount of biological
sludge production is directly related to the amount of BOD removed which, ho-
wever, depends on the decomposition process. Aerobic digestion produces more
sludge than anaerobic fermentation. In addition to the biological sludge, primary
sludge consists partly of settled solids, which are already mineralised.

mineral dry matter organic dry matter total dry matter BOD5
g/cap.*d g/m g/cap*d g/m g/cap.*d g/m g/cap.*d g/m
settleable 20 100 30 150 50 250 20 100
solids

suspended 5 25 10 50 15 75 10 50
solids

dissolved 75 375 50 250 125 625 30 150

solids

Total 100 500 90 450 190 950 60 300

Table 17:
Average distribution
of solids in domestic
wastewater in
Germany.
Source: Imhoff, 1990

165
8 Treatment in DEWATS

Large, conventional sewage-treatment works remove sludge continuously and

often under water producing a very liquid sludge with a low, total solid content
of between 1 and 5%. In DEWATS, the sludge remains inside the tank for at least
one year, where it decomposes under anaerobic conditions and undergoes further
volume reduction, as it compacts under its own weight with time.

Although the literature varies widely, it can be assumed that approximately 0.005
litres of sludge per gram BODremoved accumulate in the primary treatment step
of DEWATS, including a certain percentage of mineral settleable particles. There
is sludge accumulation in secondary treatment as not all digested organic matter
accumulates as settleable sludge, and mineral particles have already been removed.
A sludge value of 0.0075 litres per gram BODremoved can be assumed for
oxidation ponds, taking additional sludge from algae into account. The above
figures are estimates for modern domestic wastewater as described in Table
18. True sludge production is influenced by the wastewaters settling properties,
ratio of organic and mineral matter content and physical boundary conditions.
Further details on sludge handling and treatment can be found in section 11.3.

Properties of sludge from primary

sedimentation
Table 18:
specific grafity specific grafity dry solids
Properties of
of solids of sludge
primary sludge
kg/l kg/l g/m
Source:
Metcalf&Eddy, 1996 1.4 1.02 150.6

166
Additional benefits of wastewater treatment

The possible additional benefits of wastewater treatment should be considered

at an early stage of planning so that it can be incorporated into the design.

Where and how the treated effluent is disposed or used affects the form of
treatment that is required. While the removal of nutrients may be beneficial for
the discharge into open water bodies or groundwater, it is counterproductive for
reuse in agricultural irrigation. Reuse in agriculture, on the other hand, results in
higher hygienic-treatment demand. More extensive treatment or dilution with
fresh river-water might also be necessary to allow fish farming.

Other possible benefits from wastewater treatment, like biogas production,

also restrict the choice of treatment methods, and influence investment and
maintenance costs as well as amortisation.

Picture 8_4:
Sludge from a
septic tank in India
the black colour of
the sludge indicates
anaerobic condition

167
9 Technical components

This chapter introduces the technical-treatment components of DEWATS, which

correspond to the DEWATS criteria defined in chapter 7.

After a brief overview and comparison of the different technologies, detailed

sections on each component explain the specifics of design, applied-treatment
processes, and start-up considerations as well as operation and maintenance
procedures.

9.1 Overview of DEWATS components

DEWATS is based on four treatment systems:

sedimentation and primary treatment in sedimentation ponds, septic tanks,
fully mixed digesters or Imhoff tanks
secondary anaerobic treatment in baffled reactors (baffled septic tanks) or
fixed-bed filters
secondary and tertiary aerobic/anaerobic treatment in constructed wetlands
(subsurface flow filters)
secondary and tertiary aerobic/anaerobic treatment in ponds

Components are combined in accordance with the wastewater influent and the
required effluent quality. Hybrid systems or a combination of secondary on-site
treatment and tertiary co-operative treatment is also possible.

The following treatment components are discussed in further detail in the ensuing
chapters:
Grease traps and grit chambers are beneficial for wastewater from canteens and
certain industries. Short retention times prevent the settling of biodegradable solids.
Grit and grease must be removed frequently.

168
Septic tanks are the most common form of treatment. The robust system provides
a combination of mechanical treatment through sedimentation and biological
degradation of settled organic solids. Septic tanks are used for wastewater with
a high percentage of settleable solids, typically effluent from domestic sources.

Fully mixed digesters provide anaerobic treatment of wastewater with higher

organic load, while serving as a settler in a combined system. In the process,
biogas is produced as a useful by-product.

Imhoff tanks are slightly more complicated to construct than septic tanks,
but provide a fresher effluent when de-sludged frequently. Imhoff tanks are
preferred when post-treatment takes place near residential houses, in open
ponds or constructed wetlands of vertical flow type.

Anaerobic baffled reactors or baffled septic tanks function as multi-chamber septic

tanks. They increase biological degradation by forcing the wastewater through
active sludge beneath chamber-separating baffles. All baffled reactors are suitable
for all kinds of wastewater, they are most appropriate for wastewater with a high
percentage of non-settleable suspended solids and narrow COD/BOD ratio.

Anaerobic filters combine mechanical solids-removal with digestion of dissolved

organics. By providing filter surfaces for biological activity, increased contact
between new wastewater and active micro-organisms results in effective
digestion. Anaerobic filters are used for wastewater with a low percentage
of suspended solids (for example, after primary treatment in septic tanks), and
narrow COD/BOD ratio. Upstream Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactors
utilise a floating sludge blanket as a biologically active filter medium.

169
9 Technical components

Trickling filters treat wastewater aerobically by letting it trickle over biologically

active filter surfaces.

Horizontal gravel filters are sub-surface, flow constructed wetlands, which

provide effective, facultative treatment and filtration, while allowing for appealing
landscaping. Constructed wetlands are used for wastewater with a low percen-
tage of suspended solids and COD concentrations below 500mg/l.

Pond systems are the ideal form of DEWATS treatment if the required space is
available. Anaerobic ponds are deep and highly loaded with organics. Depending
on the retention time, digestion of sludge only or the complete wastewater is
possible. Facultative and anaerobic ponds may be charged with strong waste-
water, however, bad odour cannot be avoided reliably with high loading rates.
Aerobic ponds are large and shallow they provide oxygen via the pond surface
for aerobic treatment. Wastewater for treatment in aerobic ponds should have a
BOD5 content below 300mg/l. Pond systems can be combined with certain
types of vegetation, creating aquatic plant systems with additional benefits.

Special provisions are usually required for the treatment of industrial wastewater
before standardised DEWATS designs can be applied. These may include open
settlers for the daily removal of fruit waste from canning factories, buffer tanks
for mixing varying flows from milk-processing plants, or grease traps or neutra-
lisation pits to balance the pH of the influent. In these cases, standard DEWATS
components are applicable only after such pre-treatment steps have been taken.

Despite their reliability and impressive treatment performance, such well-known

and proven systems as UASB, trickling and vertical filters, rotating discs, etc. are
not considered to be DEWATS because they require careful and skilled atten-
dance.

170
Most treatment processes applied in conventional, large-scale treatment plants
do not meet the DEWATS criteria. The activated-sludge process, the fluidised-bed
reactor, aerated or chemical flocculation and all kinds of controlled re-circulation of
wastewater fall within this category. Regular or continuous re-circulation might be
acceptable if the pumps that are used cannot be switched off because they also
act as transportation pumps.

Picture 9_1:
Treatment systems
considered to be
suitable for decen-
tralised dissemi-
nation

171
9 Technical components

type kind of treatment used for type of advantages disadvantages

wastewater
septic tank sedimentation, wastewater with settleable simple, durable, little space low treatment efficiency,
sludge stabilisation solids, especially domestic because of being under- effluent not odourless
ground
fully mixed sedimentation, concentrated organic access to renewable less simple than septic
digester sludge stabilisation wastewater e.g. agro- source of energy (biogas) tank; special skills
industrial with settleable needed for gas-tight
solids dome construction
Imhoff tank sedimentation, wastewater with settleable durable, little space less simple than septic
sludge stabilisation solids, especially domestic because of being under- tank, needs very regular
ground, odourless effluent desludging
anaerobic baffled anaerobic degradation of pre-settled domestic and simple and durable, high requires larger space for
reactor suspended and dissolved industrial wastewater with treatment efficiency, construction, less
solids narrow COD/BOD ratio, little permanent space efficient with weak
suitable for strong required because of being wastewater, longer
industrial wastewater underground, hardly any start-up phase than
blockage, relatively cheap anaerobic filter
compared to anaerobic filter
anaerobic filter anaerobic degradation of pre-settled domestic and simple and fairly durable if costly to construct
suspended and dissolved industrial wastewater with well constructed and waste- because of special filter
solids narrow COD/BOD ratio water has been properly material, blockage of filter
pre-treated, high treatment possible, effluent smells
efficiency, little permanent slightly despite high
space required because of treatment efficiency
being underground
aerobic-facultative- suitable for domestic and high treatment efficiency high permanent-space
horizontal gravel anaerobic degradation weak industrial wastewater when properly construc- requirement, costly if
filter of dissolved and fine where settleable solids and ted, pleasant landscaping right qualtity of gravel not
suspended solids, pathogen most suspended solids are possible, no wastewater available, great know-
removal already removed by above ground, can be cheap ledge and care required
pre-treatment to construct if filter material during construction,
is available at site, no nui- intensive maintenance
sance of odour and supervision during
first 1-2 years
anaerobic pond sedimentation, anaerobic strong and medium simple in construction, wastewater pond occu-
degradation and sludge industrial wastewater flexible in respect to pies open land, there is
stabilisation degree of treatment, always some odour, can
little maintenace even be stinky, mosqui-
toes are difficult to control
aerobic pond aerobic degradation, weak, mostly pre-treated simple in construction, large permanent space
pathogen removal wastewater from domestic reliable in performance if requirement, mosquitoes
and industrial sources properydimensioned, high and odour can become
pathogen removal rate, can a nuisance if undersized
be used to create an almost near residential areas,
natural enviroment, fish algae can raise effluent
farming possible when large BOD
in size and low loaded

Table 19:
Pros and Cons of
DEWATS

172
Admittedly, these self-imposed restraints on DEWATS can, in practice, impact the
quality of the effluent. But this need not be the case if there is sufficient space
for the plant. Measures to discharge effluent of acceptable quality include:
provision of sufficient space at the source of pollution
pre-treatment at source and post treatment where sufficient land is available
pre-treatment at source and post treatment in co-operation with others
accepting an effluent with higher pollution load
restricting wastewater-producing activities at this particular site
connection to a central treatment plant via a sewage line

The permanent dilution of wastewater or the installation of a highly mechanised,

modern treatment plant remain theoretical options experience shows that
such processes are chronically afflicted by irregular operation.

Picture 9_2:
One of too many
non-aerating
aerators

Space requirements

Depending on the total volume and the nature of the wastewater and its tempe-
rature, the following values may indicate permanent area requirements for setting
up a treatment plant:

Septic tank, Imhoff tank: 0.5m/m daily flow

Anaerobic baffled reactor, anaerobic filter: 1m/m daily flow
Horizontal gravel filter: 30m/m daily flow
Anaerobic ponds: 4m/m daily flow
Facultative aerobic ponds: 25m/m daily flow

173
9 Technical components

These values are approximations for wastewater of typical strength; land require-
ments increase with wastewater of higher pollution load. Land use can be mini-
mised if closed anaerobic systems are applied, as they are usually constructed
underground. The area for sludge-drying beds may require an additional 0.1 to
10m/m daily flow, depending on the wastewater quality and desludging intervals.

Performance

Treatment quality depends on the nature of the influent and boundary conditions
like temperature. BOD-removal rates are generally within these ranges:
25 to 50% for septic tanks and Imhoff tanks
70 to 90% for anaerobic baffled reactors and anaerobic filters
70 to 95% for horizontal gravel filter and pond systems

The treatment efficiency of the different components and the required effluent
quality decide the choice of treatment system. For example, septic tanks alone
are not adequate for direct discharge into surface waters, but may suit treatment
on land where the groundwater table is low and odour is not likely to be a
nuisance. Assuming a discharge limit of 50mg/l BOD, the anaerobic filter in
combination with a septic tank may treat wastewater of 300mg/l BOD without
further treatment. Stronger wastewater would require a horizontal gravel filter
or pond system for final treatment. Perhaps even long-way open discharge
channels are sufficient to provide the necessary additional treatment.

Based on local conditions, many other possibilities for cheaper treatment systems
may exist all options must be considered. Expert knowledge is needed to
evaluate such possibilities; wastewater-sample analysis should be compulsory.

Substantial removal of nitrogen requires a mix of aerobic and anaerobic treatment,

only provided by constructed wetlands and ponds. In closed anaerobic-tank
systems of the DEWATS-type, nitrogen forms to ammonia. The effluent is a
good fertiliser but causes algae growth and is toxic to fish if released into surface
waters.

174
Phosphorus is a good fertiliser and, therefore, dangerous in rivers and lakes.
Phosphorus removal in DEWATS is limited as in most treatment plants.
Constructed wetlands with filter media containing iron or aluminium compounds
present one form of removal. Furthermore phosphorus can be accumulated by
sedimentation or fixed in microbial mass, although it can hardly be removed from
the sludge or be transformed into a less-harmless state.

Pathogen control

Like all other modern wastewater-treatment plants, DEWATS systems are not
focused on pathogen control. Pathogen removal increases with longer retention
times, but treatment plants proudly function on short HRTs.

The WHO guidelines and other independent surveys describe the transmission
of worm infections as the greatest risk associated with wastewater. Worm eggs
or helminths are, for the most part, removed from effluent by sedimentation and
accumulate in the bottom sludge. The long retention times in septic tanks and
anaerobic filters of 1 to 3 years provide sufficient protection against helminths
infection; frequent sludge removal is discouraged due to increased health risks.

Although many bacteria and viruses are destroyed during treatment, the concen-
trations in the effluent of anaerobic filters and septic tanks are still infectious.
Higher pathogen-removal rates are reported from constructed wetlands and
shallow aerobic ponds; the effect is attributed to longer retention times, exposure
to UV rays in ponds, and various bio-chemical interactions in constructed wet-
lands. The pathogen-removal rates of these systems are, in fact, higher than
in conventional municipal treatment plants.

Chlorination can be used for pathogen control. Simple devices with automatic
dosing may be added before final discharge. However, the use of chlorine should
be limited to cases of high risk, such as hospital wastewaters during an epidemic.
Permanent chlorination should be avoided because it not only kills pathogens
but also destroys other bacteria and protozoa, which are responsible for the self-
purification effect of receiving waters.

175
9 Technical components

9.2 DEWATS Modules

9.2.1 Grease trap and grit chamber

If a septic tank is provided, DEWATS normally do not require grease traps or grit
chambers for domestic wastewater. Whenever possible they should be avoided
altogether because grease and grit must be removed, at least once a week.
However, for canteens or certain industrial wastewaters it may be advisable to
separate grit and grease before the septic tank.

The function of grease and grit chambers is comparable to that of septic tanks;
light matter should float and heavy matter should sink to the bottom. The diffe-
rence is that bio-degradable solids should have no time to settle. Retention times
for grit chambers are short, therefore, only about three minutes. The use of
masonry structures is not appropriate, especially in the case of minor flows.

A conical trough allows slow flow at a large surface for grease floatation and fast
flow at the narrow bottom, which allows only heavy and coarse grit to settle.
The water surface is protected from the turbulence of the inflow by a baffle; the
outlet is near the bottom.

Picture 9_3:
Design principle of
combined grease
trap and grit cham-
ber. Accumulating
grease, oil and grit
should be removed
daily, or at least
weekly. If this can
not be assured, an
oversized septic
tank is preferable
to receive grit and
grease

176
9.2.2 Septic tank

The septic tank is the most common, small scale and decentralised treatment
plant, worldwide. It is compact, robust and extremely efficient when compared
with the cost of constructing it. It is basically a sedimentation tank in which
settled sludge is stabilised by anaerobic digestion. Dissolved and suspended
matter leaves the tank more or less untreated.

Two treatment principles, namely the mechanical treatment by sedimentation and

the biological treatment by contact between fresh wastewater and active sludge,
compete with each other in the septic tank. Optimal sedimentation takes place
when the flow is smooth and undisturbed. Biological treatment is optimised by
quick and intensive contact between new inflow and old sludge, particularly when
the flow is turbulent. How the influent enters and flows through the tank decides
which treatment effect predominates.

With smooth and undisturbed flow, the supernatant (the water remaining after
settleable solids have separated) leaves the septic tank rather fresh and odour-
less, implying that degradation has not yet started. With turbulent flow, the degra-
dation of suspended and dissolved solids starts immediately because of the inten-
sive contact between fresh and already active substrate. However, as turbulence
hinders sedimentation, more suspended solids are discharged with the effluent,
resulting in odours because active solids, which are not completely fermented,
leave the tank.

Picture 9_4:
Flow principle of
the septic tank.
Most sludge and
scum is retained in
the first chamber;
the second cham-
ber contains only a
little sludge, which
allows the water to
flow without distur-
bance from rising
gas bubbles

177
9 Technical components

Domestic wastewater normally forms a heavy scum near the inlet. This consists
of matter lighter than water, such as fat, grease, wood-chips, hair or any floating
plastics. A larger portion of the floating scum also consists of sludge particles,
which are released from the bottom and driven to the top by treatment gases.
New sludge from below lifts the older scum particles above the water surface
where they dry and become lighter. The accumulated scum must be removed
regularly, at least every third year. Scum does not harm the treatment process
as such, but it does occupy tank volume.

A septic tank consists of a minimum of two, sometimes three compartments.

The compartment walls extend 15cm above the liquid level. They may also be
used as bearing walls for the covering slab if some openings for internal gas
exchange are provided.

Picture 9_5:
The septic tank. The
dimensions have
been calculated for
13m of domestic
wastewater per day

178
The first compartment occupies about two-thirds of the septic-tank volume,
allowing for most of the sludge and scum accumulation. The following chamber(s)
are provided to calm the turbulent liquid. They are all the same size and make
up the remainder of the volume. All chambers are normally the same depth. The
depth from the outlet level to the bottom should be between 1.50m and 2.50m.
The first chamber is sometimes deeper.

The size of the first chamber is calculated to be at least twice the accumulating
sludge volume. The sludge volume depends on the settleable solids content of
the influent and on desludging intervals (see picture 10_5, page 238). Most
countries provide a National Standard for tank volume per domestic user.

The SS removal rate drops drastically when accumulated sludge fills more than
two-thirds of the tank. This must be avoided, especially in cases where the
effluent is treated further in a sand or gravel filter.

Irregular emptying of septic tanks leads to irreversible clogging of the infiltration

bed; rather than renewing the bed, most owners bypass it and divert the tanks 33 See: Alearts et all,
effluent to surface drains.33 1990

For domestic sewage, the accumulating sludge volume can be calculated with
0.1l/capd. When desludging intervals are longer than two years, the sludge
volume may be reduced to 0.08l/capd, as sludge compacts with time (see
Picture 10_5).

The inlet may dive down inside the tank, below the assumed lowest level of the
scum or may be above the water level when the inlet pipe is used to evacuate
gas. A septic tank is basically a biogas plant, without biogas use. Gas accumu-
lates inside the tank above the liquid, from where it should be able to escape into
the air. The ventilation pipe for digester gases should end outside buildings, at an
elevation above roof level. Open fire should be avoided when opening the septic
tank for cleaning.

179
9 Technical components

The compartments are connected by simple wall openings situated above the
highest sludge level and below the lowest level of the scum. For domestic waste-
water, the top of the opening should be 30cm below outlet level, its base at least
half the water depth above the floor. The openings should be equally distributed
across the width of the tank, in order to minimise turbulence. A slot, spanning the
full width of the tank, is ideal for reducing velocity and turbulence.

The outlet has a T-joint, the lower arm of which dives 30cm below the water
level. With this design, foul gas trapped in the tank enters the sewage line from
where it must be ventilated safely. If ventilation cannot be guaranteed, an elbow
must to be used at the outlet to prevent the gas from entering the outlet pipe.
There should be manholes in the cover slab; one each above inlet and outlet and
one at each baffle wall, preferably at the inlet of each compartment. The man-
holes should permit water sampling from each compartment.

Septic tanks were originally designed for domestic wastewater. They are also
suitable for other wastewater of similar properties, particularly those that contain
a substantial portion of settleable solids.

The treatment efficiency of a septic tank ranges from 25% to 50% COD removal.
It serves as rough, primary treatment, prior to secondary or even tertiary treat-
ment. Post-treatment may be provided in ponds or ground filters. In the latter
case, regular desludging of septic tanks is mandatory. A septic tank may also be
integrated into an anaerobic filter or as the first section of a baffled reactor. Septic
tanks are suitable as individual on-site pre-treatment units for community sewer
systems because the diameter of sewerage can be smaller when settleable solids
have been removed on-site.

180
Starting phase and maintenance

A septic tank may be used immediately; it does not require special arrangements
before usage. However, sludge digestion begins only after several days. Regular
desludging is required every one to three years. When removing the sludge,
some immature (still-active) sludge should be left inside the tank to enable conti-
nuous decomposition of newly settling solids; it is not necessary to remove the
liquid. This means, if the sludge is removed by pumping, the pump head should
be brought down to the very bottom. Adequate handling and treatment of sep-
tic sludge is discussed in detail in section 11.3. The septic tanks surroundings
should be kept free of plants to prevent roots from growing in the pipelines and
control chambers.

Calculating dimensions

Approximately 80 to 100l should be provided per domestic user. For exact calcu-
lation or for wastewater from non-domestic sources, the formula applied in the
computer spreadsheet (Table 25, page 240) may be used.

181
9 Technical components

9.2.3 Fully mixed digester

The fully mixed anaerobic digester (also called bio-digester) corresponds to the
biogas plants, which are often used by farming families in developing countries. It
is suitable for rather thick and homogenous substrate like sludge from aerobic-
treatment tanks or liquid animal excreta. For economic reasons, it is not suitable
for weak-liquid wastewater because the total volume of wastewater must be
agitated and kept inside the digester for the full retention time of 15 to 30 days.
This results in larger digester volumes and higher construction costs. However,
Picture 9_6:
combining different waste sources or blackwater from several toilets can be con-
Flow principle of
the fully mixed sidered.
anaerobic digester.
There is little sedi-
mentation due to
viscous substrate.
All substrate frac-
tions stay inside the
digester for the sa-
me period of time.
The position of inlet
and outlet is less
important with ho-
mogeneous liquid
of high TS content.
Small baffles may
be provided to avoid
short circuiting

Thick viscous substrates of more than 6% total solid content do not need
stirring. A digester with such a substrate can be operated for many years without
desludging because only grit, but hardly any sludge, settles. Moreover, all the
incoming substrate leaves the reactor after digestion. Scum formation is still
possible with certain substrates. Therefore, if inlet and outlet pipes are used they
should be placed at middle height. In fixed-dome digesters, the outlet should be
made of a vertical shaft with the opening starting immediately below the zero-
line; this will allow some of the scum to discharge.

182
 Picture 9_7:
Traditional biogas
plants as fully
mixed anaerobic di-
gester. A: The ball-
shaped fixed dome
plant with integra-
ted gas storage and
expansion chamber.
B: The half-ball-
shaped fixed-dome
plant. C: The floa-
ting drum plant with
water seal. All three
plants are designed
for 600 litres sub-
strate per day of 4%
organic dry-matter
content, at 25C
and HRT of 25 days.
The expected gas
production is 8.42
m/d. A comparison
Since the fully mixed digester is only used for strong substrate, biogas production of the space requi-
rements and gas
is high and can be used afterwards. In this case, the gascollector tank and the pressure of all three
gas-storage tank must be gas-tight. The immediate gas outlet should be 30cm plants indicates that
above substrate level. Smaller units usually use the fixed dome (hydraulic-pressure) floating drum plants
are preferable for
system made out of masonry structure, while larger units store the biogas in
high gas-production
steel-drums or plastic bags. rates

The choice of gas-storage system will depend on the pattern of gas utilisation.
Ideally, gas production should coincide with gas consumption, in time and volume.
For more details, please refer to chapter 6, Biogas utilisation. An abundance of
special biogas literature is also available.

Starting phase and maintenance

Starting with some active sludge from a septic tank speeds up digestion and
prevents the digester from turning sour. In the rare case of this happening, the
loading rate should be reduced until the pH turns neutral. It may be necessary
to remove sand and grit after several years.

183
9 Technical components

Calculating dimensions

The main parameter is the hydraulic retention time, which should not be less
than 15 days in a hot climate and not less than 25 days in a moderately warm
climate; a HRT of more than 60 days is required for highly pathogenic substrate.
The gas-storage volume depends on daily gas use in relation to daily gas produc-
tion. The storage capacity of gas for household use should exceed 65% of the
daily gas production. Gas production is directly related to the organic fraction of
the substrate. In practice, it is calculated as a fraction of the daily substrate that
is fed. Experience indicates, for example, that 1kg fresh cattle dung diluted with
1 litre of water produces 40l of biogas. More exact calculations will be obtained
by using the formulas applied in the spreadsheet Table 26, page 246.

9.2.4 Imhoff tank

Imhoff or Emscher tanks are typically used for domestic or mixed wastewater
flows above 3m/d when the effluent receives further treatment above the
ground and, therefore, should not stink as may be the case with septic tanks.
The Imhoff tank effectively separates fresh influent from bottom sludge.

The tank consists of a settling compartment above the digestion chamber.

Funnel-like baffle walls prevent up-flowing foul-sludge particles from mixing with
the effluent and causing turbulence. The effluent remains fresh and odourless
because the suspended and dissolved solids do not come into contact with the
active sludge and turn sour and foul. Retention time should not be much more
than 2 hours during peak flow, otherwise this effect is jeopardised.

Picture 9_8:
Flow principle of
the Imhoff tank.
The water passes
quickly through the
flow tank, undistur-
bed by rising gas
bubbles; the water
does not mix with
ripe water or
sludge

184
When sludge ferments at the bottom, the sludge particles get attached to foulgas
bubbles and start floating upwards. The up-flowing sludge particles assemble
outside the conical walls and form an accumulating scum layer, which grows con-
tinuously downwards. When the slots through which settling particles should
fall into the lower compartment are closed, the treatment effect is reduced to
that of a undersized septic tank. Sludge and scum, therefore, must be removed at
appropriate intervals.

Picture 9_9:
Imhoff tank.
Dimensions have
been calculated for
25m of domestic
wastewater per day

185
9 Technical components

The inlet and outlet pipes are the same shape as those in septic tanks. Pipe ven-
tilation must be provided, as Imhoff tanks also produce biogas. Additional baffles
to reduce velocity at the inlet and to retain suspended matter at the outlet are
advantageous. The upper part of the funnel-shaped baffles is vertical for 30cm
above and 30cm below the water surface. The shape of an Imhoff tank may be
cylindrical; the funnel, however, should always be rectangular, in order to leave
adequate space outside the funnel for scum removal. The funnel structure may
consist of pre-fabricated ferro-cement. Treatment efficiency lies in the range of 25
to 50% COD reduction.

Starting phase and maintenance

As with septic tanks, no special start-up phase is required. Desludging is neces-

sary at regular intervals. Sludge should be removed from the bottom of the tank
by pumping or hydraulic pressure pipes, withdrawing only fully digested substrate
and leaving some active sludge behind for maintaining microbial activity. Best
practice in the removal, handling and treatment of sludge is discussed in detail
in section 11.3.

Scum must be removed before it grows enough to close the slots between the
upper and lower compartments. Should this happen, gas bubbles appearing in
rows on the water surface above the slots indicate excessive scum accumulation.
Scum should be removed before sludge removal; the liquid may remain inside
the tank.

Calculating dimensions

The upper compartment, inside the funnel walls, should be designed for 2h HRT
at peak flow, and the hydraulic load should be less than 1.5m/h per 1m surface
area. The sludge compartment below the slots should be calculated to retain
2.5 litres of sludge per kg BOD reduced per day for short desludging intervals.
For longer intervals please refer to the corresponding spreadsheet (Table 27,
page 248).

For domestic wastewater and desludging intervals of one year, the upper com-
partment should have a volume of approximately 50l per user and the sludge
compartment below the slots should have a volume of approximately 120 litres
per user. This is only a rule of thumb; for more detailed calculations, or for waste-
water from non-domestic sources, please refer to the spreadsheet.

186
9.2.5 Anaerobic baffled reactor

The anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), also known as the baffled septic tank, can
be considered as the DEWATS version of the UASB system. It is, in fact, a com-
bination of several anaerobic-process principles: the septic tank, the fluidised bed
reactor and the UASB.

The up-flow velocity of the baffled reactor, which should never be more than
1m/h, limits its design. Based on a given hydraulic retention time, the up-flow
velocity increases in direct relation to the reactor height. The reactor height,
therefore, can not be used as a variable parameter to achieve the required HRT.
The limited upstream velocity results in large but shallow tanks, making the
system uneconomical for larger plants. This is why baffled reactors are not very
well-known or properly researched.

However, the anaerobic baffled reactor is ideal for DEWATS because it is simple
to build and simple to operate. Hydraulic and organic shock loads have little effect Picture 9_10:
Flow principle of
on treatment efficiency. an ABR. Incoming
waste-water is
forced to pass
through a sludge
blanket of active
micro-organisms
in each compart-
ment. The settler at
the front prevents
larger solids from
entering the baffled
section

The main difference to the UASB is that it is not necessary for the sludge blanket
to float; it may rest at the bottom. Three-phase separators are also unnecessary
because active sludge washed out from one chamber is trapped in the next.
Tanks in series also help to digest difficult degradable substances, predominantly
in the later chambers after easily degradable matter has been digested in the
earlier ones. The anaerobic baffled reactor consists of at least four chambers in
series. But practical experience shows that treatment efficiency does not increase
with more than six chambers. The last chamber can incorporate a filter in its
upper part, in order to retain remaining solid particles; alternatively, a settler for
post-treatment can follow the baffled reactor (Picture 9_36).

187
9 Technical components

Picture 9_11:
ABR Dimensions
have been calcula-
ted for 25m dome-
stic wastewater per
day

Equal distribution of inflow, and extensive contact between new and old substrate
are important process features. Unlike in the Imhoff tank, the fresh influent is
immediately mixed and, thereby, inoculated with the active sludge in the
reactor, to begin digestion. The wastewater flows from bottom to top with the
effect that sludge particles settle against the up-stream of the liquid, providing
intensive contact between resident sludge and newly incoming liquid.

188
The DEWATS version of the anaerobic baffled reactor does not have a rack or
screen. A settling chamber is used to separate the larger solids before the waste-
water continues to a series of up-flow chambers. Between chambers the water
flow is directed to the bottom of the next chamber by baffle walls that form a
down-shaft, or by down-pipes that are placed on the partition walls. Although
down-pipes reduce the total digester length (and the cost) down-shafts are
preferable because of better flow distribution.

The wastewater that enters a tank should be distributed over the floor area as
evenly as possible. This is facilitated by relatively short compartments (length
< 50% to 60% of the height) or, in the case of down-pipes, a distance of less
than 75cm between pipes. In larger plants, when longer compartments are
required, down-pipe outlets (as well as down-shafts) should reach to the centre
of the floor area.

The outlet of each chamber (particularly the last one) should be placed slightly
below the water surface to retain possible scum. Although not common practice,
baffled reactors can be equipped with three-phase separators in the form of
slanting baffles in the upper third of the tank.

The anaerobic baffled reactor is suitable for treating all kinds of wastewater with
BOD above BOD < 150mg/l. Although its efficiency increases with higher organic
loading, it is also well-suited for domestic wastewater. There is relatively little
experience with baffled reactors because the system is only used in smaller
units. As a highly efficient modification of the less-efficient septic tank, baffled
reactors combine simple and efficient operation with easy, low-cost construction.
Treatment performance is in the range of 65% to 90% COD (70% to 95% BOD)
removal. However, three months are required for maturation.

189
9 Technical components

Starting phase and maintenance

Treatment performance depends on the availability of active microbial mass.

Inoculation with old sludge from septic tanks shortens the start-up phase. In
principle, it is advantageous to start with only a quarter of the daily flow and with
a slightly stronger wastewater. The loading rate should increase slowly over three
months. This provides micro-organisms with enough time to multiply before
suspended solids are washed out. Starting with the full hydraulic load from the
beginning severely delays maturation.
Like regular septic tanks, sludge must be removed at regular intervals, leaving
some sludge to ensure continuous treatment efficiency. More sludge accumu-
lates in the front than in the rear compartments. Adequate removal, handling
and treatment of sludge is discussed in detail in section 11.3.

Calculating dimensions

The up-flow should not exceed 1.0m/h. This is the most crucial parameter for
dimensioning, especially with high hydraulic loading. The organic load should be
below 3.0kg COD/md. Higher loading rates are only possible at higher tempe-
ratures and for easily degradeable substrate. The HRT of the liquid fraction (i.e.
above the sludge volume) should not be less than eight hours. Sludge-storage
volume should be provided for 4l/m BODinflow to the settler and 1.4l/m
BODremoved in the upstream tanks. For exact calculation use the formula applied
in the spreadsheet (Table 28, page 252).

Picture 9_12:
Baffled reactor
under construction
at a factory in India

190
9.2.6 Anaerobic filter

The dominant principle of both the septic and Imhoff tanks is sedimentation
combined with sludge digestion. The anaerobic filter, also known as a fixed-bed
or fixed-film reactor, is different in that it also includes the treatment of non-
settleable and dissolved solids by bringing them into close contact with a surplus
of active microbial mass.

Hungry micro-organisms digest the dispersed or dissolved organic matter

within a short retention time. Most of the micro-organisms are immobile; they
attach themselves to solid particles or, for example, the reactor walls. Filter
material, such as gravel, rocks, cinder or specially formed plastic shapes, provide
additional surface area for them to settle. By forcing the fresh wastewater to
flow through this material, intensive contact with active micro-organisms is
established; the larger the surface for microbial growth, the quicker the digestion.
Good filter material provides 90 to 300m surface area per m of occupied reactor
volume. Rough surfaces provide a larger area, at least in the starting phase;
the microbial lawn or film that grows on the filter mass quickly closes the
smaller grooves and holes.

Picture 9_13:
Floating filter balls
made of plastic.
When the film of
micro-organisms
becomes too heavy,
the balls turn over
and discharge their
load. The filter me-
dium has success-
fully been used for
tofu wastewater by
HRIEE in Zheijiang
Province in China.

191
9 Technical components

Anaerobic filters are very reliable and robust. Experience shows, however, that
between 25 to 30% of the total filter mass may be inactive due to clogging.
While a cinder or rock filter may not-completely become, reduced treatment
blocked efficiency is indicative of clogging in some parts. Sand or gravel filters
may block up completely due to smaller pore size.

Clogging happens when wastewater finds a channelled way through just a few
open pores; eventually, the lessused voids clog and higher flow velocities occur
in the few remaining open. This leads to reduced retention time and active micro-
organisms are washed away.

Picture 9_14:
Flow principle of
anaerobic up-flow
filter. Most suspen-
ded solids should
be retained in the
septic tank. Filter
micro-organisms
consume dissolved
and dispersed solids.
Anaerobic filters
may also be
designed for
down-flow When the microbial film becomes too thick it must be removed. This may be
done either by back-washing or by removing the filter mass for cleaning outside
the reactor.

The treatment efficiency of well-operated anaerobic filters ranges between 70

to 90% BOD removal. They are suitable for domestic wastewater and all indus-
trial wastewater with low suspended-solids content. Pre-treatment in settlers or
septic tanks may be necessary to eliminate larger solids before the wastewater
enters the filter.

Anaerobic filters may be operated as down-flow or up-flow systems. The up-flow

system is normally preferred because there is less risk of washing out active
micro-organisms. On the other hand, flushing the filter or cleaning is easier
in down-flow systems. A combination of up-flow and down-flow chambers is also
possible.

192
Picture 9_15:
Anaerobic filter
dimensions have
been calculated
for 25m domestic
wastewater per day

193
9 Technical components

An important design criterion is the equal distribution of wastewater across the

filter area. Equal distribution is facilitated by providing adequate free-flow space
across the full width before and after the filter. This is why full-width down-flow
shafts are preferred to down-flow pipes. The length of the filter chamber should
not be greater than the depth of the water.

For smaller and simple structures, the filter mass consists of cinder (5 to 15cm
in diameter) or rocks (5 to 10cm in diameter), which are bedded on perforated-
concrete slabs. The filter starts with a layer of large rocks at the bottom. The
slabs rests on beams, which are parallel to the direction of flow, approximately 50
to 60cm above the ground slab. Pipes of at least 15cm diameter, or down-shafts
over the full width, permit desludging at the bottom with the help of pumps
from the top. In case the sludge-drying beds are located directly beside the filter,
sludge may also be drawn via hydraulic-pressure pipes. Head losses of 30 to
50cm have to be considered.

Biogas utilisation may be considered in case of BOD concentration > 1,000mg/l;

this requires completely gas-tight construction and provisions for collection,
storage and use.

Picture 9_16:
Down-shaft and
down-pipes both
systems may be ap-
plied alternatively
in anaerobic filters
and ABRs

194
Starting phase and maintenance

Since the treatment process depends on a surplus of active microbial mass,

active sludge (for example, from septic tanks) should be sprayed on the filter
material before continuous operation is started. If possible, start with only a
quarter of the daily flow, and increase the flow slowly over three months. As
this might not be possible in practice, treatment is unlikely to be operating at
full capacity until approximately six to nine months later.

As with septic tanks, desludging should be done at regular intervals. Where

possible, the filter should be back-washed before sludge removal. Adequate
removal, handling and treatment of sludge is discussed in detail in section 11.3.
The filter should be cleaned when efficiency declines.

Calculating dimensions

Organic-load limits between range 4 to 5kg COD/md. The hydraulic retention

time compared to the tank volume should range between one and a half and
two days. For exact calculation, please refer to the spreadsheet (Table 29, page
257). For domestic wastewater, constructed gross digester volume (voids plus filter
mass) may be estimated at 0.5m/capita; for smaller units it is closer to 1m/capita.

9.2.7. Planted soil filters

Three basic-treatment systems are referred to as planted soil filters:

overland-treatment systems
vertical-flow filters and
horizontal-flow filters

In overland treatment the water is distributed on carefully contoured land by

sprinklers. As the system requires permanent attendance and maintenance is not
considered a component of DEWATS.

195
9 Technical components

In vertical-filter treatment (see picture below) the wastewater is alternately distri-

buted on two or three filter beds with the help of a dosing device (similar to the
trickling filter). The treatment functions, predominantly, aerobically. Although
vertical filters require only about half the area of their horizontal counterparts and
often achieve higher treatment efficiency, the constant operational control, need
for a dosing device and strict adherence to charging intervals make vertical filters
less suitable for DEWATS.

Picture 9_17:
The principle of
the vertical filter

Horizontal filters comply with DEWATS criteria, as they are simple in principle
and require almost no maintenance if well-designed and constructed. Planted
horizontal gravel filters also referred to as subsurface flow wetlands (SSF) or
root zone treatment plants provide natural treatment for pre-settled wastewater
of a maximum COD content of 500mg/l. They are ideal, therefore, as tertiary
treatment for wastewater, which has already undergone secondary treatment in
units, such as baffled reactors, anaerobic filters or biogas digesters. They are also
appropriate for treating pre-settled greywater directly.

196
Although they dont look complicated and are quite simple to operate, designing
sand and gravel filters requires a solid understanding of the treatment process
and good knowledge of the filter medium that is to be used. Before deciding on
filter treatment, therefore, one should always consider the alternative: constructing
wastewater ponds. Filter treatment, however, has the great advantage of keeping
the wastewater below ground, thereby avoiding smells and insect breeding.

9.2.7.1 Horizontal gravel filter

Since clogging is the biggest problem with horizontal gravel filters, the waste-
water must be pre-treated so that suspended solids are removed before it enters
the treatment unit. When testing wastewater, after 60 minutes in an Imhoff cone
the sediment should not be more than 1ml/l, and not more than 100mg SS/l for
non-settling industrial wastewater. If the COD-value of settleable solids is less
than 40% of the total SS-value, then many of the solids are likely to be fat in
colloidal form, which can reduce the hydraulic conductivity of the filter considerably
(as may be the case with dairy wastewater).

The treatment process in horizontal ground filters is complex and not yet fully
understood. Unlike the vertical filter, the horizontal filter (Picture 9_18) is perma-
nently soaked with water and operates partly aerobic (free oxygen present), partly
anoxic (no free oxygen but nitrate NO3 present) and partly anaerobic (no free
oxygen and no nitrate present). Combined with physical-filtration processes and
the influence of plantation on the biological-treatment process and oxygen intake,
the interaction of the separate treatment processes is difficult to predict.There
are sophisticated methods for calculating the proper dimensions and treatment
characteristics of different filter media, especially in relation to their hydraulic
properties. However, such calculations make sense only if the exact required
parameters are known, which is hardly ever the case. Rules of thumb, intelligently
chosen, are more than sufficient for smaller-sized DEWATS plants. Going beyond
these experience-based figures is not advisable without previous tests.

The rules of safe design are:

large and shallow filter-bed
wide inlet zone
reliable distribution of inflow over the full width of the inlet zone
round, coarse gravel that is nearly the same size as the filter medium

197
9 Technical components

continuous oxygen supply to the upper layers only major

role of plants: provide favourable environment for bacteria diversity

O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2

overflow
internal water level

cross distribution trench collection trench

anaerobic and anoxic conditions in the lower layers

plan

inlet outlet

water flow in the horizontal filter

plantation, preferably phragmites longitudinal section

Picture 9_18: inlet outlet

The principle
of the horizontal
rizomes
filter 1,0%
bottom slope

198
Clogging is caused by suspended solids and by biological or mineralised sludge
newly formed from the decomposition of organic matter. While large grain sizes
with a high percentage of voids prevent clogging, they also reduce treatment
performance. In order to utilise the full filter, the front part of the bed must have
voids that are small enough to retain some of the SS, while being large enough to
allow further SS removal in later parts of the bed. Round, uniform gravel of
6-12mm or 8-16mm is best.

The use of broken-edged stones reduces conductivity by approximately 50%

compared to round gravel, due to turbulent flow within irregular pores. So large
grains should be chosen when applying flat or mixed grain shapes, such as
chippings from broken stones. In the case of mixed grain size, it is advisable to
screen the gravel with the help of a coarse sieve: use the larger grains in the front
and the smaller grains in the later sections of the filter. Care must be taken when
changing from a larger to a smaller grain size because blockages mostly happen
at the point of change.

Picture 9_19:
25mm 5mm 5mm and 25mm mixed grain size
Influence of grain
pore space 22,1% pore space 45,7% pore space 23,9% mixed grain shape
max pore size 2,8 max pore size 0,6 max pore size 1,6 pore space and pore size size and shape on
spec. surface 143m/m spec. surface 652m/m spec. surface 164m/m unpredictable filter properties

A rather flat slope ( < 45) should join one grain size to the other to ensure a
larger connecting area. In particularly when grain diameters differ considerably,
an intermediate zone consisting of intermediate size may be useful. Mixed-grain
sizes do not improve hydraulic conductivity. Removing fine soil from gravel by
washing is more important than ensuring the exact grain size.

199
9 Technical components

If the length of the filter-bed is more than 10m, an intermediate channel for re-
distributing cross-flow should be provided. The distribution channel can also serve
as a terrace step in the case of steeply sloping topography (Picture 9_21).

The relation between organic load and oxygen supply reduces with length. This
happens because oxygen is supplied evenly over the total surface area, where-
as the organic load diminishes during treatment. It is most likely, therefore, that
anaerobic conditions prevail in the front part, while aerobic conditions reach to a
greater depth in the rear part. However, only the upper 5 to 15cm can really be
considered an aerobic zone.

A clogged gravel filter can become useful again if it is not used for periods of
several months, because of a process called autolysis; when forced to live
without feed, the bacteria live on their own bacterial mass.

Picture 9_20
Horizontal gravel
filter in India

200
Filter clogging normally results in surface flow of wastewater. This is usually not
desired, although it hardly reduces the treatment efficiency if flow on the surface
maintains the assumed retention time inside the filter (this could be the case with
dense plant coverage). When filters are well-protected and a long way from
residential areas, there is no harm in letting some of the wastewater run above
the horizontal surface. Such overland treatment produces very good results
especially when the water is equally distributed and does not fester in trenches.

Picture 9_21:
Horizontal gravel
filter (subsurface
flow filter). A: Filter
basin in masonry
and concrete struc-
ture, finer gravel
is used in the rear
portion. B: Long
filter bed with
additional distribu-
tion trench in the
middle; the trench
is filled with rocks
and allows a step in
the surface level. C:
Detail of collection
pipe and swivel
arm at the outlet
side. D: Details of
inlet and outlet
structure for impro-
ved distribution of
flow for wider filter
beds. E: Details of
filter basins using
foils or clay packing
for sealing. Sloped
side walls are less
costly, but plants
will not grow near
the rim

201
9 Technical components

Knowledge of the amount of void space within the filter material is essential for
calculating the retention time and planning the treatment process. Gravel has
30 to 45% voids, depending on size and shape. (The calculation of HRT in the
spreadsheet in table 30 is based on 35% void space; it can be adapted propor
tional, if the actual void space is greater.) Void space can easily be determined by
measuring the water that can be added to a bucket full of gravel (Picture 9_23).

Table 20:
filter diameter pore volume theoretical conductivity
Theoretical proper-
medium of grain
ties of gravel and coarse total m/s m/d
mm
sand as filter ma-
terial: lower values gravel 4 - 40 30% 35% - 40% 4.14E - 03 350
should be applied sand 0.1 - 4 15% 42% 4.14E - 04 35
for wastewater
when designing
filter beds
For high conductivity, large pore size is more important than total pore volume.
Pre-wetted gravel shall be used when the pore volume is tested, ensuring that
pores of only capillary size are closed in advance.

In reality, short cuts and volume-reduced by partly clogged areas result in 25%
34 See: Shilton et all,
1996 shorter retention times and, consequently, inferior performance34. For this
reason, the filter-bed should not be deeper than the depth to which plant roots
can grow (3060cm), as water will tend to flow faster below the dense cushion
of roots. However, treatment performance is generally best in the upper 15cm
because of oxygen diffusion from the surface. Shallow filters are more effective,
therefore, than deeper beds of the same volume.

Picture 9_22:
Determining po-
re space of filter
medium on site.
Example: the empty
bucket is full after
pouring 8 litre of
water. The bucket
filled with gravel
absorbs 3.2 litre of
water: Voids space
is 3.2/8 = 0.40 or
40%

202
Uniform distribution of wastewater throughout the filter requires an equally distri-
buted supply of water at the inlet and equally distributed reception at the outlet
side. Trenches filled with rocks 50 to 100mm in diameter are provided at both
ends to serve this purpose. A perforated pipe, which is connected to the outlet
pipe, lies below the strip of rocks that form the collection trench. The height of
the outlet can be adjusted by a swivel arm, fixed to a flexible elbow. By lifting it
until water appears at the surface of the filter near the inlet, the water level in the
filter can be adjusted according to hydraulic conductivity. While the top of the
filter is kept strictly horizontal to prevent erosion, the bottom slopes down from
inlet to outlet ideally at 1%. Site conditions permitting, bigger slope is also possible.
To prevent erosion, long filters should have a terraced surface rather than a slope
(see picture 9_21 (B)).

The percolation of wastewater into the ground is not desirable so the bottom
of the filter must be sealed. While solid-clay packing might be sufficient, heavy
plastic foils are more common. A concrete basin with straight, vertical masonry
walls allows plants to grow up to the outer rim not possible with the smooth
embankment that plastic foils would require (see picture 9_21 (E)).

In a dry climate, trees search for water and their roots may break the walls and
grow into the filter. Whenever possible, trees should not be planted directly be-
side the filter; this will avoid the structural problems caused by the roots and the
unwanted sealing of the filter surface by fallen leaves.

Observation in Europe indicates that the performance of gravel filters diminishes

after several years. How long a horizontal filter functions properly depends on se-
veral factors: grain size and shape of gravel, the nature and amount of suspended
solids in the wastewater, and the temperature and the average loading rate.

If the filter is drained during resting time, alternate charging can increase the
treatment performance of horizontal filters. To allow alternate feeding, the total
filter area should be divided into several compartments or beds. Other reports
recommend that the filter is changed every eight to 15 years. This timeframe is
only a rough estimation and as stated above depends on the loading rate and
structural details, the impact of which is almost impossible to predict in practice.
Weaker wastewater, lower loading rates and larger gravel size generally increase
the lifetime of the system.

203
9 Technical components

Ground filters are covered by suitable plantation any type of hydro-botanical

plant that will grow on wastewater and has deep-reaching and widely spreading
roots. The choice of plant influences treatment efficiency; some scientists claim
that the micro-environment created inside the filter is responsible for equilibrium
between sludge production and sludge consumption. Such equilibrium is only
likely with low loading rates.

The plants are not normally harvested. Phragmites australis (reeds), found al-
most anywhere, are considered to be ideal because their roots form horizontal
rhizomes that guarantee a perfect root-zone filter bed (see picture 9_24). Most
swamp and water grasses are also suitable, but not all of them have extending or
deep-enough roots. Depending on the type of wastewater, different plants might
be preferable: Typha angustifolia (cat-tails), together with Scirpus lacustris (bull
rush), have been to be found the most suitable plants for wastewater from petrol
refineries, while the large, red- or orange-flowering iris (sometimes known as
mosquito lily) is a beautiful plant, which grows well on wastewater but is only
suitable for shallow, domestic gravel beds. Forest trees have also been used and
35 Kadlec et all, 1996 are deemed to be only slightly less efficient35. At least two clumps of plants or
four sprouted rhizomes should be placed per square metre when planting is started.

Picture 9_23:
Plant species com-
mon for gravelfilter
plantation

204
Within a horizontal filter, plants seem to be catalysts rather than actors
Plants transport oxygen via their roots into the ground. Some scientists claim that
this process also supplies surplus oxygen, thereby creating an aerobic environ-
ment, while others have shown that plants only transfer as much oxygen as they
need to fulfil their own nutrient requirements. For example, Brix and Schierup
claim that plants provide 0.02g O2/md to the filter bed, while consuming
2.06g O2/md for themselves. Nonetheless, it is assumed that toxic substances
near the roots are eliminated by oxidation. The complex ecosystem that exists in
planted gravel filters produces good and reliable treatment results, which in part,
must be due to aerobic treatment. This is underlined by reports which claim that
COD reduction rates of over 95% can be achieved which would not be possible
under anaerobic conditions alone. The uptake of nutrients by plants is of relatively
little importance, especially when plants are not harvested.

Starting phase and maintenance

Young plant seedlings may not grow on wastewater. So it is advisable to start

feeding the plant with plenty of fresh water and to let the pollution load grow
parallel to plant growth.

When plants are under full load, the outlet level is adjusted according to flow.
Water should not stand on the surface near the inlet. If this happens, the swivel
arm at the outlet should be lowered. Optimal water distribution at the inlet side
is important and must be controlled from time to time. Replacement of the filter
media might be necessary when treatment efficiency declines. Since there is no
treatment during the time that the filter media is being replaced, it is advantageous
to install several, parallel filter-beds.

To prevent clogging of the filter with fine soil, stormwater should neither be
mixed with the wastewater before the treatment step, nor should outside
stormwater be allowed to overflow the filter bed. Erosion trenches around the
filter-bed should always be kept in proper functioning condition.

205
9 Technical components

Calculating dimensions

If percolation properties the so called hydraulic conductivity of the filter body

is known, then the required cross-sectional area at the inlet can be calculated
using Darcys Law. To compensate for reduced conductivity with use, only a frac-
tion of the calculated figure for clear water should be used for designing the plant.
The conductivity applied in the spreadsheet takes this into consideration. It does
not, however, take head of pessimistic statements, which claim that only 4% of
the clear-water conductivity should be used. The dimensions of the filter depend
on hydraulic and organic loading, temperature and grain size of the filter medi-
um. As a rule of thumb, 5m of filter should be provided per capita for domestic
wastewater. This would mean a hydraulic loading rate of 30l/m and an organic
loading rate of 8g BOD/m x d. For comprehensive calculation use the formula
applied in the computer spread sheet (Table 30, page 264).

Darcys Law Qs
Ac =
kf x dH / ds
Picture 9_24:
Darcys law for cal- cross-section area flow rate (m3/sec)
=
culation of hydraulic of filter-bed (m2) hydraulic conductivity (m/sec) x slope (m height/m length)
conductivity

Picture 9_25:
Horizontal gravel
filter during
construction.
Constructed above
ground

206
9.2.7.2 Vertical sand filter

Although the vertical filter is compared to the horizontal filter the more effi-
cient and more reliable treatment system from a technical and scientific point
of view, it is not suitable for DEWATS because of its permanent operational
control, necessity of a dosing device, and strict adherence to charging intervals.
Nonetheless, the following section introduces this system to provide a better
understanding of related treatment processes.

The vertical filter functions in a similar way to an aerobic trickling filter and, con-
sequently, must be fed at intervals with defined resting times between dosing
charges. In addition to the short intervals, which are regulated by dosing devices,
longer resting periods of one to two weeks are required. This is only possible if
there are at least two alternately fed filter beds.

Feeding in doses is necessary for equal water distribution. The resting times are
needed so that oxygen can enter the filter after wastewater has percolated (see
picture 9_17 on page 196). Doses must be large enough to temporarily flood the
complete filter and to distribute the water evenly over the surface, but small
enough to allow enough time for oxygen to enter before the next flooding. The
filter material, therefore, must be fine enough to cause flooding and porous
enough to allow quick percolation. During the short charging times, the waste-
water is exposed to the open, which can create a bad odour in the case of
anaerobic pre-treatment.

The body of the vertical filter consist of a fine top layer, a medium middle layer
and a rough bottom layer. The area below the filter media is a free-flow area,
connected to a drainpipe. The free-flow area is also connected to the open via
additional vent pipes. The fine top layer guarantees homogeneous flow distri-
bution; the middle layer is the actual treatment zone, while the bottom layer is
responsible for providing wide-open pores to reduce the capillary forces, which
would otherwise decrease the effective hydraulic gradient.

207
9 Technical components

Vertical filters are normally 1m to 1.20m deep. However, if there is enough natural
slope and good ventilation, vertical filters can be constructed up to three metres
high. Vertical filters may or may not be covered by plantation. In the absence of
plantation, the surface must be scratched at the beginning of each resting period,
in order to allow enough oxygen to enter; with dense plantation, the stems of the
plants ensure sufficient open pores in the filter surface. Several charging points
are distributed over the surface to allow quick flooding of the full area. Flooding
is the only reliable method of achieving equal distribution of water over the entire
filter; charging points spaced across the surface area allow quick submergence. It
is not possible to achieve equal distribution by designing supply pipes of different
diameters and length, leading to various outlet points. This has been tried often
enough; we dont need new failures. Flush distribution is a must.

Dosing of flow can be regulated with self-acting siphons, automatic controlled

pumps or tipping-buckets. The latter is most suitable under DEWATS conditions
because its dertermining principle is easily understood and the hardware can be
manufactured locally.

Picture 9_26:
Dosing chamber
with tipping bucket
for the controlled
operation of a si-
phon. The bucket
closes the siphon
until it is filled with
water. When losing
its equilibrium due
to the weight of the
water, the bucket
turns over and
opens the siphon.
It falls back into
horizontal position
to receive new
water, which again
closes the siphon
for the next flush

208
The flow to each bed can be prevented or controlled when necessary with a valve
within the inlet pipe. Alternatively, the valve can be replaced by a straight standing
piece of pipe in the dosing chamber (see Picture 9_28).

While vertical filters can bear a hydraulic load up to 100l/m d (100mm/m =

0.1m), it is better to restrict loading to 50l/m d. The organic load may reach
up to 20g BOD/m d; in the case of re-circulation, 40g BOD/m d is possible
(Metcalf & Eddy). In the case of pre-treated domestic wastewater, the hydraulic
load is the deciding factor. Some engineers use these values only for active filter-
beds, while others claim that the resting beds must be included within the
calculation. If there is any doubt, testing is recommended. However, larger filter
areas are always preferable.

Permeability can be calculated with Darcys Law (on page 206), whereas dH/ds = 1.
The flow speed (v = Qs/Ac), therefore, is equal to the hydraulic conductivity (k).

Starting phase, maintenance and calculating dimensions

The vertical sand filter does not belong to DEWATS. Detailed operational instruc-
tions have been deliberately excluded from this handbook to ensure readers dont
get the impression that the vertical filter can be constructed and operated under
DEWATS conditions.

209
9 Technical components

Picture 9_27:
Distribution cham-
ber for alternate
feeding of filter
beds. A piece of
straight pipe is
placed on the out-
let, which is to be
temporarily closed

210
9.2.8 Ponds

Ponds (lagoons) are artificial lakes. They provide wastewater treatment through
natural processes. Different treatment processes can be utilised; depending on
the design of the artificial lake, series of ponds can be used to combine different
treatment effects. Ponds are ideal DEWATS and should be given preference over
other systems whenever land is available. Ponds are preferable to underground
gravel filters, if sympathetic to the surroundings; facultative or anaerobic ponds
must be far enough from human settlements to avoid the nuisance caused by
bad odours or mosquito breeding. Polishing ponds can be closer, if fish are held
within the water body; fish that belong to gambusia spp. are commonly used for
mosquito control in tropical countries.

Pure pond systems are cheap and need almost no maintenance, even if large.

Ponds may be classified into:

sedimentation ponds (pre-treatment ponds with anaerobic sludge stabilisation)
anaerobic ponds (anaerobic stabilisation ponds)
oxidation ponds (aerobic cum facultative stabilisation ponds)
polishing ponds (fully-aerobic post-treatment ponds, placed after stabilisation
ponds)

Pond systems intended to provide full treatment normally consist of several

ponds serving different purposes. For example, a deep anaerobic sedimentation
pond for sedimentation cum anaerobic stabilisation of sludge, two or three shallow
aerobic and facultative oxidation ponds with longer retention times for predomi-
nantly aerobic degradation of suspended and dissolved matter, and one or several
shallow polishing ponds for the final sedimentation of suspended stabilised solids
and bacterial mass. Wastewater ponds for fish farming require low organic loading
and, in addition, should be diluted by four to five times the amount of river water.
Otherwise, the pond must be about 10 times as large as the area calculated in
the spreadsheet (see Table 33, page 273).
Artificially aerated ponds are not considered to be DEWATS and, therefore, are
not dealt with in this handbook. It may be enough to know that such ponds are
1.5 to 3.5m deep, usually work with a five days hydraulic retention time (HRT)
and organic loads of 20 to 30g BOD/md. The energy requirement for aeration
is about 13W/m of pond volume. Only where there is a little scum only the
surface of anaerobic ponds may be aerated to reduce the foul smell.

211
9 Technical components

9.2.8.1 Anaerobic ponds

Anaerobic ponds are deep (2 to 6m) and highly loaded (0.1 to 1kg BOD/md).
Anaerobic conditions are guaranteed by the depth of the pond, thereby requiring
less surface area than aerobic-facultative oxidation ponds.

It is possible to provide separate sludge-settling tanks before the main pond, in

order to reduce the organic-sludge load. Such settling tanks should have a HRT
of less than one day, with the exact HRT depending on the kind of wastewater.
Anaerobic ponds with an organic loading rate of below 300g/md BOD are likely
to remain at an almost neutral pH. Consequently, they release little H2S and,
therefore, are almost free from an unpleasant smell. Highly loaded anaerobic
ponds omit foul odour, until a heavy layer of scum has been developed.

Picture 9_28:
Principles of an-
aerobic ponds.
Sedimentation
ponds have a HRT
of about one day,
ponds with low
loading are suppo-
sed to be odourless
because of almost
neutral pH, highly
loaded ponds form
a sealing scum
layer on top

212
Before this layer exists, the upper region of the pond will remain aerobic; these
ponds are called facultative-anaerobic.

Depending on the properties of the wastewater, the desired treatment effect and
possible post-treatment, anaerobic ponds are designed for hydraulic retention
times of between one and 30 days. The HRT determines whether only settled
sludge or all of the liquid is treated. For domestic wastewater the anaerobic pond
may function as an open septic tank. It should be small, in order to develop a
sealing scum layer; in this case, treatment efficiency is only in the range of 50 to
70% BOD removal.

Wrong retention times result in stinky effluent. If the retention time is longer
than one day, not only bottom sludge but also the liquid portion begins to fer-
ment. On the other hand, if the retention time is too short for the liquid to stabi-
lise substantially, the effluent remains at a low pH and stinks of H2S. Too-short
retention times have the same effect as too-high organic loading rates.

pollutant dimension inflow outflow removal rate

suspended solids mg/l 431 139 68%
COD mg/l mg/l 1189* 505 58%
BOD5 mg/l 374 190 49%
Nkjel mg N/l 116 99 15%
P total mg/l 26 24.5 6%
fecal coli No/100ml 6,156,000 496,000 92%
fecal strepto No/100ml 20,900,000 1,603,000 92%
Table 21:
nematode ova No 139 32 77% An example of the
cestode ova No 75 18 76% high performance
of a simple settling
helminth ova No 214 47 78%
pond
*the high COD/BOD ratio is caused by mineral of pollution which is also the reason for the COD-removal rate Source: Drioache et
being higher than that of the BOD5
all, 1997

213
9 Technical components

In industries, such as sugar plants or distilleries, anaerobic ponds are often used
as the first treatment unit, followed by oxidation ponds. The treatment efficiency
of high-loaded ponds with long retention times ranges from 70 to 95% BOD
removal (CODrem. 65 to 90%), depending on the biodegradability of the waste-
water. Several ponds in series are recommended for long retention times.

Anaerobic ponds are not very efficient in treating wastewater with a wide COD/
BOD ratio (> 3:1). For this type of wastewater, sedimentation ponds with very
short retention times, followed by aerobic/facultative stabilisation ponds are
recommended.

ambient temperature C org. load BOD g/m*d efficiency BOD rem. %

10 100 40
15 200 50
20 300 60
Table 22: 23 330 66
Design parameters
25 350 70
for low-loaded
anaerobic ponds in 28 380 70
relation to ambient 30 400 70
temperature
33 430 70
Source: Mara 1997

Picture 9_29:
Cross-sections of
anaerobic ponds
constructed from
rocks, with cement-
mortar pointing.
A and B: A deeper
inlet section accu-
mulates most of
the sludge within a
limited surface area.
C: Two anaerobic
ponds in series. The
first pond may be
highly loaded (scum
sealed), while the
second pond may
be low loaded
(neutral pH)

214
Pond size is also determined by the long-term sludge-storage volume. Anaerobic
ponds with sufficient, integrated sludge storage make sludge-removal intervals of
over 10 years possible.

Starting phase and maintenance

Start-up does not require any special arrangements. But one must be aware of
the fact that a heavily loaded pond will release bad odour until a layer of scum
seals the surface. Inlet and outlet structures should be monitored during operation.
A drop in the effluent quality is a warning that the sludge must be removed. If
this is neglected, the receiving waters or the ensuing treatment units will suffer
the consequences.

Calculating dimensions

Retention time and volumetric organic load are the two design parameters for an-
aerobic ponds. A non-smelling pond loaded with 300g BOD/md, for a short HRT
of one day, requires approximately 0.2m per capita for domestic wastewater.
Anaerobic stabilisation of the liquid fraction requires longer retention times, the
calculation of which depends on temperature, desired treatment quality and
organic load. The organic loading rate should not exceed 1kg BOD/md. For
exact calculation please refer to the formula in the spreadsheet (Table 31 and 32,
pages 268 and 269).

Picture 9_30:
Anaerobic pond
in Namibia

215
9 Technical components

9.2.8.2 Aerobic ponds

Aerobic ponds receive most of their oxygen via the water surface. For loading
rates below 4g BOD/md, surface oxygen can meet the full oxygen demand.
Oxygen intake increases at lower temperatures and with surface turbulence
caused by wind and rain. Oxygen intake also depends on the actual oxygen de-
36 See Mudrake et all, ficit up to saturation point so may vary at 20C between 40g O2 /md for fully
1997 anaerobic conditions and 10g O2 /md in the case of 75% oxygen saturation.36
(Mudrak&Kunst, after Ottmann 1977).

The secondary source of oxygen comes from algae via photosynthesis. However,
in general, overly intensive growth of algae and highly turbid water prevents sun-
light from reaching the lower strata of the pond. Oxygen production is then
reduced because photosynthesis cannot take place. The result is a foul smell
because anaerobic facultative conditions prevail. Algae are important and positive
for the treatment process, but are a negative factor when it comes to effluent
quality. Consequently, algae growth is allowed and wanted in the beginning of
treatment, but not desired when it comes to the point of discharge because algae
increase the BOD of the effluent. Algae in the effluent can be reduced by a small
final pond with a maximum one-day retention time. Larger pond areas low loading
rates with reduced nutrient supply for algae - are the most secure, but also the
most expensive measure.

inlet
outlet

1. main pond 2. main pond 3. main pond polishing

pond
Picture 9_31:
Flow pattern of
aerobic-facultative
ponds in series

216
The laboratory results of effluent wastewater often give a false impression of
insufficient treatment. As nearly 90% of the effluent BOD comes from algae,
many countries allow higher BOD loads in the effluent from ponds, as compared
to other treatment systems. Baffles or rock bedding before the outlet of each of
the ponds have a remarkable effect of algae retention. Intelligent structural details
increase the treatment quality considerably at hardly any additional cost and
may be seen as being as important as adequate pond size.

Treatment efficiency increases with longer retention times. The number of ponds
is of only relative influence. With the same total surface, splitting one pond into
two ponds increases efficiency by approximately 10%. Having three instead of
two ponds adds about 4% and from three to four ponds having inreases efficiency
by another 2%.

This shows that having more than three ponds is not justifiable from an economic
point of view because the same effect can be achieved by just enlarging the sur-
face area. Instead of constructing the dams and banks of an additional pond, the
required land should be used as additional water area.

Picture 9_32:
Section through
a large aerobic-
facultative stabili-
sation pond. Banks
should be protected
against erosion
by waves. A: Inlet;
banks should al-
so be protected
against erosion by
influent. B: Cross-
section B-B (front
view of C). C:
Outlet structure
with swivel arm
to adjust height of
pond according to
seasonal fluctuation
of water volume.

217
9 Technical components

The first pond may be as much as twice the size of the others, if there are several
inlet points. In principle, having several inlet points to distribute the pollution
load more equally and to create a larger area for sedimentation is an advantage.
On the other hand, it might be advisable to provide a slightly separated inlet zone
to avoid bulky, floating matter littering the total pond surface.

The inlet points should be as far away from the outlet as possible. The outlet
should be below the water surface to retain floating solids, including algae. Gravel
beds acting as roughing filters are advisable between ponds in series and before
the final outlet.

The erosion of banks by waves could be a problem with larger ponds. Therefore,
the slope should be 1 (vertical) to 3 (horizontal) and covered with rocks or large
bits of gravel. This also helps to keep the soil embankments from slipping. Banks
and dams can be protected by planting macrophytes, such as cat-tail, or phragmites.
Dams between ponds should be paved and wide enough to facilitate maintenance.

Picture 9_33:
Details of aerobic-
stabilisation ponds
(basins) of smal-
ler size. A: Inlet
structure, concrete
flooring, B: Baffle
wall, compacted
clay flooring, C:
Outlet structure, foil
flooring (protection
against misuse may
be advisable)

218
Aerobic stabilisation ponds must be shallow enough to permit adequate oxygen
intake but deep enough to prevent weed growth at the bottom of the pond. A
depth of 90cm to 1m in a warm climate and up to 1.2m in cold-climate zones
(due to frost) is suitable. Deeper ponds become facultative or even anaerobic in
the lower strata.

Smaller volumes of wastewater, such as from schools, hospitals or residential

houses are better pre-treated in Imhoff tanks, septic tanks, baffled reactors or,
at the least, sedimentation pits, before reaching the aerobic stabilisation pond.
Properly operated Imhoff tanks, which have odourless effluent are preferable.
A septic tank with smelly effluent is to be preferred if regular desludging of the
Imhoff tank cannot be guaranteed. If pre-treatment is not provided, the pond
must have a deeper sedimentation zone near the inlet; bad odour is to be ex-
pected. It might be wiser, therefore, to construct a small sedimentation pond, on
which a sealing scum layer will develop. Should the scum layer reach a thickness
of more than 10cm, papyrus can be grown on it to make it look more attractive.

Starting phase and maintenance

The pond matures much faster if it is filled with river water before the first
wastewater enters. With the exception of controlling the inlet and outlet struc-
tures regulary, no permanent attendance is required. But the performance of the
pond should be monitored and any disturbance of the water quality investigated.
Sludge must be removed at defined intervals, to avoid a decline in treatment
quality. Adequate sludge removal, handling and treatment is discussed in detail in
section 11.3.

219
9 Technical components

Calculating dimensions

Organic surface load and hydraulic retention time are the two decisive design
parameters. While the minimum hydraulic retention time ranges from five to 20
days, the maximum organic load depends on the ambient temperature (see Table
23 on this page). The amount of sunshine hours is important, as UV radiation is
effective at destroying pathogens. Although this consideration is not included in
the calculation, ponds should be slightly oversized in areas with permanent cloud
cover. Organic loading should be less than 20g BOD/md. For domestic waste-
water, a pond surface of between 2.5 and 10m may be estimated per capita. All
values depend on the type of pre-treatment, the surrounding temperature, and
health objectives. For more exact calculation, please refer to the formula applied
in the computer spreadsheet (see Table 33, page 273).

5 days HRT
ambient organic load
temperature BOD
C g/m*d
10 7.0
15 11.7
20 17.7
Table 23: 23 21.8
Organic surface
loading for aerobic- 25 24.5
facultative ponds 28 28.4
Source: Mara, 1997
30 30.8
33 33.8

220
 9.2.9 Hybrid and combined systems

Each technology has its strengths and weaknesses. It makes sense, therefore,
to combine different treatment units into a more efficient modular, treatment
system. An example of such a combined system could be sedimentation in a
settler or septic tank followed by anaerobic decomposition of non-settleable
suspended solids in anaerobic filters or baffled reactors. Further treatment in
ponds or ground filters provides aerobic conditions. Deciding which technologies
are most appropriate for combining depends on treatment requirements and
boundary-site conditions.

Picture 9_34:
anaerobic aerobic and aerobic polishing, The complete
settling facultative final
digestion treatment chain
degradation sedimentation of DEWATS-
septic tank, anaerobic filter ground filter, polishing technology
Imhoff tank anaerobic baffled reactor aerobic-facultative pond
biogas plant stabilisation pond

Apart from applying different DEWATS modules in series, hybrid systems can also
combine different technologies within one treatment unit. One can, for example,
combine the anaerobic baffled reactor with the anaerobic filter by adding filters
in the last chambers (see picture 9_36); alternatively, if a floating-filter medium is
available, one may provide a thin filter layer at the top of each baffled chamber.
In practice, the combination of six baffled chambers with two filter chambers has
performed reliably and well.

provision for
gas release
inlet
Picture 9_35:
outlet Examples of a
hybrid and a
post clarifier combined system

hybrid system with settler, anerobic baffles and filter units

Inlet

Anaerobic Filter

Bio-Digester

221
9 Technical components

Imhoff tank
aerobic- stabilisation ponds
facultative

horizontal
ABR polishing
gravel
pond
filter

anaerobic
sedimentation
pond aerobic- stabilisation ponds
facultative

anaerobic
bio-digester hybrid horizontal polishing
Picture 9_36:
reactor gravel pond
Typical com-
(baffles + filter
binations for
full treatment filter)
with DEWATS-
modules

222
9.3 Non-DEWATS technologies

DEWATS commands low maintenance. This implies that technologies which

cannot be switched on and off as one likes, is integral to the DEWATS concept.
DEWATS are intended to function every day with the efficiency envisaged.
Systems, which are highly efficient but require a great deal of regular care to
function at an acceptable level, do not suit the concept of decentralised waste-
water treatment. To avoid any misunderstanding: The technologies which are
regarded here as non-DEWATS are by no means inferior treatment systems.
They may even be used in a decentralised concept. However, not without highly
qualified operational staff which is closely supervised by an experienced manage-
ment.

9.3.1 UASB

The UASB system is not considered a DEWATS technology. However, an under-

standing of the principle on which it functions may improve ones understanding
of the anaerobic baffled reactor.

In a UASB reactor (Upstream Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactor) the upstream

velocity and settling speed of the sludge is in equilibrium and forms a locally
rather stable, suspended sludge blanket in the lower part of the digester. This
sludge blanket of suspended active sludge acts as a filter medium. After some
weeks of maturation, granular sludge forms and improves the physical stability
and filter capacity of the sludge blanket.

To keep the blanket in its proper position, the hydraulic load must correspond
with the upstream velocity and with the organic load. The latter is responsible for
the development of new sludge. So the flow rate must be controlled and regulated
in accordance with fluctuations of the organic load. Generally, the fluctuation of
inflow is high in smaller units and regulating wastewater flow is not possible.
Furthermore, it is not possible to stabilise the process by increasing the hydraulic
retention time without lowering the upstream velocity. Although the system is
simple to build, these operational difficulties render it unsuitable for DEWATS,
particularly for relatively weak, domestic wastewater.

223
9 Technical components

Fully controlled UASBs are used for relatively strong industrial wastewater.
Slanting baffles (similar to the Imhoff tank) help to separate gas bubbles from
solids, whereby solids are also separated from the up-streaming liquid. These
baffles are called 3-phase separators. Biogas can be collected and used.

UASB reactors require several months to mature to develop sufficient granular

sludge to provide treatment. Granular sludge looks like big flocs of dust; microbial
slime forms chains, which coagulate into flocs or granules. High organic loading,
in connection with lower hydraulic loading, speeds up the granulation process
in the starting phase. Since higher velocities are required to lift sludge granules
compared to single sludge particles, the sludge blanket remains relatively stable.

Starting phase, maintenance and calculating dimensions

The UASB does not belong to DEWATS. Details of how to operate it and cal-
culate its dimensions are deliberately omitted from this handbook so that rea-
ders dont gain the impression that the UASB can be built and operated under
DEWATS conditions.

Picture 9_37:
Flow principle of
UASB reactors.
Up-streaming wa-
ter and gas-driven
sludge particles hit
baffles, which cause
to separate gas,
solids and liquid

224
9.3.2 Trickling filter

The trickling filter is not thought of as a DEWATS solution. But some understanding
of how it works will improve ones understanding of the principle of aerobic-waste-
water treatment.

The trickling filter follows the same principle as the anaerobic filter, in the sense
that it provides a large surface for bacteria to settle. The main difference between
the two systems lies in the fact that the trickling filter works under aerobic con-
ditions. This implies that the bacteria, which are immobilised at the filter medium,
must have equal access to air and wastewater. So wastewater is dosed at inter-
vals, providing time for air to enter the reactor during the breaks. An equal distri-
bution of wastewater over the full surface area will utilise the filter mass most
efficiently.

A trickling filter consists of:

a dosing device
a rotating sprinkler
a filter body, which is ventilated both from the top and the bottom

225
9 Technical components

Picture 9_38:
The principle of the
trickling filter

Rocks with a diameter of between 3 and 8cm in are used as the filter medium.
The outside of the filter body is closed to prevent sludge flies from escaping into
the open. The filter rests above ground to allow ventilation. The bottom slab is
sloped so that sludge and water inses away. The bacterial film must be flushed
away regularly to remove dead sludge and to prevent clogging. High hydraulic-
loading rates (> 0.8m/mh) have a self-flushing effect. With organic-loading
rates of 1kg BOD/md, 80% BOD removal is possible. Higher loading rates
reduce efficiency.

In a 2m-high trickling filter with a wastewater of 500mgBOD/l, the organic-

loading rate comes to:

0.8 24h 0.5kgBOD/m/2m height = 4.8kg BOD/m d

226
At such a high organic load, a removal rate of only 60% BOD may be expected.
The simple calculation shows that wastewater would have to be recycled nearly
five times to get the expected treatment quality and self-flushing effect.
However, the trickling filter could be operated with lower hydraulic-loading rates
if regular flushing is done.

The self-flushing (high-rate) trickling filter is a reliable system, despite fluctuations

in the flow of wastewater. Nonetheless as it requires a rotating sprinkler and
pump for operation the system is not a suitable DEWATS solution.

Starting phase, maintenance and calculating of dimensions

Details for calculation and instructions for operation are not included in this
handbook as the trickling filter cannot be built and operated under DEWATS
conditions.

227
9 Technical components

9.3.3 Aquatic-plant systems

Water hyacinth, duckweed, water cabbage and other aquatic plants can improve
the treatment capacity of pond systems. The heavy metals that accumulate in
water hyacinths are removed when the plants are harvested. Duckweed is a good
substitute for algae; if not confined within fixed frames, duckweed is blown by
the wind to the lee-side of the pond. If it is retained in a surface baffle, it leaves
a cleaner effluent. Improved treatment efficiency however, is only guaranteed by
regular attendance and harvesting. Special design features for harvesting increase
the total area requirement of the treatment system. The evaporation rate of aquatic-
plant systems is four times higher than that of open ponds (in the range of 40l/
md in hot climates).

Picture 9_39:
Aquatic plants,
commonly used
for wastewater
treatment

The area required for a pond is almost the same, regardless of aquatic plants. If
the organic-loading rate is low, plants provide protect mosquito-controlling fish
from birds. However, some plants such as water hyacinth, are disadvantageous,
as they hide mosquito larva from fish and provide shelter for snakes. High organic
loading rates where additional treatment by aquatic plants is most beneficial
do not allow the survival of fish for mosquito control.

As aquatic-plant systems become a nuisance if they are not maintained properly,

they are not considered as DEWATS. However, aquatic plants make sense if
utilised in conjunction with wastewater farming for intensive and controlled
nutrient recycling, or to improve the appearance of residential areas.

228
Starting phase and maintenance

Operation and maintenance is mainly an agricultural-management issue rather

than a wastewater-treatment issue. The pond should start off with fresh, river
water and the pollution load should be slowly increased, as plant cover increases.
Plants must be harvested regularly to prevent bottom sludge forming from dead
plants. Duckweed, in particular, should be kept within frames. Inlet and outlet
structures should be controlled regularly.

Calculating dimensions

For practical reasons, please refer to the same formula as for unplanted oxidation
ponds (see Table 33, page 273).

Picture 9_40:
Aerobic pond for
post-treatment of
a DEWATS system
at Aravind-Eye-
Hospital in
Pondicherry, India

229
10 Designing DEWATS

If the planning engineer knows his or her craft and recognises his or her limita-
tions, designing DEWATS is relatively simple. Treatment-system performance
cannot be precisely predicted and, therefore, calculating of dimensions should
not involve ambitious procedures; in the case of small- and medium-scale
DEWATS, a slightly oversized plant volume adds to operational safety.

Based on local conditions, needs and preferences, plants of varying sizes can
be chosen as standard designs. On-site adaptations can then be made by less-
qualified site supervisors or technicians.

In the case of specific demands, calculations and design must be carried out
individually; the structural details of the standardised plants can be integrated.
In this chapter we introduce a simplified, quasi-standardised method of calculating
dimensions using spreadsheets.

Co-operative plant systems that require interconnecting sewerage must be de-

signed individually by an experienced engineer, who is able to place plants and
sewers according to contours and other site requirements.

10.1 Technical spreadsheets background

10.1.1 Usefulness of computer calculation

The purpose of this chapter is to provide the engineer with tools to produce his or
her own spreadsheets for sizing DEWATS in any computer programme that he or
she is familiar with. The exercise of producing ones own tables will compel engi-
neers to deepen their understanding of design.

The curves that have been used as the basis for calculation in the formulas
applied in the computer spreadsheets may also be of interest to those who do
not use a computer (these are found in this chapter). As these curves visualise
the most important relationships between various parameters, they will enhance
understanding of the factors that influence the treatment process. It should be
noticed that the graphs have been developed on the basis of mixed information;
the methods of calculation, therefore, do not always follow the same logic.

230
Computerised calculations can be very helpful, particularly if the formulas and the
input data are correct. Flawed assumptions or wrong data, on the other hand,
will definitely result in worthless results. Nevertheless, assuming the input data
is correct, spreadsheets provide a quick impression of the plants space require-
ment and what treatment performance can be expected. Ready-to-use computer
spreadsheets are especially helpful to those who do not design DEWATS on a
daily basis and would otherwise need to recollect the entire theory for sizing a
plant before starting to design.

Please bear in mind that DEWATS provides a set of approaches. The equations
used in the technical spreadsheets do rely on certain assumptions. Because of
the very different parameters that are relevant for the performances of a plan
(temperature, materials to be used, composition of the wastewater etc.) there is
not a right way to calculate dimensions. It is the experience and understanding
of the planner that is crucial to create the designs most appropriate to local condi-
tions i. e. the wastewater problem.

10.1.2 Risks of using simplified formulas

The formulas applied in the spreadsheets have been developed by practitioners,

who are not overly concerned with theoretical knowledge. But the formulas are
based on scientific findings, which have been simplified in the light of of practical
experience.

Even if the formulas were to be 100% correct, the results would not be 100%
accurate, as input data is not fully reliable. But the accuracy of the formulas is
likely to be greater than the accuracy of wastewater sampling and analysis. There
are many unknown factors influencing treatment efficiency and scientific hand-
books provide a possible range of results. But this book, although scientifically
based, is written for people who have to build a real plant out of real building
materials. The supervisor cannot tell the mason to make a concrete tank about
4.90m to 5.60m long; he or she must say: The length should be 5.35m. The
following spreadsheets were designed in this spirit. Anyone who already uses
more variable methods of calculation and who is not the target reader of this
book is free to modify the formulas and curves according to his or her experience
and ability (the authors welcome any information that would help to improve the
spreadsheets).

231
10 Designing DEWATS

As the formulas represent simplifications of complex natural processes, there

is a certain risk that they do not reflect reality adequately. However, the risk of
changes in the assumed reality is even greater; for example, expanding a factory
without enlarging the treatment system is obviously more significant than an
assumed BOD of 350mg/l, when in reality it is only 300mg/l.

Listed below are some examples of incorrect assumptions and their consequences:
underestimating sludge accumulation in septic tanks, sedimentation ponds,
Imhoff tanks and anaerobic reactors results in shorter desludging intervals
in the case of anaerobic reactors, severe under-sizing could lead to a collapse
of the process, while over-sizing may require longer maturation time at the
beginning
incorrect treatment performance of primary or secondary treatment steps
could be the cause of over- or undersized post-treatment facilities. This may
result in unnecessarily high investment costs or having to enlarge the post-
treatment facilities
undersized anaerobic ponds will develop odour, while slightly oversized ponds
may not develop sufficient scum, also resulting in smells
undersized aerobic ponds can develop an odour; there is no harm in oversizing
aerobic ponds
the biggest risk lies in filter media clogging in both anaerobic tanks and
constructed wetlands. However, the risk is more likely to come from inferior
filter material, faulty structural details or incorrect wastewater data than from
incorrect sizing

In general, moderate oversizing reduces the risk of unstable processes and

inferior treatment results.

232
10.1.3 About the spreadsheets

The spreadsheets presented in this handbook are in Microsoft EXCEL; other

suitable programmes may also be used.

There might be differences in the syntax of formulas, for example 3 (3 to the

power of 2) may be written as =POWER(3;2) or =3^2, square root of 9 could
be =SQRT(9) or =9^1/2, cubic root of 27 would be =power(27;1/3) or =27^1/3.
Some programmes may accept only one of the alternatives.

The spreadsheets are based on data which is normally available to the planning
engineer within the context of DEWATS. For example, while the measurement
of BOD5 and COD may be possible at the beginning of planning, it is unlikely that
the BOD5 will be regularly controlled later on. Therefore, calculations are based on
COD or the results of BOD-based formulas have been set in relation to COD, and
vice versa. In the following, the term BOD stands for BOD5.

The formulas applied in the spreadsheets are based on curves from scientific
publications, handbooks and the experience of BORDA and its partners. The
formulas, therefore, define typical trends. For example, it is well-known that the
removal efficiency of an anaerobic reactor increases when the COD/BOD ratio is
narrow. Such curves have been simplified into a chain of straight lines to allow
the reader to easily understand the formulas and to adjust their values to local
conditions if necessary. Although the amount of data on which some of these
curves are based is sometimes too insignificant to be statisticaly relevant, the
formulas have been applied successfully and adjusted on the basis of practical
experience.

The formulas are simple. Besides basic arithmetical operations, they use only one
logical function, namely the IF-function. For example:

If temperature is less than 20C; then hydraulic retention time is 20 days; if

not, then it is 15 days in case the temperature is less than 25C; otherwise
(this means, if temperature is over 25C) the HRT is 10 days.

233
10 Designing DEWATS

Assuming the temperature is stated in cell F5 of the spreadsheet, the formula for
retention time will be written as: =IF(F5<20;20;IF(F5<25;15;10)).

The formulas have been kept simple, so that the user can make modifications,
according to experience or superior knowledge. For example, if it has been found
that, for a certain substrate, the HRT should be 25 days below 20C, 23 days up
to 25C and 20 days above 25C and, that for safety reasons, 10% longer reten-
tion time is added, then the formula should read:

= 110%* IF (F5 < 20; 25; IF (F5 < 25; 23; 20)).

10,5

P
7,8

Picture 10_1:
The graphical
Hp
expression of the
rule of three
2,8
for solving propor-
tions: if we know
three numbers a, b,
and c, and want to
0 12 18,5
find d such that
a/b = c/d, Hp = (12 x (10,5-2,8)/18,5) + 2,8 = 7,8
then d = cb/a.

Values between defined days or amounts may be calculated by using the famous
rule of three, of which there are plenty of examples in the following tables. The
slope of a straight line is expressed in its tangent; the height of a certain point is
found by multiplying the length with the ratio of the slope, i.e. total height divided
by total length (Picture 10_1).

234
In case the reader is not familiar with working in EXCEL, it is better not to modify
formulas but to manipulate the results by entering modified data. For example,
if the values of spreadsheet results are generally lower or higher than the expe-
rienced in the field, dimensioning can be adjusted by entering lower or higher
temperature values, or shorter or longer retention times. One could also multiply
wastewater volumes or COD concentrations by a safety factor before starting the
calculation. To avoid mishaps, all the spreadsheet cells should be locked, except
the ones written in bold figures.

When the user prepares his or her own tables and copies the formulas below, the
columns (A; B; C; D...) and the rows (1; 2; 3; 4; 5...) before the equals symbol
of each formula, define which cell the formula should be written in. The names of
cells and rows are shown on the entry mask of the monitor. In transferring formu-
las to the spreadsheet, the cell name before the equals symbol should not be
copied; for example E6=D5/E5 should be written in cell E6 as =D5/E5.

The italic figures are either guiding figures to show usual values, or they indicate
limits to be observed. The bold figures are those which have to be filled in by
hand; the other figures are calculated. Columns which are labelled given con-
tain data which reflects a given reality, for example, wastewater-flow volume or
wastewater strength. Columns which are labelled chosen contain data which
may be modified to optimise the design, for example, hydraulic retention time
or desludging intervals. All other cells contain formulas and should be locked, in
order to avoid deleting by accident formulas. Cells which are labelled check or
require should be used to confirm whether the chosen and given values are
realistic.

235
10 Designing DEWATS

10.2 Technical spreadsheets application

10.2.1 Assumed COD/BOD ratio

The COD/BOD ratio widens during biological treatment because the BOD reflects
only that part of the oxygen demand which is reduced by biological treatment,
while the COD represents total oxygen demand. The removed BOD, therefore,
has a greater percentage-wise influence on the change of the BOD than on the
COD. The COD/BOD ratio widens faster while biological degradation is incomplete,
and slower when treatment efficiency reaches almost 100%.

Picture 10_2:
COD removal in
1,25
relation to tempe-
rature in anaerobic
1,20
reactors.
Change of COD/BOD
ratio during anaero- 1,15
bic treatment. The
samples have been 1,10
taken by SIITRAT
from anaerobic 1,05
filters, most of them
serving schools 1,00
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
in the suburbs of
Delhi, India COD removal in %

1,15

1,10
Picture 10_3:
COD removal rela-
tive to wastewater 1,05
strength in anaerobic
filters.
Simplified curve
1,00
of Picture 10_2, 35 85
45 55 65 75 95
which is used in the
COD rem. efficiency in %
spreadsheet formulas

236
 factor Picture 10_4:
1,9 Illustration to
1,8 spreadsheet for cal-
1,7 culation of anaero-
1,6 bic filter dimensions.
1,5 Changes of COD/
BOD ratio during
1,4
anaerobic treat-
1,3
ment of domestic
1,2 wastewater. The
1,1 samples were taken
1,0 by SIITRAT. The few
1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 sample points of
COD/BOD of inflow high COD/BOD ratio
(to the right of the
graph) stem from a
post-treatment plant
10.2.2 Domestic wastewater quantity and quality and are not compa-
rable to the majority
of samples
The following spreadsheet (see Table 24) helps to define domestic wastewater
in terms of the number of people and the wastewater they discharge. BOD and
water-consumption figures vary widely from place to place and, therefore, should
be obtained for each site.

Formulas of spreadsheet wastewater per capita:

E5 = A5 x C5 / 1000

F5 = A5 x B5 / E5

G5 = D5 x F5

A B C D E F G
1 Wastewater production per capita
2 user BOD5 per water COD/BOD5 daily flow of BOD5 COD
user consump. ratio wastewater concentr. concentr.
per user
Table 24:
3 given given given given calculated calculated approx.
Spreadsheet for
4 number g/day litres/day mg/l m/day mg/l mg/l calculation of quan-
5 80 55 165 1.90 13.20 333 633 tity and quality of
domestic-waste
6 range => 40 - 65 50 - 300
water production

237
10 Designing DEWATS

10.2.3 Septic tank

The size of septic tanks is standardised in most countries. In the case of

DEWATS, however, the wastewater may not be the standard domestic waste-
water. The spreadsheet (see Table 25) assists in the design of septic tanks.
Flow volume, number of peak hours of flow and pollution load are the basic
entries. Chosen parameters include the desludging interval and the HRT; the
former is decisive for the digester volume for sludge storage, while the latter
decides the volume of the liquid.

As sludge compacts with time, the formulas in the spreadsheets are based on
the graph shown in Picture 10_5.

sludge volume
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
Picture 10_5: 10%
Reduction of sludge 0%
volume during 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
months
storage

238
COD-removal rates in settlers and septic tanks depend on the amount of settleable
solids, their COD content and the intensity of inoculation with fresh inflow. The
contact between fresh incoming substrate and active sludge in Imhoff tanks is
nearly zero, while in sedimentation ponds with a deep inlet, it is intensive. This
fact has been taken into consideration by dividing the parameter settleable SS
per COD by an experience factor of between 0.50 and 0.60. The general
tendency is shown in the graph Picture 10_6.

factor
0,60

0,50

0,40

0,30

0,20

0,10

0,00 Picture 10_6:

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 COD removal
settling time in hours in settlers

Picture 10_7:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
calculation of septic
tank dimensions

239
10 Designing DEWATS

Formulas of spreadsheet septic tank

A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spreadsheet for septic tank, input and treatment data
2 daily time of max. flow COD BOD5 HRT settleable COD COD BOD5
waste- most at peak inflow inflow inside tank SS/COD removal outflow outflow
water flow waste- hours ratio rate
water flow
3 given given calcul. given given chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 m/day h m/h mg/l mg/l h mg/l % mg/l mg/l
5 13.0 12 1.08 633 333 18 0.42 35% 411 209
6 COD/BOD5 -> 1.90 12 - 24 h 0.35 - 0.45 domestic BOD rem. -> 1.06
7 dimensions of septic tank
8 desludging inner min. water inner length of first length of second volume actual biogas
interval width of depth chamber chamber incl. volume of 70% CH4
septic tank at outlet sludge septic tank 50% dis-
point solved
9 chosen chosen chosen requir. chosen requir. chosen requir. check calcul.
10 months m m m m m m m m m/d
11 12 2.50 2.00 3.13 3.10 1.56 1.55 23.46 23.25 0.72
12 sludge l/g BOD rem. 0.0042

Table 25:
Spreadsheet for
C5=A5/B5
calculating septic
tank dimensions
H5 = G5 / 0.6 x IF (F5 < 1; F5 x 0.3; IF (F5 < 3; (F51) x 0.1/2 + 0.3;
IF (F5 < 30; (F5 - 3) x 0.15/27 + 0.4; 0.55)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_6. The number 0.6 is a correction factor based
on practical experience.

I5 = (1 - H5) x D5

J5 = (1 - H5 x J6) x E5

E6 = D5 / E5

J6 = IF (H5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (H5 < 0.75; (H5 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (H5 < 0.85;1.125 - (H5 - 0.75) x 0.1 /0.1; 1.025)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_3.

240
 D11 = 2/3 x H11 / B11 / C11

F11 = D11 / 2

H11 = IF (H12 x (E5 - J5) / 1000 x A11 x 30 x A5 + C5 x F5 < 2 x A5 x F5 / 24; 2 x A5 x F5 / 24;

H12 x (E5 - J5) / 1000 x A11 x 30 x A5 + C5 x F5) + 0.2 x B11 x E11

The formula takes into account that sludge volume is less than half the total volume.

I11 = (E11 + G11) x C11 x B11

J11 = (D5 - I5) x A5 x 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 x 0.5

350 l methane are produced from each kg COD removed.

H12 = 0.005 x IF (A11 < 36; 1 - A11 x 0.014; IF (A11 < 120; 0.5 - (A11 - 36) x 0.002; 1/3))

The formula relates to Picture 10_5.

10.2.4 Fully mixed digester

Within a fully mixed digester, or biogas plant, as it is commonly known in rural

households in India, cattle dung is thoroughly mixed with water. Even as effluent,
the substrate is very viscous; very little sludge settles and, as a result, no sludge
must be removed for many years. The same type of rural biogas plant in China
receives a substrate which is a mixture of human excreta, pig dung and water
however, less homogeneous by far than in India. Other wastewater, for example
from slaughter-houses, may have different properties again. It is difficult, therefore,
to calculate dimensions for the many different kinds of strong wastewater, for
which biogas treatment might be suitable. The following spreadsheet should be
used with certain reservations and formulas may need to be adapted to local
conditions.

241
10 Designing DEWATS

The spreadsheet does reveal, however, the influencing factors.

The formulas are based on the following assumptions:
solids which settle within one day of benchmark testing represent 95%
of all settleable solids
there is a mixing effect inside the digester because of the relatively high gas
production, which prevents sludge from settling. Any additional sludge will
only make up for the loss in volume by compression. Thus, the accumulating
sludge volume is equal to the amount calculated from the one day of bench-
mark testing
all settleable and non-settleable solids will digest within hydraulic retention
times typical for sludge reactors
95% of their BOD is removed after 25 days and 30C; this is equivalent to
400l of biogas produced from 1kg of organic dry matter

factor
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
Picture 10_8:
0,1
Gas production of
fixed-dome biogas 0,0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
plants in relation to HRT in days
HRT

factor
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
Picture 10_9: 0,2
Gas production of 0,1
fixed-dome biogas 0,0
plants in relation to 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
temperature temperature in C

242
Formulas of spreadsheet fully mixed digester

D5 = B5 x C5

I5 = IF (F5 < 10; F5 x 0.75 / 10; IF (F5 < 20; (F5 - 10) x 0.19 / 10 + 0.75; (F5 - 20) x 0.06 / 10 + 0.94))

The formula relates to Picture 10_8.

J5 = IF (G5 < 5; 0; IF (G5 < 10; (G5 - 5) x 0.4 / 5;

IF (G5 < 25; (G5 - 10) x 0.5 / 15 + 0.4; (G5 - 25) x 0.1 / 5 + 0.9)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_9.

K5 = H5 x I5 x J5 x A5 x D5

B11 = 1.1 x ((1000 x K5 x L5 / A11 / 0.35) / (0.95 x I5 x J5)) x (1 - 0.95 x I5 x J5) / A5

The formula determines the influent COD and calculates the COD removal by assuming
a production of 350 l methane per kg COD removed; the additional 10% represent
the inorganic COD, which is not removed.

D11 = 30 x C11 x A5 x E5 / 1000

E11 = F5 x A5

F11 = D11 + E11

H11 = K5 x G11

L11 = 2 x SQRT ((H11 / J11 (K11 / 2) x (K11 / 2) x PI()) / PI())

The mathematical expression is:

2
H11 K11 x
J11 2
2x

D17 = A17 B17 / 2

E17 = H11 / (D17 x D17 x PI())

243
10 Designing DEWATS

The mathematical expression is:

H11 / (D17 )

F17 = (F11 POWER (A7 B17 C17; 2) x PI() x E17) / (A17 x A17 x PI()) + E17

The mathematical expression is:

F11
(A17 B17 C17) x
2
x E17 + E17
A17 x

G17 = E17 + 0.15

H17 = F17 + 0.15

I17 = 3.14 x I11 x I11 x (K17 - I11 / 3)

J17 = 0.02 + POWER ((F11 + H11/2 + I17) / 4.19; 1/3)

The theoretical digester volume is taken as the volume below the zero line plus half the
gas storage; 0.02m are added for plaster.

The mathematical expression is:

3
0.02 + (F11 + H11/2 + I17) ; 4.19 is 4/3
4.19
L17 = 4.19 x (K17 0.02) x (K17 0.02) x (K17 0.02) I17 H11 / 2

B23 = PI() x (I11 + A23) x (I11 + A23) x (K17 (I11 + A23) / 3)

The volume above the lowest slurry level is found by trial and error; is expressed as PI().

C23 = I17 + H11

D23 = A23 + J11

E23 = 3.14 x I11 x I11 x (G23 - I11/3)

F23 = 0.02 + POWER ((F11 + H11/2 + E23) / 2.09; 1/3)

244
 The mathematical expression is:

3
0.02 + (F11 + H11/2 + E23) ; 2.09 is 2/3
2.09

H23 = 2.09 x (G23 - 0.02) x (G23 - 0.02) x (G23 - 0.02) - E23 - H11 / 2

J23 = PI() x (I23 + I11) x (I23 + I11) x (G23 - (I23 + I11) / 3)

The volume above the lowest slurry level is found by trial and error; is expressed as PI().

K23 = E23 + H11

L23 = I23 + J11

ball shaped digester half round digester

gas inlet gas 3 19
inlet outlet
outlet
0,25 0,25
0,60 1,34
0,74
0,90 VG volume of expansion chamber is
2,25 equal to volume of gas storage
1,80

inlet bottom may be flat, conical

half round -> 4,50 or bowl shaped
ball -> 3,60
outlet
1,07
0,92 0,25
1,20 3,19
3,28 3,13
1,50 1,38

plan of fixed dome digesters

floating drum digester

Picture 10_10:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
calculation of
fully mixed digester
dimensions

245
10 Designing DEWATS

A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spreadsheet for biogas plants, input and gas-production data
2 daily TS (DM) org. DM/ org. DM solids HRT lowest ideal gas production total gas methane
flow content total DM content settleable digester biogas factors product content
within tempera- product
one day ture at 30C

3 given given assumed calcul. tested chosen given given calcul. acc. to graphs calcul. assumed

4 m/d % ratio % ml/l d C l/kg org DM f-HRT f-temp m/d ratio

5 0.60 6.0 67% 4.0 20 25 25 400 0.97 0.90 8.42 70%

6 200 - 450

7 values for all digester shapes for all fixed-dome plants

8 non- approx. de- sludge liquid total gas gas free outlet dia- dia-
dissolv. effluent sludging volume volume digester storage holder distance above meter meter of
methane COD interval volume capacity volume above zero of left expans.
prod. VG slurry shaft chamber
zero line

9 assumed calcul. chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. given calcul. chosen chosen chosen calcul.

10 ratio mg/l months m m m ratio m m m m m

11 80% 7,943 12 4.32 15.0 19.3 65% 5.5 0.25 0.60 1.20 3.19

12 minimum 0.60 m

13 cylindrical floating-drum plant ball-shaped digester

14 radius of width wall radius theor. theor. actual actual volume radius actual actual
digester of water thickness of gas height depths of heigh- depth of of empty ball digester net volu-
ring of water holder of gas digester of gas digester space shape radius me of
ring holder holder above (ball) digester
zero line
14 chosen chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. requir. chosen check

16 m m m m m m m m m m m m

17 1.50 0.25 0.12 1.38 0.92 3.13 1.07 3.28 0.34 1.77 1.80 20.56

18

19 ball shaped digester half-ball shaped digester

20 lowest slurry level below zero line gas volume radius actual actual net lowest slurry level below zero gas
(fill in trial until calcul. match pressure of empty half digester volume line (fill in trial until calcul. pressure
target) ball space round radius of diges- match target) half-ball
shaped above shape (half ter
zero line round)
21 trial!! calcul. target calcul. calcul. requir. chosen check trial!! calcul. target calcul.

22 m m m m w.c. m m m m m m m m w.c.

23 0.90 5.89 5.81 1.50 0.43 2.23 2.25 20.01 0.74 5.91 5.90 1.34

24 1,50 max. 1.50 max.

Table 26:
Spreadsheet for calculating fully mixed digester dimensions

246
10.2.5 Imhoff tank

The general treatment properties in the Imhoff tank are comparable to those in
any other settler. Since wastewater does not come into direct contact with active
sludge, BOD removal from the liquid is almost zero; however, as sedimentation is
greater than in other settlers, the COD or BOD removal within these units is com-
parable. This fact is reflected in the factor 0.50 of cell H5.

Picture 10_11:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
calculation of
Imhoff Tank
dimensions

247
10 Designing DEWATS

Flow volume, number of peak hours of flow and pollution load are the basic
entries for calculation. Chosen parameters are the same as those for the septic
tank HRT and desludging intervals.

Formulas of spreadsheet Imhoff tank

A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spreadsheet for Imhoff tank, input and treatment data
2 daily time of max. flow COD BOD5 HRT inside settleable COD COD BOD5
waste- most at peak inflow inflow flow tank SS/COD removal outflow outflow
water flow waste- hours ratio rate
water flow
3 given given calcul. given given chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 m/day h m/h mg/l mg/l h mg/l % mg/l mg/l
5 25.0 12 2,08 633 333 1.50 0.42 27% 460 237
6 COD/BOD5 -> 1.90 domestic 0.35 - 0.45 BODrem. -> 1.06
7 dimensions of Imhoff tank
8 desludging flow tank sludge inner space be- total inner inner sludge total biogas
interval volume volume width of side flow width of length of height depth at 70% CH4
flow tank tank Imhoff Imhoff outlet 50% dis-
tank tank solved
9 chosen calcul. calcul. chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul.
10 months m m m m m m m m m/d
11 12 3.13 3.61 1.30 0.55 2.24 2.82 0.57 2.28 1.08
12 sludge l/g BODrem. 0.0042

Table 27:
Spreadsheet for calculating Imhoff tank dimensions

248
 C5 = A5/B5

H5 = G5 / 0.5 x IF (F5 < 1; F5 x 0.3; IF (F5 < 3; (F5 - 1) x 0.1 / 2 + 0.3 ;

IF (F5 < 30; (F5 - 3) x 0.15 / 27 + 0.4; 0.55)))

The formula relates to 10_6. The number 0.5 is a correction factor based on practical experience.

I5 = (1 - H5) x D5

J5 = (1 - H5 x J6) x E5

E6 = D5 / E5

J6 = IF (H5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (H5 < 0.75; (H5 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (H5 < 0.85; 1.125 - (H5 - 0.75) x 0.1 / 0.1; 1.025)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_3.

B11 = C5 x F5

C11 = A5 x 30 x A11 x C12 x (E5 J5) / 1000

F11 = D11 + E11 + 0.25 + 2 x 0.07

All formulas for dimensions relate to the geometry of the Imhoff tank, as shown in Picture 10_11.

G11 = B11 / (0.3 x D11 + (D11 x D11 x 0.85 / 2))

H11 = C11 / F11 / G11

I11 = H11 + 0.85 x D11 + 0.3 + 0.3

J11 = (D5 - I5) x A5 x 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 x 0.5

350 l methane are produced from each kg COD removed.

C12 = 0.005 x IF (A11 < 36;1 - A11 x 0.014; IF (A11 < 120; 0.5 - (A11 - 36) x 0.002;1/3))

The formula relates to Picture 10_5.

249
10 Designing DEWATS

10.2.6 Anaerobic baffled reactor

Volume of flow, number of peak hours of flow and pollution load are the basic
entries for calculation. Chosen parameters for designing a baffled reactor are
the HRT, desludging intervals and the up-flow velocity (cell I17). Due to the
interrelation between these factors, the HRT cannot be reduced by changing the
dimensions of the up-flow chambers because the up-flow velocity will thereby
be increased. To achieve the desired effluent quality, it is better to add another
chamber than to enlarge their volumes because treatment efficiency increases
with the number of chambers (see formula of cell J17). However, practical
experience has shown that treatment efficiency does not increase with more
than six chambers. Calculation is based on the curve (Picture 10_12) showing
BOD removal for a BOD of 900mg/l at 25C. Factors are applied to adapt the
calculation to waste-water strength (Picture 10_14) and temperature (Picture
10_17). An additional curve is used to prevent organic overloading (Picture 10_13).

BODrem
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
Picture 10_12: 10%
BOD removal in 0%
relation to HRT in 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
HRT in hours
baffled reactors

250
factor
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70 Picture 10_13:
0.65 BOD removal
0.60 affected by organic
0 5 10 15 20 overloading baffled
Kg BOD/m*d reactors

factor
1.15
1.10
1.05

1.00

0.95

0.90
Picture 10_14:
0.85 BOD removal in
baffled reactors in
0.80
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 relation to waste-
BOD in mg/l water strength

251
10 Designing DEWATS

A B C D E F G H I J K
1 General spreadsheet for ABR with integrated settler

2 daily time of max. peak COD BOD5 COD/BOD settleable lowest de- HRT in COD
waste- most flow per inflow inflow ratio SS / COD digester sludging settler removal
water flow waste- hour ratio tempera- interval (no settler rate in
water flow ture HRT=0) settler

3 avg. given max. given given calcul. given given chosen chosen calcul.

4 m/day h m/h mg/l mg/l ratio mg/l C months h %

5 25 12 2.08 633 333 1.90 0.42 25 18 1.50 23%

6 COD/BOD5 -> 0.350.45 1.5 h

7 treatment data

8 BOD5 inflow into COD/ factors to calculate COD COD rem. theor. rem. COD COD out
removal baffled reactor BOD5 removal rate of anaerobic filter 25, COD rate acc. to rem. rate
rate in ratio after 1500 factors baffle only
settler settler
9 calcul. COD BOD5 calcul. calculated according to graphs calcul. calcul. calcul.

10 % mg/l mg/l mg/l f-overload f-strenght f-temp f-HRT % % % mg/l

11 24% 489 253 1.94 1.00 0.91 1.00 87 79% 81% 94

12 1.06 <- COD/ BOD removal factor COD/BOD removal factor -> 1.025

13 dimensions of settler ABR

14 total COD total BOD5 BOD5 inner masonry sludge length of length of max. number depth at
removal removal out measurements chosen accum. settler settler upflow of upflow outlet
rate rate acc. to required volume rate velocity chambers

15 calcul. calcul. calcul. width depth calcul. calcul. chosen chosen chosen chosen

16 % % mg/l m m l/g COD m m m/h No. m

17 85% 87% 42 2.00 1.50 0.0037 2.39 2.40 1.8 5 1.50

18 1.42.0m/h

19 dimensions of ABR status and gp

20 length of chambers area of width of chambers actual width of actual actual org. load biogas
should not exceed half single upflow downflow volume total HRT (BOD5) (ass: CH4
depth upflow velocity shaft of baffled 70%; 50%
chamber reactor dissolved)

21 calcul. chosen calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul.

22 m m m m m m/h m m h kg/m*d m*/d

23 0.75 0.75 1.16 1.54 2.00 1.39 0.25 15.00 14 1.63 3.37

24 HRT reduced by 5% for sludge

TIP: If removal rate is insufficient; increase number of upflow chambers to keep upflow velocity low.

Table 28
Spreadsheet for the calculation of anaerobic baffled reactor dimensions

252
Formulas of spreadsheet ABR

C5 = A5 / B5

F5 = D5 / E5

K5 = G5 / 0.6 x IF (J5 < 1; J5 x 0.3; IF (J5 < 3; (J5 - 1) x 0.1/2 + 0.3;

IF (J5 < 30; (J5 - 3) x 0,15 / 27 + 0.4;0.55)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_6. The number 0.6 is a correction factor based
on practical experience.

A11 = K5 x A12

B11 = D5 x (1 - K5)

C11 = E5 x (1 - A11)

D11 = B11 / C11

E11 = IF ( J23 < 8;1; IF (J23 < 15;1 - (J23 - 8) x 0.18 / 7; 0,82 - (J23 - 15) x 0.9 / 5))

The formula relates to Picture 10_13.

F11 = IF (B11 < 2000; B11 x 0.17 / 2000 + 0.87;

IF (B11 < 3000; (B11 - 2000) x 0.02 / 1000 + 1.04; 1.06))

The formula relates to Picture 10_14.

G11 = IF (H5 < 20; (H5 - 10) x 0.39 / 20 + 0.47; IF (H5 <25; (H5 - 20) x 0.14 /5 + 0.86;
IF(H5<30;(H5-25)x0.08/5+1;1.1)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_17.

H11 = IF(I23 < 5; I23 x 0.51 / 5; IF (I23 < 10; (I23 - 5) x 0.31 /5 + 0.51;
IF (I23 < 20; (I23 - 10) x 0.13 / 10 + 0.82; 0.95)))

I11 = E11 x F11 x G11 x H11

The formula relates to Picture 10_12.

J11 = IF (J17 < 7; E11 x F11 x G11 x H11 x (J17 x 0.04 + 0.82); E11 x F11 x G11 x H11 x 0.98)

The formula considers improved treatment by increasing the number of

chambers and limiting the treatment efficiency to 98%.

K11 = (1 - J11) x B11

A12 = IF (K5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (K5 < 0.75; (K5 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (K5 < 0.85; 1.125 - (K5 - 0.75) x 0.1 / 0.1; 1.025)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_3.

253
10 Designing DEWATS

K12 = IF (A17 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (A17 < 0.75; (A17 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (A17 < 0.85; 1.125 - (A17 - 0.75) x 0.1 /0.1; 1.025)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_3.

A17=1-K11/D5

B17=A17xK12

C17=(1-B17)xE5

F17=0.005xIF(I5<36;1-I5x0.014;IF(I5<120;0.5-(I5-36)x0.002;1/3))

The formula relates to Picture 10_5.

G17 = IF (A11 > 0; IF (F17 x (E5 - C11) / 1000 x 30 x I5 x A5 + J5 x C5 < 2 x J5 x C5;

2 x J5 x C5; F17 x (E5 - C11) / 1000 x 30 x I5 x A5 + J5 x C5); 0) / D17 / E17

The formula considers that sludge volume is less than half of the total
volume; a settler may be omitted.

A23 = K17 x 0.5

C23 = C5 / I17

D23 = C23 / B23

F23 = C5 / B23 / E23

H23 =(G23 + B23) x J17 x K17 x E23

I23 = H23 / (A5 / 24) / 105%

J23 = B11 x C5 x 24 / H23 / 1000

K23 = (D5 - K11) x A5 x 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 x 0.5

350l methane are produced from each kg COD removed.

Picture 10_15:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
calculation of
ABR dimensions

254
10.2.7 Anaerobic filter

Volume of flow and pollution load are the basic entries for calculation. The
chosen parameters for the anaerobic filter are the hydraulic retention time and
desludging intervals. The calculation of performance is based on a curve, which
describes the relation between hydraulic retention time and percentage of COD
removal. The curve (Picture 10_16) is based on a COD of 1500mg/l at 25C.
The values are then multiplied by factors reflecting temperature (Picture 10_17),
wastewater strength (Picture 10_18) and specific-filter surface (Picture 10_19).

CODrem
80%
75%
70%
65%

60%
55%
50%
45%
Picture 10_16:
40% COD removal in
0 20 40 60 80 100
relation to HRT in
HRT in hours
anaerobic filters

factor
1.10

1.00
0.90

0.80
0.70

0.60
0.50 Picture 10_17:
0.40 COD removal in
10 15 20 25 30 35 relation to tempe-
rature in anaerobic
temperature in C
reactors

255
10 Designing DEWATS

The void space of the filter medium influences the digester volume required to
provide sufficient hydraulic retention time. Gravel has approximately 35% void
space, while specially manufactured plastic pieces may have over 90%. When
filter height is increased together with total water depth, the impact of increased
depth on HRT is less with gravel than with plastic pieces. While filter height
remains the same, the distance from filter bottom to digester floor must be
increased.

factor
1.10

1.05

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.85
Picture 10_18:
COD removal rela- 0.80
tive to wastewater 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000
strength in anaerobic COD in mg/l
filters

factor
1.10

1.05

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.85
Picture 10_19: 0.80
Spreadsheet for 0 50 100 150 200 250
calculating anaerobic- specific filter surface in m/m
filter dimensions

256
 A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spreadsheet for anaerobic filter (AF) with integrated septic tank (ST)
2 daily time of max. COD BOD5 SSsettl./ lowest HRT in de- COD- BOD5 BOD/
waste most peak flow inflow inflow COD ratio digester septic sludging removal removal COD-
water waste per hour tempera- tank interval septic septic removal
flow water ture tank tank factor
flow

3 given given calcul. given given given given chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul.

4 m/day h m/h mg/l mg/l mg/l C h month % % ratio

5 25.0 12 2.08 633 333 0.42 25 2 36 25% 26% 1,06

6 COD/BOD5 -> 1.90 0,35 - 0.45 (domestic) 2h BODrem -> 1.06

7 treatment data

8 COD BOD5 specific voids HRT factors to calculate COD-removal rate COD- COD COD-
inflow in inflow surface in filter inside AF of anaerobic filter removal outflow removal
AF into AF of filter mass reactor rate of AF rate of
medium (AF only) total
system

9 calcul. calcul. given given chosen calculated according to graphs calcul. calcul. calcul.

10 mg/l mg/l m/m % h f-temp f-strength f-surface f-HRT % mg/l %

11 478 247 100 35% 30 1,00 0,91 1,00 69% 70 142 78%

12 80 - 120 30 - 45 24 - 48 h

13 dimensions of septic tank

14 BOD/ BOD5 BOD5 inner min. wa- inner length of first length of second sludge volume actual
COD rem. rate outflow width of ter depth chamber chamber accum. incl. volume
removal of total of AF septic at inlet sludge of septic
factor system tank point tank
15 calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen chosen calcul. chosen calcul. chosen calcul. requir. calcul.

16 ratio % mg/l m m m m m m l/kg BOD m m

17 1.10 85 49 1.75 2.25 1,69 1.70 0.85 0.85 0,00 10.00 10.04

18 sludge l/g BODrem.

19 dimension of an aerobic filter bio gas production check!

20 volume depth of length number width space filter high out of out of total org. load max.
of filter filtertanks of each of filter of filter below (top 40cm septic anaerobic on filter up-flow
tanks tank tanks tanks perfora- below tank filter volume velocity
ted slabs water- COD inside
level) filter
voids
21 calcul. chosen calcul. chosen requir. chosen calcul. assump.: 70% CH4: 50% dissolved calcul. calcul.

22 m m m No. m m m m/d m/d m/d kg/m*d m/h

23 31.25 2.25 2.25 3 2.69 0.60 1.20 0.97 2.10 3.07 1.57 0.98

24 max.!! < 4.5 <2.0

Table 29:
Spreadsheet for calculating
anaerobic-filter dimensions

257
10 Designing DEWATS

Formulas of spreadsheet anaerobic filter

C5 = A5 / B5

J5 = F5 / 0.6 x IF (H5 < 1;H5 x 0.3; IF (H5 < 3; (H5 - 1) x 0.1 / 2 + 0.3;
IF(H5 < 30; (H5 - 3) x 0.15 / 27 + 0.4; 0.55)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_6. The number 0.6 is a correction factor based
on practical experience.

K5 = L5 x J5

L5 = IF (J5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (J5 < 0.75; (J5 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (J5 < 0.85; 1.125 - (J5 - 0.75) x 0.1/0.1; 1.025)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_3.

D6 = D5 / E5

A11 = D5 x (1 - J5)

B11 = E5 x (1 - K5)

F11 = IF (G5 < 20; (G5 - 10) x 0.39 / 20 + 0.47; IF(G5<25; (G5 - 20) x 0.14 / 5 + 0.86;
IF (G5 < 30; (G5 - 25) x 0.08 / 5 + 1;1.1)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_17.

G11 = IF (A11 < 2000; A11 x 0.17 / 2000 + 0.87;

IF (A11 < 3000; (A11 - 2000) x 0.02 / 1000 + 1.04; 1.06))

The formula relates to Picture 10_18.

H11 = IF (C11 < 100; (C11 - 50) x 0.1 / 50 + 0.9; IF (C11 < 200; (C11 - 100) x 0.06 / 100 + 1; 1.06))

The formula relates to Picture 10_19.

I11 = IF (E11 < 12; E11 x 0.16 / 12 + 0.44; IF (E11 < 24; (E11 - 12) x 0.07 /12 + 0.6;
IF (E11 < 33; (E11 - 24) x 0.03 / 9 + 0.67; IF (E11 < 100; (E11 - 33) x 0.09 / 67 + 0.7; 0.78))))

The formula relates to Picture 10_16.

258
 J11 = IF (F11 x G11 x H11 x I11 x (1 + (D23 x 0.04)) < 0.98;
F11 x G11 x H11 x I11 x (1 + (D23 x 0.04)); 0.98)

The formula considers improved treatment by increasing the number of

chambers and limiting the treatment efficiency to 98%.

K11 = A11 x (1 - J11)

L11 = (1 - K11 / D5)

A17 = IF (L11 < 0.5; 1.06 ; IF (L11 < 0.75; (L11 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF(L11 < 0.85; 1.125 - (L11 - 0.75) x 0.1 / 0.1; 1.025)))

The formula relates to Picture 10_3.

B17 = L11 x A17

C17 = (1 - B17) x E5

F17 = 2/3 x K17 / D17 / E17

H17 = F17 / 2

J17 =0.005 x IF (I5 < 36;1 - I5 x 0.014; IF (I5 < 120; 0.5 - (I5 - 36) x 0.002; 1/3))

The formula relates to Picture 10_5.

K17 = IF (OR (K5 > 0;J5 > 0); IF(J17 x (E5 - B11) / 1000 x I5 x 30 x A5 + H5 x C5 < 2 x H5 x C5;
2 x H5 x C5; J17 x (E5 - B11) / 1000 x I5 x 30 x A5 + H5 x C5); 0)

The formula considers that the sludge volume is less than half of the total volume;
a settler may be omitted.

259
10 Designing DEWATS

L17 = (G17 + I17) x E17 x D17

A23 = E11 x A5 / 24

C23 = B23

E23 = A23 / D23 / ((B23 x 0.25) + (C23 x (B23 - G23 x (1 - D11))))

G23 = B23 - F23 - 0.4 - 0.05

H23 = (D5 - A11) x A5 x 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 x0.5

350l methane are produced from each kg COD removed.

I23 = (A11 - K11) x A5 x 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 x 0.5

350l methane are produced from each kg COD removed.

J23= SUM (H23 : I23)

K23 = A11 x A5 / 1000 / (G23 x E23 x C23 x D11 x D23)

L23 = C5 / (E23 x C23 x D11)

Picture 10_20:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
calculating anaerobic-
filter

260
10.2.8 Horizontal gravel filter

Average flow and pollution load are the basic entries for calculation. The chosen
parameter for the design of gravel filters is the desired effluent quality (BODout,
cell E5). The hydraulic retention time and temperature have the greatest influence
on treatment performance. The HRT depends on the desired BOD-removal rate
(Picture 10_22); the curve is based on 25C and 35% pore space. The pore space
inside the filter defines the real HRT, also influenced by the type and number of
plants chosen. Further influencing factors are close to 1.0; the information needed
to define these factors probably not available at the site anyway.

In practice, the limiting factors are the organic load and the hydraulic load. The
limit for hydraulic loading is approximately 100l/m or 0.1m, although this value
can be much higher when using coarse-filter media with guaranteed conductivity.
A horizontal filter should not receive more than 10g BOD/(mxd) because oxygen
supply via the surface is limited; this value is only half of the limit for aerobic
ponds. This is because a gravel filter works more like a plug flow system; the
organic load is much higher in the front section compared to the rear, while
oxygen supply is also inferior in the lower part. As a result, the cross-sectional
area at the inflow side is influenced by organic loading (cell E12).

HRT days
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 Picture 10_21:
10 HRT relative to tem-
0 perature in gravel
10 15 20 25 30 35
filters, based on
temperature in C
90% BOD-removal

261
10 Designing DEWATS

factor on HRT
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
Picture 10_22: 0.90
Influence of desired 0.80
BOD removal rates 0.70
on HRT of gravel 0.60
filters, based on 0.50
35% pore space at 0.40
25C 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95%
BODrem.

Formulas of spreadsheet gravel filter

D5 = B5 / C5

F5 = 1 - E5 / C5

G5 = F5 / G6

H5 = B5 x (1-G5)

J5 = IF (F5 < 0.4); (F5 x 0.22) / 0.4); IF (F5 < 0.75; (F5 - 0.4) x 31 / 35 + 0.22;
IF (F5 < 0.8; (F5 - 0.75) x 9.5 / 5 + 0.605; IF (F5 < 0.85; (F5 - 0.8) x 12.5 / 5 + 0.7;
IF (F5 < 0.9; (F5 - 0.85) x 17.5 / 5 + 0.825; (F5 - 0.9) x 30 / 5 + 1)))))

The formula refers to Picture 10_22.

K5 = J5 x IF (I5 < 15;82 - (I5 - 10) x 37 / 5; IF (I5 < 20; 45 - (I5 - 15) x 31 / 5;
IF (I5 < 25; 24 - (I5 - 20) x 11 / 5; IF (I5 < 30; 13 - (I5 - 25) x 6 / 5; 7))))

The formula refers to Picture 10_21.

G6 = IF (F5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (F5 < 0.75; (F5 -0.5)x0.065/0.25+1.06;

IF(F5<0.85;1.125-(F5-0.75)x0.1/0.1;1.025)))

The formula refers to Picture 10_3.

262
 L6 = L5 / 86400

A11 = K5 x 35%

D11 = IF (A5 / L5 / B11 < A5 x C5 / E12; A5 x C5 / E12; A5 / L5 / B11)

The formula compares hydraulic load to maximum organic load in cell E12.

E11 = D11 / C11

F11 = IF (A5 x C5 /L12 > A5 x K5 / C11; A5 x C5 /L12; A5 x K5 / C11)

The formula compares permitted hydraulic load with organic load in cell L12.

G11 = F11 / E11

J11 = H11 x I11

K11 = A5 / J11

L11 = K11 x C5

H12 = E11

plan
longitudinal section
plantation, preferably phragmites
Picture 10_23:
inlet
Illustration to
outlet
62,5 spreadsheet for
rizomes calculating
h=0,60 1,0%
bottom slope dimensions
horizontal gravel
9,0
0,50 0,50 filter
9,0

263
10 Designing DEWATS

A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spreadsheet for planted gravel filter, input and treatment data
2 average COD in BOD5 in COD/ outflow BOD5 COD COD out min. HRT HRT hydraulic
flow BOD BOD5 removal removal annual factor conduct.
ratio rate Temp. acc. to Ks
k20=0.3
3 given given given calcul. wanted calcul. calcul. calcul. given calcul. via calcul. given
graph
4 m/d mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l % % mg/l C days m/d

5 26 410 215 1.91 30 86% 84 66 25 0.86 11.20 200

6 COD/ BOD rem. factor via graph -> 1.025 Ks in m/s -> 2.31E -
0.3
7 dimensions results

8 HRT in bottom depth of cross width surface length chosen lenght actual hydr. org.
35% slope filter at section of filter area of filter width chosen surface load on load on
pore inlet area basin required basin area chosen chosen
space chosen surface surface

9 calcul. chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen chosen check! calcul. calcul.

10 days % m m m m m m m m m/d g/m BOD

11 3.92 1.0% 0.60 37.27 62.1 559 9.0 62.5 9.0 563 0.046 9.9

^ information only 0.3 - 0.6 m max. BOD5 150 g/m always -> 62.1 max. loads => 0.100 10

Table 30:
Spreadsheet for calculating
dimensions horizontal gravel filters

10.2.9 Anaerobic pond

Anaerobic ponds should be built for sedimentation purposes only, as highly loaded
ponds with very short retention times and heavy scum formation on the surface
or as relatively low-loaded ponds which are almost odourless because of neutral
pH values. The spreadsheet may be used for all three categories. The hydraulic
retention time is, therefore, the chosen parameter. Ponds with long retention
times (low organic loading rates) may be divided into several ponds in series.
For ponds with short retention times, the front section can be separated to support
development of scum. The choice of HRT strongly influences the organic load of
the effluent. Ambient temperature is important and an excessively high temperature
should not be chosen for want of smaller ponds. It is assumed that temperature
has no influence on COD removal at short retention times of less than 30 hours.

264
Cell G11 should be observed and compared with F11 when the pond is near
residential houses.

The biogas potential is also calculated to decide whether a closed anaerobic tank
with biogas collection should be built instead.

factor
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Picture 10_24:
0.1
Influence of HRT
0.0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 on COD removal of
non-settled solids in
HRT in hours
anaerobic ponds

factor
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Picture 10_25:
0 Influence of HRT
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 on COD removal
of settled solids in
HRT in hours
anaerobic ponds

Picture 10_26:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
calculating dimen-
sions of anaerobic
ponds (figures of
Table 31)

265
10 Designing DEWATS

Formulas of spreadsheet anaerobic and sedimentation pond

D5 = B5 / C5

H5 = IF (E5 < 1; F5 / 0.6x (0.3 x E5); IF (E5 < 3; F5 / 0.6 x (E5 - 1) x 0.1 / 2;
IF (E5 < 30; F5 / 0.6 x ((E5 - 3) x 0.15 / 27 + 0.4);
IF(E5 < 120; E5 x 0.5 x (1 - 0.55 x F5 / 0.6) / 120 + 0.55 x F5 / 0.6;
IF (E5 < 240; (E5 - 120) x 0.25 x (1 - 0.55 x F5 / 0.6) / 120 + 0.5 x (1 - 0.55 x F5 / 0.6) + 0.55 x F5 / 0.6;
IF (E5 < 480; (E5 - 240) x 0.19 x (1 - 0.55 x F5 / 0.6) / 240 + 0.55 x F5 / 0.6 + 0.75 x (10.55 x F5 / 0.6);
(E5 - 480) x 0.06 x (1 - 0.55 x F5 / 0.6) / 240 + 0.55 x F5 / 0.6 + 0.94 x (1 - 0.55 x F5 / 0.6)))))))

The formula refers to Picture 10_24 and Picture 10_25. Below 30 hours HRT, COD removal is
influenced by settling properties (F5/0.6); longer retention times also influence non-settled solids.

I5 = IF (E5 < 30; 1; IF (G5 < 20; (G5 - 10) x 0.39 / 20 + 0.47;
IF(G5<25; (G5 - 20) x 0.14 / 5 + 0.86; IF(G5 < 30; (G5 - 25) x 0.08 / 5 + 1; 1.1))))

The formula refers to Picture 10_17. COD removal by sedimentation (HRT <30 hours) is not
influenced by temperature.

J5 = IF (E5 < 24; 1; IF (F17 = 1;1; IF (F17 = 2; 1.08; IF (F17 = 3; 1.12; 1.13))))

A11 = IF (H5 x I5 x J5 <0.98; H5 x I5 x J5; 0.98)

B11 = IF (A11 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (A11 < 0.75; (A11 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (A11 < 0.85; 1.125 - (A11 -0.75) x 0.1 / 0.1; 1.025)))

The formula refers to Picture 10_3.

266
 C11 = A11 / B11

D11 = B5 - (C11 x B5)

E11 = C5 - (A11 x C5)

F11 = A5 x C5 / (A17 + J11)

G11 = 75% x IF (G5 < 10; 100; IF (G5 < 20; G5 x 20 - 100; IF(G5 < 25; G5 x 10 + 100; 350)))

The formula refers to the rule of thumb by Mara, reflected in Table 22.

I11 = 0.005 x IF (H11 < 36; 1 - H11 x 0.014;

IF (H11 < 120; 0.5 - (H11 - 36) x 0.002; 1/3))

The formula refers to Picture 10_5.

J11 = 30 x A5 x (C5 - E11) x I11 x H11 / 1000

A17 = A5 / 24 x E5

C17 = (J11 + A17) / B17

E17 = C17 / D17

G17 = E17 / F17

J17 = A5 x (B5 - D11) x 0.35 / 1000 / H17 x I17

The formula assumes 350l methane production per kg COD removed.

267
10 Designing DEWATS

A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spreadsheet for anaerobic and sedimentation ponds
2 daily flow COD in BOD5 in COD/ HRT settleable ambient BOD5 removal factors
BOD5 SS/COD temp. C
ratio
3 given given given calcul. chosen given given calculated acc. to graphs
4 m/day mg/l mg/l ratio h mg/l C f-HRT f-temp f-number
5 260 2000 850 2.35 72 0.42 25 57% 100% 100 %
6 domestic -> 0.35 - 0.45
7 treatment data
8 BOD5 BOD/COD COD COD out BOD5 out org. load odourless deslud- sludge sludge
removal removal removal BOD5 on limit of ging accum. volume
rate rate total vol. org. load interval
9 calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. calcul.
10 % factor % mg/l mg/l g/m*d g/m*d months l/g BOD m
11 57 1.08 53 943 366 171 263 60 0.0023 512
12
13 dimensions biogas potential
14 water depth of total area width of total number of length of methan non- potential
volume pond of pond ponds length of ponds each pond content dissolv. biogas
pond if equal methane product.
prod.
15 calcul. chosen required chosen calcul. chosen calcul. assumed assumed calcul.
16 m m m m m number m ratio ratio m/d
17 780 2.0 646 6.00 107.67 1 107.67 70% 50% 68.67
18

Table 31:
Spreadsheet for calculating dimensions for anaerobic sedimentation pond (with short HRT).
In the example, the pond is extremely long and narrow to facilitate the development of scum
in the highly loaded front portion. A baffle wall in the front third supports the effect.
If the pond was squarer, there would be no highly loaded areas, but also no sealing-scum layer.
Both options are possible.

268
 A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spreadsheet for anaerobic and sedimentation ponds
2 daily flow COD in BOD5 in COD/ HRT settleable ambient BOD5 removal factors
BOD5 SS/COD temp. C
ratio
3 given given given calcul. chosen given given calculated acc. to graphs
4 m/day mg/l mg/l ratio h mg/l C f-HRT f-temp f-number
5 260 2000 850 2.35 480 0.42 25 92% 100% 108 %
6 domestic -> 0.35 - 0.45
7 treatment data
8 BOD5 BOD/COD COD COD out BOD5 out org. load odourless desludging sludge sludge
removal removal removal BOD5 on limit of interval accum. volume
rate rate total vol. org. load
9 calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. calcul.
10 % factor % mg/l mg/l g/m*d g/m*d months l/g BOD m
11 98% 1.03 96 88 17 36 263 60 0.0023 881
12
13 dimensions biogas potential
14 water depth of total area width of total number of length of methane non- potential
volume pond of pond ponds length of ponds each pond content dissolv. biogas
pond if equal methane product.
prod.
15 calcul. chosen required chosen calcul. chosen calcul. assumed assumed calcul.
16 m m m m m number m ratio ratio m/d
17 5.200 2.5 2.432 20.00 212.62 2 60.81 70% 50% 124.29
18

Table 32:
Spreadsheet is the same as Table 31,
but is used to calculate dimensions of
anaerobic-fermentation pond with long HRT

269
10 Designing DEWATS

10.2.10 Aerobic pond

Volume of flow and pollution load are the basic entries for calculation. Key
chosen parameter is the desired effluent quality (BODout, cell F5). The HRT
required to achieve a certain BOD-removal rate depends on the temperature.
The curve (Picture 10_29) shows this relationship for a 90% BOD-removal rate.

Picture 10_28 shows how HRT changes with altering treatment performance,
defined as BOD-removal rate at 25C.

Sludge production may be high in aerobic ponds, due to dead algae sinking to
the bottom. According to Suwarnarat 1.44g TS can be expected from 1g BOD5.
Assuming a 20% total-solids content in compressed bottom sludge and a 50%
reduction of volume due to anaerobic stabilisation, almost 4mm of bottom sludge
per gram BOD5/md organic load would accumulate during one year. At loading
rates of 15g BOD5/md, approximately 6cm of sludge is expected per year.
Since the surface area plays the major role for dimensioning, the sludge volume
has been neglected in the calculation.

270
 BOD/m*d
40
35
30
25
Picture 10_27:
20
Maximum organic
15 load in relation to
10 temperature for
aerobic-facultative
5
oxidation ponds;
0 the influence of
10 15 20 25 30
sunshine hours has
temperature in C
been included

HRT factor
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
Picture 10_28
0.40 Influence of desired
BOD removal on
0.20
70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% HRT in aerobic-
BODrem. facultative ponds,
based on 25C

HRT in days
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
Picture 10_29:
15.0 Influence of tem-
10.0 perature on BOD
removal in aerobic-
5.0
facultative ponds,
0.0 based on desired
10 15 20 25 30 35
BOD removal of
temperature C
90%

271
10 Designing DEWATS

Formulas of spreadsheet for calculation of aerobic pond

D5 = B5 / C5

G5 = 1 - (F5 / C5)

H5 = G5 x 1 / IF (G5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (G5 < 0.75; (G5 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 +1.06;
IF (G5 < 0.85; 1.125 - (G5 - 0.75) x 0.1 / 0.1; 1.025)))

The formula refers to Picture 10_3.

I5 = B5 - H5 x B5

J5 = IF (G5 < 0.8; (G5 - 0.7) x 0.05 / 0.1 + 0.37; IF (G5 < 0.9; (G5 - 0.8) x 0.54 / 0.1 + 0.46;
(G5 - 0.9) x 0.48 / 0.05 + 1))

The formula refers to Picture 10_28.

K5 = J5 x IF (E5 < 15; 39 - (E5 - 10) x 10 / 5; IF (E5 < 20; 29 - (E5 - 15) x 7/5;
IF (E5 < 25; 22 - (E5 - 20) x 6 / 5; IF (E5 < 30; 16 - (E5 - 25) x 4 / 5; 12))))

The formula refers to Picture 10_29.

A11 = 30 x A5 x (C5 - F5) x A12 x L5 / 1000

B11 = IF (E5 < 17; (E5 - 10) x 7.5 / 7.5 + 7.5; (E5 - 17) x 23 / 13 + 14)

The formula refers to Picture 10_27.

C11 = A5 x C5 / (F11 x G11 x H11)

E11 = IF (IF (F11 = 1; 1; IF (F11 = 2; 1 / 1.1;

IF (F11 = 3; 1 / 1.14; 1 / 1.16))) x (A11 + A5 x K5) / D11 > C5 x A5 / B11; IF (F11 = 1; 1;
IF (F11 = 2; 1 / 1.1; IF (F11 = 3; 1 / 1; 14; 1/1.16))) x (A11 + A5 x K5) / D11; C5 x A5 / B11)

The first part of the formula considers the influence of dividing the total pond area into
several ponds. The second part compares permitted organic load with calculated HRT.

H11 = E11 / F11 / G11

I11 = A5 / D11

K11 = I11 / J11

L11 = I11 + F11 x E11

A12 = 0.0075 x IF (L5 < 36; 1 - L5 x 0.014; IF (L5 < 120; 0.5 - (L5 - 36) x 0.002; 1 / 3))

272
 inlet
outlet

polishing
9,00 1. pond 2. pond 3. pond 5,00
pond Picture 10_30:
Illustration to
spreadsheet for
the calculation
of dimensions of
9,55 9,55 9,55 4,44 aerobic-facultative
ponds

A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spreadsheet on aerobic-facultative ponds, input and treatment data
2 daily COD in BOD5 in COD/ min. BOD5 out BOD COD COD out BOD5 HRT de-
flow BOD5 water (wanted) removal removal removal sludging
temp. factor for interval
HRT
3 given given calcul. calcul. given chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen

4 m/d mg/l mg/l mg/l C mg/l % % mg/l % days months

5 20 500 170 2.94 20 30 82 78 108 0.59 12.9 12

6 0.05 - 1.0

7 dimensions of aerobic-facultative ponds polishing pond 1 day HRT total

8 accum. permit actual depth of total number width of length area of width of length area of
sludge org. org. load ponds pond of main ponds of each polish polish of polish all ponds
volume load (BOD5) area ponds ponds pond pond pond
BOD5

9 calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. chosen chosen calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. calcul.

10 m g/m*d g/m*d m m No m m m m m m

11 6.3 19.3 13.2 0.9 258 3 9.00 9.55 22 5.00 4.44 796

12 0.00624 l/g BOD 0.9 - 1.2 m

Table 33:
Spreadsheet for calculating
dimensions of aerobic-
facultative ponds

273
10 Designing DEWATS

10.3 Spreadsheets for costings

General background

This chapter helps the reader to produce his or her own tool for calculating annual
DEWATS costs. Since economic calculations always incorporate the unknown
future, they are never exact. However, it would be reckless to invest in DEWATS
without prior economic evaluation. The spreadsheet helps one to calculate annual
expenditure, including capital costs, operational costs and maintenance. Expected
income from biogas or the sale of sludge for fertiliser may be deducted. To use
the spreadsheet, the following data must be collected:
planning costs, including transport to site and laboratory costs for initial
wastewater analysis
investment costs of buildings, site work and equipment
assumed maintenance and operating costs
rate of interest (minus inflation rate)
wastewater data to calculate possible benefits and to compare cost per
amount of treated wastewater

274
Formulas of spreadsheet annual costs of DEWATS

D5 = SUM (A5 : C5)

I5 = SUM (D5 : H5)

J5 = SUM (G9 : K9) + E13 - J13

K5 = SUM (H9 : K9) + E13 - J13

F9 = 1 + E9

G9 = E5 x E9

H9 = (F5 + D5) x (POWER (F9; 20)) x (F9 - 1) / (POWER (F9; 20) -1)

This and the following formulas are financial standard operations;

the mathematcal expression is:

I9 = G5 x (POWER (F9; 10)) x (F9 - 1) / (POWER (F9; 10) -1)

The mathematical expression is:

J9 = H5 x (POWER (F9; 6)) x (F9 - 1) / (POWER (F9; 6) -1)

The mathematical expression is:

K9 = SUM (G9 : J9) + E13 - J13

E13 = A13 + B13 + C13 + D13

F13 = A9 x (B9 -D9) x 0.35 x 0.5 / 0.7 / 1000

The formula assumes 350l produced biogas per kg COD removed.

H13 = F13 x 70% x G13 x 0.85 x 360

J13 = H13 + I13

275
10 Designing DEWATS

1 Calculating of annual costs of DEWATS

2 planning and site supervision cost investment cost total annual cost

A B C D E F G H I J K
3 salaries transport cost for total cost of main secondary equipment total in- total an- total
for and waste- planning plot incl. structures structures and parts vestment nual cost annual
planning allowance water cost site of 20 years of 10 years of 6 years cost (incl. (including cost
and super- for analysis includ. prepara- durability durability durability land and land) (excluding
vision visiting or overheads tion planning) land)
staying at and
site acquisition
4 I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c. I.c.

5 1,200 650 500 2,350 150,000 295,000 9,000 3,000 459,350 74,359 62,359

6 wastwater data annual capital costs

7 daily strength COD/ strength of rate of interest on on main on secon- on total

waste- of BOD ratio waste- interest factor investment structures dary equip- capital
water flow waste- of inflow water in % p.a. q=1+i for land of 20 years structures ment of costs
water outflow (bank rate lifetime of 10 years 6 years
inflow minus (incl. plan- lifetime lifetime
inflation) ning fees)

8 m/d mg/l COD mg/l mg/l COD % I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year

9 20 3,000 2 450 8% 1.08 12,000 30,286 1,341 649 37,179

10 operational cost income from biogas and other sources explanat.

11 cost of cost of cost of cost of total daily price 1 annual other total l.c. = local
personal material power treatment operatio- biogas litre of income annual income currency;
for for (e.g. cost additives nal cost production kerosene from income or per mg/l = g/m
operation, operation, for (e.g. (70% CH4, (1m biogas savings annum
mainten. mainten. pumping) chlorine) 50% CH4=0.85 l p.a. (e.g. fertili-
and repair and repair dissolved) kerosene) ser, fees))
12 I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year m/d I.c./litre I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year

13 100 100 50 0 250 12.75 2.69 7,347 0 7,347

Table 34:
Spreadsheet for the economic calculation of DEWATS (based on annual costs).

276
Viability of using biogas

Whether using biogas is economically viable depends on the additional invest-

ments to facilitate storage, transport and utilisation of biogas and, if these costs
can be recovered by the income generated by biogas production within a reasona-
ble time. The payback period is considered to be an adequate indicator of viability.

Formulas of spreadsheet viability of biogas

B4 = 6.5% x A4

For rough calculation, it is assumed that additional construction costs are 6.5% of original costs,
which includes investment for making the reactor roof gas-tight, providing additional volume for
gas storage, and for gas distribution and supply pipes.

D4 = 50% x C4

To guarantee permanent gas supply, additional care must be taken at the site; it is assumed that
operational costs are 50% higher than without biogas use.

F4 = B4 / (E4 - D4)

Negative values show that costs will never be recovered.

A B C D E F
1 Economic viability of using biogas Table 35:
2 investment additional operational additional income from pay back Spreadsheet for
cost without constr. cost cost without operational biogas period of calculating the
use of biogas to facilitate use of biogas cost to use additional cost viability of
use of biogas biogas necessary
measures to
3 I.c. I.c. I.c./year I.c./year I.c./year years
facilitate biogas
4 307,000 19,955 250 125 3,650 5.7 utilisation

277
10 Designing DEWATS

10.4 Using spreadsheets without a computer

Not everybody uses a computer; some may not even have access to one. But,
computer formulas may also be useful to those who usually work with a pocket
calculator. The following explanations are presented for them. The calculation for
the septic tank (see Table 36) is a good example:

A computer table is made up of cells. The location of each cell within the table is
described by columns A.....X, AA...AX, etc. and rows 1.....>1000. Each cell within
the table, therefore, has an exact address. For example, the first cell in the top
left corner has the address A1 (column A, row 1). In the table below, cell J10
reads m/d and cell D5 reads 633. Cell I11 reads 23.25; this figure is the result of
a formula hidden under it. On the computer, the formula appears in the head-
line every time one clicks on the cell. These formulas can also be applied without
a computer, in connection with the various graphs. One must realise, however,
that the computer writing differs from normal mathematical writing in some
points: for example, 4/(32) is written as = 4/3/2 on the computer, and 42/3
may be written either 4*2/3 or 4/3*2.

278
 A B C D E F G H I J

1 General spreadsheet for septic tank, input and treatment data

2 daily time of max. flow COD BOD5 HRT inside settleable COD COD BOD5
waste- most at peak inflow inflow tank SS/COD removal outflow outflow
water waste- hours ratio rate
flow water
flow
3 given given calcul. given given chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 m/day h m/h mg/l mg/l h mg/l % mg/l mg/l
5 13.0 12 1.08 633 333 18 0.42 35 411 209
6 COD/BOD5 -> 1.90 12 - 24 0.35 - 0.45 domestic BOD rem. -> 1.06
7 dimensions of septic tank
8 deslud- inner min. water inner length of first length of second volume actual biogas
ging width of depth chamber chamber incl. volume of 70% CH4
interval septic tank at outlet sludge septic tank 50% dis-
point solved
9 chosen chosen chosen requir. chosen requir. chosen requir. check calcul.
10 months m m m m m m m m m/d
11 12 2.50 2.00 3.13 3.10 1.56 1.55 23.46 23.25 0.72
12 sludge l/g BOD rem. 0.0042

Table 36:
Sample spreadsheet used to help understand computer formulas

279
10 Designing DEWATS

Cell A5 and all other bold written figures contain information to be collected and
do not comprise formulas. The cells with hidden formulas are these:

C5 = A5 / B5

Meaning: 13.0 [m/d] / 12 [hours] = 1.08 [m/hours]

H5 = G5 / 0.6 x IF (F5 < 1; F5 x 0.3; IF (F5 < 3; (F5 - 1) x 0.1 / 2 + 0.3;

IF (F5 < 30; (F5 - 3) x 0.15 / 27 + 0.4; 0.55)))

Meaning: (0.42 [mg/l / mg/l] / 0.6 [a given factor found by experience]) multiplied by the value ta-
ken from Picture 10_6 at 18 hours HRT (shown in cell F5).

The calculation is, therefore:

(0.42 / 0.6) 0.495 = 0.35 = 35% (which is shown in cell H5)

I5 = (1 - H5) x D5
(1 - 0.35) 633 = 411 (shown in cell I5)

J5 = (1 - H5 x J6) x E5
(1 - 0.35 1.06) 333

E6 = D5 / E5
633 / 333 = 1.90

J6 = IF (H5 < 0.5; 1.06; IF (H5 < 0.75; (H5 - 0.5) x 0.065 / 0.25 + 1.06;
IF (H5 < 0.85; 1.125 - (H5 - 0.75) x 0.1 / 0.1; 1.025)))

This formula refers to Picture 10_3. Since cell H5 (the removal rate) is 35%, the value of cell J6 is
found in the graph and equals 1.06.

280
 D11 = 2/3 x H11 / B11 / C11
((2/3) 23.46 ) / (2.50 2.00) = 3.13

F11 = D11 / 2
3.13 / 2 = 1.56

H11 = IF (H12 x (E5 - J5) / 1000 x A11 x 30 x A5 + C5 x F5 < 2 x A5 x F5 / 24; 2 x A5 x F5 / 24;

H12 x (E5 - J5) / 1000 x A11 x 30 x A5 + C5 x F5) + 0.2 x B11 x E11

The formula refers via cell H12 to Picture 10_5; cell H12 must be calculated first. The formula H11
states that the total volume must be at least twice the sludge volume. One has to check whether
the total volume must be calculated via the hydraulic retention time or via the double sludge volume.

The total volume equals the sludge volume, which is 0.0042 (333 - 209) 12 30 [days/month] x
13.0 / 1000, plus the volume of water, which is 1.08 18 = 21.88m. This is compared to 2 13.0
18 / 24 [hours/day], which equals 19.50 m. Since 21.88 is the larger of the two, it must be used.
Finally, the volume of 20cm of scum must be added, which is 0.2 2.50 3.10 = 1.55. The total
volume is 21.88 + 1.55 =23.43 (the computer is slightly more exact and states 23.46m in cell H11.

I11 = (E11 + G11) x C11 x B11

(3.10 + 1.55) 2.00 2.50 = 23.25m

J11 = (D5 - I5) x A5 x 0.35 / 1000 / 0.7 x 0.5

(633 - 411) 13.0 0.35 0.5 / (1000 0.7) = 0.72m

H12 = 0.005 x IF (A11 < 36; 1 - A11 x 0.014; IF (A11 < 120; 0.5 - (A11 - 36) x 0.002; 1/3))

The last formula refers to Picture 10_5. The desludging interval is 12 months (cell A11), which
results in a value of approximately 80% in the graph; this figure is multiplied by the sludge-
production figure of 0.005.

The calculation is, therefore:

0.8 0.005 = 0.004 (the computer calculates 0.0042).

281
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

The other components of DEWATS and DEWATS/CBS systems along the

sanitation chain before and after the wastewater treatment are:
toilets
collection systems
reuse and disposal systems, including sludge treatment
and biogas applications
construction management
management of operation & maintenance
health and hygiene behaviour

Community-Based Sanitation System

To improve health and enviroment of communities

Hygiene behaviour
Options
components
O&M To raise awareness and sustain
Options
management hygienic behaviour

To maintain the sanitation services operational Construction

Options
management
Disposal / reuse To construct the required infrastructure
Options
components
To utilise re-use potential and discharge Treatment
Options
cleansed wastewater components
Picture 11_1
Collection To cleanse the wastewater
Community-Based
Options
Sanitation System: component
technical options To carry the wastewater away
Toilet
Options
along the sanitation components
chain To get the wastewater out of the home

Each component presents a wide range of possible technical options. To select

the most appropriate solution for a location, the options must be assessed with the
help of various criteria, such as capacity, costs, self-help compatibility, operation &
maintenance, replication potential, reliability, convenience and efficiency.
While operational and process related issues are dealt with in chapters 5 and 6,
this chapter presents technical options for toilets, collection systems, sludge
accumulation and treatment, the reuse of wastewater and sludge as well as biogas
utilisation.

282
11.1 Toilets

When communities use hygiene and sanitation methods that fit their real needs
and abilities, they will enjoy better health. In most cases, the toilet component is
the users prime concern. There are many reasons why users might prefer one
sanitation option over another, beside, health, better water supplies or improved
hygiene:
Privacy the need for privacy makes it important for a toilet to have a good
shelter. Providing a door or enclosed entrance, or constructing it away from
busy locations, makes the toilet nicer to use
Safety a poorly constructed toilet can be dangerous to use. If it is far from
the home, women may be in danger of sexual violence. A toilet must be well-
built and in a safe location
Comfort people prefer to use a toilet with a comfortable place to sit or
squat, and a shelter large enough to stand up and move around in.
Children, the elderly or people with disabilities have special needs to
permit comfortable use
Cleanliness no one wants to use a dirty and smelly toilet. Toilet areas should
be well-lit and ventilated. Easy-to-clean surfaces and cleary defined of cleaning
responsibilities help to ensure that toilets are well-kept
Respect a well-kept toilet brings status and respect to its owner; this may
be an important reason for people to spend money and effort to build one

The following section describes a selection of possible toilets from common,

hazardous models to recommended options. No one toilet design is right for
every community or household. It is important, therefore, to understand the
benefits and risks of each and to adapt designs to suit local conditions and
cultural preferences.

283
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.1.1 Common practices to be discouraged

Open defecation

The lacking of sanitation facilities forces large parts of the worlds population to
defecate openly. Depending on the location, refuge is sought in the forest, jungle,
lakes, rivers or the ocean. Apart from lacking privacy and the obvious associated
hygienic-health risks, open defecation places humans in a vulnerable situation.
Women and children can easily become targets of sexual abuse or violence. In
many cases, parents also worry about the safety of their children, because of
poisonous snakes or other potential dangers in the bush or jungle.

Picture 11_2 and 11_3:

Residents returning
from distant open-
defecation areas;
a bush toilet

284
Overhang latrine

Overhung latrines are usually built from bamboo or wood and sited above the
surface of water bodies (such as rivers, ponds or lakes). Excreta fall directly into
the water, where they are decomposed. Usually it is a public facility, which serves
an entire or part of a community. This type of latrine pollutes the receiving water
body, which can no longer be used as a fresh-water source (exceptions may
include very rural settings with large or fast-moving water bodies). Furthermore,
the system is usually inconvenient, as it is located away from settlements.
The exposed location affords users with little privacy.

Picture 11_4:
Overhang latrine

285
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.1.2 Closed pit toilets

Closed pit toilets are very common in developing countries and are always located
outside the house.

They consist of a deep pit, which is covered by a platform with a shelter. The plat-
form has a hole in it and a lid to cover the hole when it is not in use. The platform
can be made of wood, concrete, or logs covered with earth. Concrete platforms
help to keep water out of the pit and are very durable. A closed pit toilet should
have a lining or concrete-ring beam to prevent the platform or the pit itself from
collapsing. The average pit depth of 3m is usually limited by the groundwater
table or rocky underground. The underground of the latrine should be water
pervious. Dry anal cleansing is advantageous to minimise water content. No
sullage treatment is included.

The latrine can be used until it is filled up to half a metre below the top; its life-
time depends on the number of users and pit size. At that point, space is required
for emptying for the pit which is to be discouraged for hygienic reasons or re-
location of the toilet.

To prevent groundwater pollution and increased health risks, pit toilets are only
suitable in flood-free areas, where the highest seasonal groundwater table lies
well below the floor of the pit. The system has a large potential for odour, insects
and hygiene hazards, especially if not cleaned regularly.

286
Ventilated improved pit toilets (VIP)

The VIP toilet is a kind of closed pit toilet that reduces smells and flies.
The design and applicability is the same as for a normal pit latrine made of a
latrine superstructure, a pit-cover slab and a lid-covered hole for defecation. The
only difference is the ventilation pipe, provided with a durable fly-screen on the
top and reaching high above neighbouring roof-tops. A dark-coloured ventilation
pipe should be chosen, to promote convection, or upwards air-flow within the
pipe. A disadvantage of VIP latrines is that the toilet room must be kept relatively
dark to encourage flies to travel towards the light at the end of the ventilation
pipe, where they are trapped and die at the fly-screen. Good maintenance of the
screen is important to ensure convenience and healthy conditions. Dry anal clean-
sing is advantageous to minimise water content. No sullage treatment is included.
It is common to relocation the latrine after the pit is full.

Shallow (composting) pit toilets for tree planting

The design is similar to that of a VIP latrine made of a latrine superstructure,

a pit cover slab with ventilation pipe and a lid-covered hole for defecation. The
system is better at reducing the risk of groundwater pollution when compared to
other closed pit toilets because the pit is very shallow (maximum depth of 0.5 to
1m). It thereby ensures that the faecal matter is contained within the biologically
active upper soil zone, where it can be decomposed.

Vent Pipe

Excreta Pit Lining Pit Lining Excreta

Pit
Pit
Picture 11_5:
Standard pit and
VIP latrine

287
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

When the pit fills, the toilet house, including the concrete slab, is moved to a
neighbouring location and a tree is planted on the site of the first pit. Shallow pit
toilets are most appropriate where there is space and people want to plant trees.
They can be constructed in locations where rocky underground prevents the
digging of deeper pits.

The design can be improved by installing a urine separation pan with a collection
container, in sandy-soil conditions, to avoid nitrogen infiltration. The system is not
suitable in areas with a rocky surface, extremely high groundwater or flooding.

Picture 11_6 to 11_9:

Shallow (compo-
sting) pit toilets for
tree planting.
Source: Stockholm
Environment
Institute, 2004

288
11.1.3 Composting toilets

Composting toilets retain faeces and urine and turn them into soil conditioner and
fertiliser. Sitting or squatting models are available.

The composting latrine consists of a squatting plate, which is placed over a

watertight vault usually constructed above the soil. The vault is ventilated through
a pipe, which extends above the surrounding rooftops and has a fly-screen at the
top. To support the composting process it is necessary to add dry organic material,
such as straw, leaves, sawdust, soil or vegetable waste, at daily intervals. This
reduces smells and helps the waste to break down. Different techniques can be
applied to reduce the water content, thus guaranteeing optimal aerobic conditions.
Under the right conditions, the mix will heat up, thereby killing most germs,
including roundworm eggs (the hardest to kill). After sufficient treatment time
(usually one year), the composted material is removed for use as a fertiliser. To
be safe, it is best to mix it into a compost pile, where it will break down more.
Then it can be mixed into the soil for planting.

Due to the importance of the moisture content in the chamber, composting

latrines are only suitable for communities using dry cleansing material or with
separate wash-water drainage and treatment. Since the water content within
the vault must be monitored, the users must fully understand and appreciate
the process to ensure proper operation of the system without odour or insect
nuisance.
The toilet is normally located outside the house and can be used for many years,
if operated properly. The system is convenient in rural areas where composting is
traditionally practised. No sullage treatment is included.

A variation of the system includes two vaults, which are alternately in use. While
one vault is being used, the content of the other is topped up with 30cm of soil
and covered with a concrete slab. With time, the contents are dehydrated through
evaporation and decomposed by micro-organisms. When the second pit is full,
the odourless and partially disinfected compost can be removed from the first pit.
If it is still wet and smells, further composting or storage in a dry place is advised.
Wear gloves, and wash hands after handling the fresh fertiliser.

289
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.1.4 Dry, urine-diversion toilets

Dry, urine-diversion toilets combine toilet house and treatment facility into one
above-ground structure. They can be located inside the house, attached to it or
left as a free-standing unit in the yard. Urine and faeces are collected separately
by special toilet models of various designs. Sitting and squatting models are
available.

The super-structure is elevated to create sufficiently sized faeces-storage volume

below the cover slab. These storage chambers are waterproofed to ensure dry
conditions, even in the case of heavy rain or flooding.

The key to successful operation is the fast dehydration of the faeces. Laying
bamboo, cornstalks, branches or other dry plant matter on the floor of the cham-
ber before initial use facilitates the drying process. Furthermore, a handful of
ashes, sawdust or dry soil sprinkled over the faeces after defecation will to
absorb moisture and avoid fly breeding.

Picture 11_10 and 11_11:

Selection of urine-
diversion and,
squatting toilet
models

290
A ventilation pipe, which extends above the surrounding rooftops and has a
fly-screen at the top, causes a constant draft into the toilet, thereby drying the
faeces and avoiding smell. Ventilation is increased by using black chamber-access
doors facing the sun.

From the separation toilets, urine can be led to collection containers. If collected,
it should be treated by air-tight storage for three to six months before being
diluted 10 to 1 with water and used as a liquid fertiliser rich in phosphorous and
nitrogen. Alternatively, urine together with water used for anal cleansing can
be led into an evapo-transpiration reed-bed next to the toilet house. Its plants are
cut back periodically, chopped into small pieces and added to the processing vault
after drying. Good experiences with the system have been reported in South
India, even in humid conditions. The traditional Vietnamese double-vault toilet
works in the same way but only in combination with dry anal cleansing and urine
utilisation for agriculture purposes.

Picture 11_12 and 11_13:

Selection of urine-
diversion and,
squatting toilet
models

291
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Faecal storage and treatment can be practised with two possible systems:

a) Two-chamber system: the compartment below the toilet is divided into two
chambers. When one chamber is full, it is closed and the second one is used.
When the second is full, the first is emptied. The toilet model either has two
faecal openings (one leading to each chamber), or the toilet bowl can be
removed and turned around to use the other chamber.
b) Storage receptacles: the compartment below the toilet contains several contai-
ners. Plastic bins or locally produced reed-baskets can be used. When one of
the containers fills, the chamber is accessed and the full container is replaced
with an empty one. The full container remains in the compartment. When all
storage capacity has been exhausted, the full container with the longest
storage time is removed and emptied. Reed-baskets are perfect if further
composting is desired.

Access to the faeces chamber can be through a water-tight door, a concrete

slab or a temporary hole (weak mortar brickwork) in the chamber wall.

The system is suitable for all geographical conditions particularly in regions with
water scarcity, high groundwater table, flooding or rocky soil. Implementation
requires the users to have intensive training. It is not recommended for public
or communal toilets, as there is a high risk of misuse.

11.1.5 Pour-flush toilets

Pour-flush toilets are very common; sitting and squatting models are available.
Excreta are washed away with approximately 0.5 to 2 litres of water poured
into the pan with a scoop. These toilets should only be applied,therefore, where
adequate amounts of flush water are available. Since they have a water seal
against odours and insects, pour flush-toilets can be located within the house,
if desired. Where water is required for anal cleansing, pour-flush toilets are
particularly suitable because the same water can be used for flushing. As no
complex mechanical devices are needed for operation, the toilets are robust and
rarely require repair. Since water is available near and in the toilet, cleaning is
very easy.

292
Pour-flush toilets use a plastic, fibreglass, or cement bowl or squatting pan set
into a concrete platform. The concrete platform can either be placed directly over
a pit, or it can be connected by pipe to one or two pits. Alternatively, the pipes
can feed into a wastewater-collection system or directly into other treatment units
(i.e. septic tank).

Pour-flush toilets with one leach pit

Single leach pits are made of a latrine superstructure and a WC pan with a water
seal. A collection pipe, 100mm in diameter, is laid at a gradient of at least 1 in
20, if the pit is off-set. The wastewater is discharged into a pit lined with water-
pervious brick or stone work. Pits should be covered with reinforced-concrete
slabs, stone slabs or wooden planks, secured against mischief by children.

Picture 11_14:
Pour-flush toilet

Picture 11_15:
Pour-flush toilet
with one leach pit

293
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Pour-flush toilet with single leach pit

One-pit pour flush toilets can only be used until it the pit is full. A five-headed
family will fill a lined pit of two metre depth and 1 meter diameter in approxi-
mately 5 years and emptying is required before continued use is possible.
Desludging should be provided by professional service providers to minimise
health risks. It is easier if the pit is off-set and not directly under the super-
structure. Pour flush pit toilets should be applied only in flood-free areas, where
the highest seasonal groundwater table lies at least 3m below ground level.

Pour-flush toilet with two leach pits

When there are two pits, a valve directs the wastewater to the pit currently in
use. The first pit is used until it is nearly full. Then waste is diverted into the
second pit. Soil is added to the first pit and its contents are left to settle for at
least two years, then it can be emptied without any great risk of illness from
germs.

For a family of five, two pits measuring one metre deep and one metre in
diameter would need alternating approximately every three years. The distance
between the pits should be at least the same as the depth of the pits.
Pour-flush pit toilets are only appropriate in flood-free areas, where the
highest seasonal groundwater table is more than 3m below ground level.

Picture 11_16:
Pour flush toilet
with two leach pits
(toilet house shown
without door)

294
Pour-flush toilet with individual septic tank and French-drain gravel filter

Pour-flush toilets can also lead the wastewater into a small on-site treatment
facility. Septic tanks are watertight containers, which provide primary treatment
by separating, retaining and partially digesting settleable and floatable solids in
wastewater. Septic-tank effluent must receive proper secondary treatment before
being discharged to the groundwater or surface water bodies. Directly ensuing
soakage pits should not be applied, if the vertical distance from the bottom of the
soakage pit to the highest seasonal groundwater is less than 1.5 metres. In these
cases, septic tanks can be combined with French-drain filters or equivalent treat-
ment. Septic tanks accumulate sludge which must be emptied after approximate-
ly five years and treated separately.

French-drain filters are simplified horizontal, gravel filters for on-site sanitation
where there are space constraints and a high groundwater table. They provide
simple filtration and anaerobic treatment, where high groundwater tables prevent
direct septic-tank effluent infiltration. At the end of the French-drain filter, water is
infiltrated to the soil though a plant-bed.

Picture 11_17 to 11_20:

Construction of a
French-drain filter,
connecting a plastic
septic tank with a
plant-bed

295
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Pour-flush toilet attached to wastewater-collection system

Since pour-flush toilets operate with water, the waste can be washed into a local
wastewater-collection system, which transfers the excreta to a centralised or
decentralised-treatment facility. For more details on wastewater-collection
systems, please refer to section 11.2.

11.1.6 Community toilet blocks

Community toilet blocks usually consist of a number of toilet compartments.

A large variety of available superstructure options can also include bathrooms,
public water-points and laundry facilities.

Each toilet should not be shared by more than six households or 25 people.
Integrated concepts can include treatment options such as septic tanks or baffled
reactors. Community toilets are a suitable CBS option in settlements where the
majority of the households dont have toilets. For convenience, communal toilet
blocks should be no further than 50 metres walk.

Past experience has shown that maintaining and operating community toilets pro-
perly is a major obstacle for their sustainability. User fees are a must to finance
routine operation and maintenance services, which ought to be carried out by
permanent or part-time O & M staff employed by community groups or private-
service providers.

Picture 11_21 and

11_22:
Community
toilet blocks

296
11.2 Collection systems

11.2.1 Rainwater drains

Systems with open ditches for discharging rainwater are quite common in the
urban areas of developing countries. The ditches usually drain rainwater into rivers
or, sometimes, into agricultural-irrigation canals. The unauthorised discharge of
domestic waste or drainage of sullage through such a system is a health hazard
and should be discouraged.

Covered rainwater drains

Covered rainwater drains are often used to collect wastewater in areas which lack
conventional sewerage systems. Drains are covered by concrete slabs to stop
them being blocked up by litter and to prevent people from coming in contact
with their contents. So that rainwater can enter the system, periodic inlets in the
drain covers are required. Theoretically, connected treatment plants would have
to be designed for the purification of combined flows rainwater and domestic
wastewater which requires a very high treatment capacity and investment.
Such systems present a temporary solution, where no other system of waste-
water collection is available, but it should be replaced by an improved system as
soon as possible. The system smells, promotes insect breeding and remains a
health hazard.

Picture 11_23:
Open and closed
rainwater drains

297
 11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.2.2 Conventional gravity sewerage

In conventional gravity sewerage, domestic wastewater flows to a treatment

facility via a system of concrete pipes. The system consists of house connec-
tions, which lead to a reticulation sewer line, normally laid beneath the main
roads. There are inspection manholes every 70m along the route.

Picture 11_24 and 11_25:

Conventional gravity
sewerage systems:
11_24: no stormwater
connection to main
sewer
11_25: stormwater
connected to (bigger)
main sewer

So that the system can be cleaned, the minimum diameter is usually 200mm (D).
To avoid solids deposit, minimum velocity of 0.5m/s is required. The maximum
velocity should not exceed 6 to 8m/s. The necessary gradient of the pipes is, in
part influenced by their diameter. In preliminary design, the gradient (IS) can be
estimated through the equation IS=1/D. In flat areas, conventional sewer systems
can demand very deep and expensive excavation. To avoid excessively deep
sewers in large systems, it is necessary to use either a flushing tank or construct
a pumping station. In Europe, pipes are usually laid at a minimum depth of 1.5 to
2.0m to guarantee load rating suitable for normal traffic as well as frost protection.

The maintenance of the reticulation system plus the operation and maintenance
of possible pumping stations make up the operating costs.

298
Combined gravity sewerage

In combined gravity sewerage, domestic wastewater flows to a treatment facility

together with collected rain- or stormwater, in a similar system to the conventional
gravity sewerage. However, since the system must be designed to handle peak
flow, much bigger pipe diameters are required for the mixed flow; diameters in
the range of 300 to 1,200mm are common. Furthermore, inlets for rainwater from
roof and street run-off are necessary.

Just because such gravity systems are currently considered the standard solution
in most developed countries, does not mean that the conventional or the com-
bined sewerage system is the optimal solution under all conditions. Engineers
should compare all feasible options on an economic and technical basis.

Seperated gravity sewerage

As shown in Picture 11_24, stormwater is not collected together with domestic

wastewater but drained seperately. This is today's preferred solution.
Wastewater-treatment systems are prevented from stormwater shock loads.
The advantages are twofold:
the biology of the treatment system will be kept stable and does not have
to adapt to different concentrations of wastewater (dilution)
the wastewater-treatment system does not have to be oversized
in terms of treatment volume (due to hydraulic peak loads)

11.2.3 Simplified gravity sewerage

Simplified gravity-sewerage systems function like their conventional, larger coun-

terparts. But the design criteria for construction have been simplified so that they
just comply with minimum hydraulic requirements. As a result, the pipes made
from plastic or concrete have smaller diameters and are usually laid at a flatter
gradient and a shallower depth. The system can also cope with fewer inspection
manholes. Although the costs are reduced, there is an increased probability of
malfunction, resulting in more intensive operation and maintenance work.

299
 11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Condominial gravity sewerage

Condominial sewerage is usually based on a PVC-piping system with a minimum

diameter of 100mm, leading wastewater towards a nearby treatment facility
or towards another sewer network. Pipes are laid at a flat gradient and routed
through private land, such as frontyards, backyards (in-block) or pavements. So
the required tyre-load capacity is considerably less than for in-road systems.
Consequently, it is possible to lay the pipes at a shallow depth. Backyard and
frontyard systems require a minimum cover of 20cm, while cover under pave-
ment should be 40cm. Another advantage of backyard sewers is the reduced
piping length, resulting in reduced costs. Furthermore, shallow condominial
sewerage systems do not require large, expensive manholes.

Simple inspection chambers (located every 20m) and junction boxes at sewer
connection points are usually sufficient. As with all systems, whos responsible
for maintenance should be clearly defined.

Picture 11_26 and 11_27:

Backyard and front-
yard condominial
gravity sewerage

300
Small-bore sewerage

Small-bore systems, also called solid-free sewers, common effluent drains or

settled sewerage, receive the effluent from individual or shared household sep-
tic tanks. Hence, coarse solids are removed and only the liquid part of sewage en-
ters the sewerage system. Unlike conventional gravity systems, no self-cleansing
flow-velocity is required. As a result, small-bore sewers can be operated with less
water, allowing the connection of (low) flush toilets (including pour-flush) from
households served by a standpipe or yard tap. The pipes have smaller diameters.
Flow is driven by the elevation difference between inlet and outlet, and, therefo-
re, can be installed very close to the surface in all types of terrain and even allow
inflective gradients.

Simplified sewerage systems, the clogging and blocking of pipes is very unlikely,
because of the pre-treatment in septic tanks. This effectively reduces the amount
of maintenance needed on the piping system, although regular septic-tank
emptying is essential.

Raw Waste

Inflective Gradient

Interceptor Tank
Picture 11_28:
Small-bore
Effluent sewerage system

301
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

A 100mm-diameter pipe at a slope of at least 1:60 is required to connect the toilet

to the septic tank. The level of the tank should not be deeper than necessary, so
that the maximum potential energy (arising from its elevation) is available for the
flow in the main sewer. At the least the first two metres of the connecting pipe
from the septic tank to the plot boundary should have a diameter slightly smaller
(50mm diameter) than the sewer main. This reduces the risk of blockage in the
main sewer. Any misuse of the tank would then result in the plot-owner being
inconvenienced rather than the whole neighbourhood.

The small-bore sewer mains should consist of plastic pipe with a minimum dia-
meter of 100mm, installed at a depth of at least 300mm on plots, 1m on public
lands or roads, and 1.2m when crossing roads. Clean-out points should be located
at the upstream ends of the system, at the intersection of sewer lines, at major
changes of direction, high points, and intervals of 150 to 200m in long, flat sec-
tions. These provide access to the sewer inspection and flushing during sewer
cleaning. Manholes are not required.

Unlike conventional gravity sewers, small-bore sewers can alternate between

open channel and pressure flow, taking maximum advantage of the elevation
difference between the upstream and downstream ends of the sewer. Care
must be taken that the hydraulic grade line during peak flow does not rise above
the invert of the septic-tank outlets. If this is assured, the sewer may have low
points or dips and can curve to avoid objects. High points of the sewer should
be ventilated. As the sewer is not intended to carry solids, it is designed on
hydraulic considerations only.

Pumping stations are only required where elevation differences do not permit
gravity flow. If this is the case, permanent electricity supply and professional
maintenance services are required for sustainable operation.

Because of the nature of the effluent from the septic tanks, the effluent of small-
bore sewers is highly corrosive and odorous. If required, pumps and pump wells
should be protected against corrosion and odour emission.

302
11.2.4 Vacuum sewerage

Vacuum wastewater-collection systems save water by using air as the main trans-
port medium within the pipelines, by maintaining a low pressure of 0.6bar within
the sewer network with vacuum pumps. The sewerage lines can be installed very
close to the surface in all types of terrain and can even transport wastewater
around obstacles and up-hill. They require a power supply at one centralised lo-
cation. The system consists of three basic elements: collection chambers, sewer
network and a vacuum station.

Any type of (low-)flush toilet (including pour-flush) can be used. The wastewater
drains from the household to a collection chamber by gravity. These chambers are
not mechanised and can be located on or near the plot, and can receive waste-
water streams from several neighbouring households. When the wastewater in
the collection chamber reaches a certain level, an interface valve is triggered and
opens automatically without an external power supply. This valve connects the
collection chamber to the low-pressure sewer network. Together with the waste-
water, about six times more air will be sucked into the system. The air is used
as a transport medium for the wastewater, reaching transport velocities of
4 to 6m/s on the way to the vacuum vessel or pump sump in the vacuum
station. When the collection chamber is emptied, the interface valve closes
again. The pump sump is connected to a treatment facility.

Collection chambers must be made of watertight, smooth, corrosion-resistant

material and big enough to take 25% of the average daily flow. The pipe network
is made of PE-HD (polyethylene, high density) or PVC (polyvinyl chloride); both
can be electro-welded or solvent-welded (cemented). Only the short gravity
sewer from the house to the collection chamber must have a minimum diameter
of 100mm and be laid at 1:60 or steeper.

303
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

The minimum size of the vacuum sewer grid should be 90mm diameter. Pipelines
should be designed to withstand the internal suction pressure and temperature.
The minimum pressure rating of selected pipes should be 9bar.
The minimum cover of the main vacuum pipeline under roads should be only
1m and 1.2m. The vacuum sewer mains and branch connections should have iso-
lation valves ever 500m and 200m respectively.

Picture 11_29 to 11_31:

PE-HD vacuum
Pipe with individual
connection (left),
collection chamber
(centre), waste-
water collection,
water supply and
stormwater-drai-
nage pipes in one
trench (right)

Since the flushing velocity is provided by the suction pressure, the pipelines do
not require a downward slope, although they should have a minimum gradient
of 1 in 500; however, the pipes can even be laid uphill. Lifts or short, upward
sections of pipe can be used to ensure that the pipes do not have to be laid at
excessive depths or to avoid objects. It is recommended that the pipe should be
laid with a saw-tooth profile.

Since the whole system is watertight, it can be installed directly in the ground-
water table, in flood areas or in the same trench as water-supply lines. Unlike
gravity or small-bore sewer systems, vacuum sewer-pump capacities do not have
to meet the peak wet-weather flow. There is no infiltration, no exfiltration and no
groundwater contamination.

304
Routine maintenance checks of the network are not necessary, as a change in
system pressure will indicate problems. Inspection pipes, installed at distances
of approximately 100m permit the insertion of inflatable balls and precise location
of the problem. The vacuum station should be inspected every week, collection
chambers and vacuum vessel every year and the valve diaphragm in the collec-
tion chamber needs to be changed every five years.

Because of these technical maintenance requirements and energy-supply demands,

the system is not appropriate in all locations. But it can have advantages where
other systems are too costly or not feasible:
flat topography avoiding extensive installation excavation or lifting stations
rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table
areas short of water supply or poor communities that cannot afford the
amount of water necessary for operating of gravity systems at scour velocities
ecologically sensitive locations or flooding zones
areas with obstacles to a gravity sewer route
installation of new fresh-water network and sewerage pipes
in the same trench

Picture 11_32:
Design of vacuum
sewer layout
(saw-tooth profile).
Credit: RoeVac
Manual, Roediger
Vacuum GmbH,
Germany

305
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.3 Sludge accumulation and treatment

All organic-degradation processes produce certain amounts of biomass or sludge,

which gather at the bottom of treatment units. Sludge changes its properties
with time, due to the activity of micro-organisms and the degradation of organic
components. When organic degradation has been completed and all bio-chemical
reactions stop, the sludge has been stabilised. Stabilised sludge is less odorous
and easier to dewater and treat.

The speed of sludge production, and the sludges characteristics depend on the
wastewater quality, sludge-retention time and other treatment parameters. Under
certain conditions, there is no accumulation of sludge. A state of equilibrium
between sludge production and degradation is possible in an anaerobic environ-
ment with high temperatures, adequate microbial feed within the sludge and long
sludge-retention times. Under such conditions, 80% of the organic matter is con-
verted into biogas, while the remaining organic matter is pushed out in dissolved
form as effluent. Experience at existing DEWATS facilities in tropical regions, like
Indonesia, shows that well-designed and constructed anaerobic units avoid the
necessity of sludge removal.

In most locations, however, such boundary conditions cannot be guaranteed

and even well-designed DEWATS will accumulate sludge with time. This can be
caused by cooler temperatures (particularly below 15C) or wastewater with
higher mineral content. Under aerobic processes, due to the higher yield of
bacteria, about 50% of the COD is transformed into biomass. Under anaerobic
conditions, only about 5% of the COD is transformed into biomass, i.e. 90% less
sludge (from biomass) is produced. The transformation of COD is not rate related,
but yield or energy extraction related (stoichiometry, not kinetics).

The total mass of sludge is the sum of two components: non-biodegradable material
in the influent and biomass produced. Sludge originating from components in the
influent that can not be degraded will not be different in an aerobic or anaerobic
process.

306
Sludge accumulation leads to a reduction of capacity and retention time within a
treatment facility, ultimately resulting in inefficient treatment and the discharge
of hazardous wastewater. Neglect of regular sludge removal can lead to the
sludge mineralising at the bottom of the unit, until it reaches a consistency, which
makes removal impossible without an operational halt and total emptying of the
facility. To ensure adequate treatment and continuous operation, therefore, sludge
37 Sludge should
must be removed at appropriate intervals.37 remain within the
facility as long as
Sludge from domestic and husbandry wastewater is highly contaminated by possible, since
stabilised sludge
worm eggs and cysts. Practices like illegal sludge-dumping into rivers, lakes or is easier to handle
malfunctioning treatment plants pose a risk to human health and the environment. and dewater. At
Ensuring an infrastructure for safe removal, handling and treatment, therefore, the same time,
the sludge storage
should be an integral part of town or city planning and management. It must be
capacity must not
considered in the planning and construction of any wastewater-treatment facility. be exceeded to
ensure continuous
Sludge removal, drying, treatment, selling, reuse or disposal can either be treatment efficien-
cy. Sludge removal
practised directly by the operator of the wastewater-treatment facility or by a intervals depend
service provider. on the wastewater,
type of treatment
and storage capa-
city of the facility.
11.3.1 Sludge removal Conventional tank
design requires
sludge removal
Sludge removal should only be practised by trained personnel, as both the sludge
every half to three
and the gases within the facility present dangers. Particularly in anaerobic pro- years; ponds must
cesses, methane and H2S are produced, creating a risk of suffocation. Ventilation be emptied every
must be provided and open fire should be prohibited at the facility. Sludge settles one to twenty
years.
in layers. The top layers contain active micro-organisms, which provide treatment
by feeding on the wastewater, while the lower layers stabilise and become inactive
with time. The goal of desludging is to remove only the older, bottom sludge;
30 to 50cm of active sludge should remain to ensure continuous treatment
efficiency.

307
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Desludging can be done with buckets, by pumping or by hydraulic pressure.

Bucket removal is discouraged because it is impossible to withdraw only the

lower sludge layers. Handling poses health risks to the operators. If practised,
the workers should wear protective clothing by over their mouth, hands and
feet.
For pumping, free-flow rotary pumps are recommended to prevent clogging.
The pump head is lowered to the chamber floor to remove only the oldest
sludge. The pumped effluent should be visible; when the sludge becomes too
light in colour, pumping should be halted to give the sludge time to flow to the
mouth of the pump. Only black, stabilised sludge should be removed.
Hydraulic desludging is practised through installed pipes at the bottom of the
chamber with a diameter of at least 100 to 150mm diameter. The ductile con-
sistency of settled and compacted sludge requires the outlet of a 2.5m-long
pipe to be 0.35 to 0.50m below the normal wastewater outlet, to overcome
the hydraulic loss of 15 to 20%. Sludge flow is regulated with a gate valve,
which has a free opening of the full diameter, or by flexible pipes, which are
lowered to initiate desludging. When not in use, these flexible pipes should be
closed and locked to protect against smell and insects, while valves handles
should be removed to prevent children getting up to mischief.

11.3.2 Sludge treatment

The goals of sludge treatment are:

stabilisation
dewatering/dehydration and volume reduction
wastewater treatment of leachate or liquids
pathogen destruction
agricultural reuse or environmentally safe and hygienic disposal

308
Unstabilised sludge should not be dried or treated openly anywhere near where
people live because of bad odour and the nuisance from flies. The origin and pro-
perties of sludge, therefore, determine which treatment should be applied:
sludge from grease traps, settlers or septic tanks also called septage contains
relatively fresh waste and has a solid content below 1%. These substances
should be transported to nearby centralised treatment facilities for further stabi-
lisation before final sludge treatment. Organic industry sludge must be removed
quite frequently. Treatment in anaerobic digesters is recommended, due to its
high organic content and biogas potential.

Domestic DEWATS units produce small amounts of well-stabilised sludge with

good dewatering properties. In urban areas, the sludge shaved be transported
to an existing centralised treatment plant. Where this is not possible, two
sustainable treatment and disposal options have been identified:
Small-scale application: the stabilised sludge can be dried on sand-beds
either directly next to the DEWATS or at a more appropriate location and
eventually the sludge can be composted and turned into agriculturally valuable
humus
Large-scale application: the construction of a decentralised sludge-treatment
facility with DEWATS components. This option is only financially viable, if
there are enough DEWATS or on-site treatment plants in the area to provide
sufficient amounts of sludge or septage for continuous operation. In many
locations, such a concept is highly beneficial, as it addresses the existing
problem of septage treatment from on-site systems in the area a very
common deficiency

11.3.2.1 Small-scale application drying and composting

The sludge from most DEWATS units is a thick liquid of approximately 3 to 5%

solid content. However, the loss of a large amount of water cannot be avoided
as large amounts of water are withdrawn with it, the solid content of removed
sludge is closer to 2%. These large liquid volumes are difficult and expensive to
transport.

309
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

For small DEWATS, therefore, stabilised sludge can be spread directly on flower-
beds as fertiliser. A thin layer of sludge dries almost immediately and the slight
foul smell once a year will be acceptable in most locations.

Where larger amounts of sludge cannot be transported to a more suitable drying

place, drying sand-beds can be installed directly next to the treatment facility. By
locating the bed approximately 40cm below the water level of the plant, hydraulic
pressure can be used to distribute the sludge in a 20cm thick-layer. The bed is
made up of coarse aggregate (>50mm diameter) and covered with 10 to 15cm of
coarse sand.

Picture 11_33:
Sludge-drying bed
and well-stabilised,
small sludge
cluster.

The process comprises steps:

dewatering filtration of water through a sand-bed. Process efficiency is a
function of the filter area and depth, filter material, sludge loading and sludge
properties. Total Solids (TS) can be raised from 1-5% to 15-25%
drying wind and sun assist in natural evaporation of moisture. Process
efficiency is a function of sun and wind intensity, humidity, air temperature,
precipitation, sludge properties and loading depth. TS can be raised to 80%

310
The bottom of the drying bed should be sealed, to prevent groundwater contami-
nation, and a slight slope should lead to drainage pipes for dewatering. In hot and
dry climates, a bed can be loaded perhaps five times per year. In the case of mo-
derate temperatures, frequent rain or high humidity, special considerations like
roofs, enclosing structures or longer drying times are required. Banana plants
can be planted in the sludge bed to make the most of moisture and nutrients.

Composting is a natural, aerobic-decomposition process, in which useful micro-

organisms break down organic matter and produce carbon dioxide, water, humus
and heat. Properly heaped compost reaches a temperature of up to 70C over se-
veral weeks of maturation, thereby killing pathogens, including helminths and ova.
It requires no special mechanical equipment and produces a final product, humus,
which has a value as fertiliser and soil conditioner.

Parameter Description/Comment
50% moisture content A handful of squeezed compost should
feel moist and retain its form without
water dripping from it. If it is too wet,
dry organic material must be added. If
it is too dry, it must be watered. Pro-
tection against rain or solar radiation
might be advisable.
Density of 0.6 to 0.8 Use of stiff bulking agents or bedding
(promoting aeration) promotes natural aeration. Compost
pile should be turned at least once to
move outside material to the inside,
ensuring heat treatment of all material.
C:N ratio of 30:1 Different bulking agents can be used
to adjust the ratio.
pH value of 5 to 9 Verified with litmus paper; low pH can Table 37:
Requirements for
be raised with lime or other amorphous
a successful com-
alkaline substances. posting process

311
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

The largest problem with economic sludge composting is the high water content
of sludge. Where large amounts of dry organic matter are available, it can be
mixed with dewatered sludge (of at least 25% Total Solids) to achieve the desired
Total Solids (TS) and consistency.

A successful composting process requires:

Composting can be practised within permeable boxes or elongated piles called

windrows.

If boxes are used, they must have a door for loading and removal. The walls
of the box must either contain openings for oxygen supply from all sides of
the compost or the compost must be turned frequently
If windrows are used, they should not be more than 1.2 to 1.5m high with
approximately double the width and a natural slope

Since composting demands a solid understanding of the process, some experts

argue that it should only be applied for greater amounts of sludge and if a com-
posting facility already exists. Where local knowledge of the process there is with
farmers or within solid waste management schemes, sludge composting can be
a successful approach.

Picture 11_34 to 11_36:

Box composting
(left), windrow
composting
(middle), compost
(right)

312
Humus, the stabilised and sanitised product of composting, is an excellent
soil improver, rich in nutrients and with good moisture-retention qualities.
The desludging and composting process can be planned in accordance with
agricultural cycles to provide the maximum benefit to farmers.

However, premature desludging should be discouraged, as longer desludging

intervals produce a safer sludge. Agreements between sludge-treatment plant
operators, local farmers or organic-fertiliser producers should be encouraged.
Marketing of the final product demands control mechanisms to ensure a high-
quality product and might require awareness-raising activities and advertisement
campaigns to promote its benefits. Alternatively, sludge compost can be used
to cover landfills, or as a raw material for making items such as flower-pots,
drainage trays or bricks.

If composting is not possible but sludge is to be used fresh on agricultural land,

then the sludge must be put into trenches which are covered by 25cm of soil,
at least. Its not suitable in areas of high ground water.

11.3.2.2 Large-scale application sludge and septage-treatment facility

Some DEWATS, particularly those treating animal husbandry or organic industrial

wastewater, produce greater amounts of sludge. If there is no sludge-treatment
facility nearby, the construction of one should be considered. In most cases, such
a facility will offer great benefits to the greater local community if it is designed
to also treat septage from local on-site septic tanks and pit latrines. The following
example introduces such a treatment facility.

313
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Municipal sludge treatment plant (IPLT) in Mojokerto, East Java, Indonesia

Mojokerto is a town in East Java with a population of approximately 150,000. As

60 to 80% of its wastewater is treated in on-site sanitation plants (septic tanks,
latrines, and grease traps) there is great septage accumulation. The emptying of
the septic tanks used to be carried out by a private company, which used three to
four trucks to transport and dispose of the untreated septage into a river.

In March 2005, the Municipality of Mojokerto partnered with BEST Surabaya

and BORDA to initiate a septage-management and recycling project. BORDA
and BEST planned the septage-disposal service and treatment facility (IPLT). The
municipality is responsible for construction, while operation will be carried out by
BEST in the first year and then handed over to the municipality.

Picture 11_37 and 11_38:

Septage-disposal
truck, polluted
river misused as
a dumpsite

314
To ensure that the collected septage actually ends up in the treatment plant, the
municipality will be using an innovative financing model. The municipality sells
chips to the community. When a septic tank is emptied, a chip is passed to the
driver of the collection truck, who takes it to the treatment facility. The treatment
plant is later paid according to the amount of chips it returns to the municipality.

Picture 11_39 to 11_41:

IPLT under
construction

315
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

The facility is designed to handle 32m of septage per day. Its modules are
similar to those of DEWATS and its closed components prevent odour pollution.
Pre-treatment ensures that the plant is low maintenances. It includes:
20 and 10mm screens to avoid blockage
a grease trap to prevent fatty accumulating sludge in pipes and reactors
grit chambers to avoid sand accumulating in channels, pipes and reactors

A stabilisation reactor combines liquid/solid separation with anaerobic treatment.

It reduces odour, oTS, COD and BOD, while improving dewaterability and drying.
Biogas is produced, collected, and used/burned. The reactor consists of three
chambers:
chamber 1: mixed reactor with siphon feed to mix the sludge and promote
biological activity; theoretical hydraulic retention time 1-3 days
chamber 2: up-flow sludge bed
chamber 3: sludge sedimentation

Design for biogas utilisation

1 Sc
2 Gr
4 An
wi
5 Do
6 Ba
7 Sa
Picture 11_42: 8 Tunnel dryer for composting and disinfection
Treatment scheme 9 Aerobic maturation for the liquid phase
of IPLT, Mojokerto 10 Biogas utilisation for producing heat or electricity

316
The installation of two reactors enables alternate operation with a defined retention
time for the charged sludge. The suggested sludge retention time is 15 to 20
days. A stripping column oxidises NH4 and removes NH3 to prevent inhibition of
the anaerobic liquid treatment.

Six sand-filter beds dewater and dry the stabilised sludge. Dewatering perfor-
mance ranges from 40 to 55% TS during the rainy season and from 50 to 70%
TS during the dry season. Separated sludge water is drained. The sludge is
composted in tunnel dryers these consist of a simple floor with a removable
greenhouse roof for storm protection. The windrows are aerated with timber air
channels; the sludge is composted for 30 to 50 days. The sludge water or the
liquid fraction of the sludge is treated in a baffled reactor and horizontal gravel
filter.

Picture 11_43 and 11_44:

Timber aeration
channels; leachate
treatment in a
horizontal gravel
filter

Picture 11_45:
The technical
concept of IPLT
Mojokerto

317
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.4. Reuse of wastewater and sludge

11.4.1 Risks

Wastewater is never hygienically safe. Proper handling of wastewater and sludge

is the only successful preventive health method. The farmer who uses waste-
water for irrigation must consider the risk to his own health and to the health of
those who consume the crops grown by him. He must therefore check whether
the wastewater he uses for irrigation is suitable to the crops or pasture ground he
intends to water.

Fresh, untreated domestic and agricultural wastewater contains over one million
bacteria per millilitre, thousands of which are pathogens - both bacteria and viruses.
Eggs of worms are found in the range of 1000 per litre. Epidemical statistics
reveal that helminthic (intestinal worms) infection presents the most common
risk from irrigation with untreated wastewater. The risk of bacterial infection
comes followed by the risk of virus infection, which is the lowest. Although the
removal rates in anaerobic systems are usually over 95%, many pathogens remain
even after treatment. The effluent from oxidation ponds is less pathogenic.

in sludge and water in soil on plant

pathogenes
10-15 C 20-30 C1)
< days < days < days < days
virus 100 20 20 15
bacteria
salmonella 100 30 20 15
cholera 30 5 10 2
fecal coli 150 50 20 15
protozoe
amoebae cyst 30 15 10 2
worms
Table 38:
ascari ova 700 360 180 30
Survival of tape worm ova 360 180 180 30
pathogens
Source: EAWAG 1)not exposed to direct sun light

318
The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends that treated wastewater for
unrestricted irrigation should contain less than 10,000 fecal coliforms per litre
(1000/100ml), and less than 1 helminth egg per litre. This limit should be observed
strictly since the risk of transmitting parasites is relatively high.

Pathogenic bacteria and viruses are not greatly effected in anaerobic filters or
septic tanks because they remain in the treatment plant for only a few hours
before they are expelled together with the liquid that exits the plant. Post treat-
ment in a shallow pond that ensures exposure to the sun reduces the number
of bacteria considerably.
Those farmers who use sewage water for farming or sludge as a fertiliser are ex-
posed to certain permanent health risks. These health risks are controlled within
organised and specialised wastewater farming or within commercial horticulture,
because of certain protective measures that are taken, such as the use of boots
and gloves by the workers and the transportation of the wastewater in piped
systems. However, such precautions are very unlikely in small-scale farming.
Plants are either watered individually with the help of buckets or trench irrigation is
used. The flow of water is usually controlled by small dykes which are put together
by bare hand or bare foot making direct contact with pathogens unavoidable.

A shallow storage pond to keep water standing for a day or more before it is used
may minimise the number of pathogens, but would hardly reduce the indirect
health risk. It is also likely that children will play here, ducks will come to swim
and animals may start to drink. Fencing may help. A more foolproof preventive
measure may be an establish health-education programme that reminds users of
the dangers and the precaution they need to take.

Consumers of crops grown by such means and animals that graze on pastures
that are irrigated with wastewater are also endangered. Since bacteria and viruses
are killed by a few hours, or at most a few days of exposure to air, wastewater
should not be spread on plants which are eaten raw (e.g. lettuce) for at least two
weeks prior to harvesting. India has prohibited the use of wastewater irrigation
for crops that are likely to be consumed uncooked.

Since bacteria and viruses stay alive much longer when wastewater percolates
into the ground, root crops like potatoes or carrots except for seeds or seedlings
should not be irrigated with wastewater.

319
 11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

A B C D E F G H
Log10
Root Leaf
pathogen 7

Labour intensive

Highly mechanized
reduction W
6
W
5
DO DIH DIL
4 DO SSI

Picture 11_46: 3
Examples of
options for the 2
reduction of vi-
ral, bacterial and 1 T T T T T
protozoan patho-
T T T
gens by different 0
combinations of
health protection Unrestricted Irrigation Restricted Irrigation
measures,
source: WHO T = Treatment DI = Drip irrigation
Guidelines, 2006 DO = Die-off (H = High crops, L = Low Crops)
(see page 323) W = Washing of produce SSI = Subsurface irrigation

Type of Option Required pathogen Verification

irrigation (Picture reduction by treat- monitoring Notes
11_46) ment (log units) level (E.coli
per 100ml)

A 4 103 Root crops

B 3 104 Leaf crops
Table 39: Un-
restricted C 2 105 Drip irrigation of high-growing crops
Verification mo-
nitoring of waste- D 4 103 Drip irrigation of low-growing crops
water treatment E 6 or 7 101 Verification level depends on the require-
for the various or 100 ments of the local regulatory agency
levels of waste-
water treatment F 4 104 Labour-intensive agriculture
(protective of adults and children under 15)
in Options AG in
picture 11_46, Restricted G 3 105 Highly mechanized agriculture
source: WHO H 0.5 106 Pathogen removal in a septic tank
Guidelines, 2006

* For example, for secondary treatment, filtration and disinfection:

five-day biochemical oxygen demand, <10 mg/l;
turbidity, <2 nephelometric turbidity units; chlorine residual, 1 mg/l;
pH, 6-9; and faecal coliforms, not detectable in 100 ml.

320
11.4.2. Groundwater recharge

Recharge of groundwater is probably the best way to reuse wastewater particu-

larly since the groundwater table tends to lower almost everywhere. Wastewater
had been freshwater, and freshwater drawn from wells has been groundwater be-
fore. Sustainable development is directly related to the availability of water from
the ground. Thus, recharging of this source becomes absolutely vital to human
civilisation. The main question is how far the wastewater needs treatment before
it may be discharged to the ground. Due to the high risk of groundwater pollution,
this topic is very delicate and needs to be handeld with highest precaution.

11.4.3 Fishponds

Wastewater is full of nutrients which, when directly used by algae, water plants
and lower animals could become fish feed. But fish need also oxygen to breathe,
which must be dissolved in water in the pure form of O2 (4mg/l for carp species,
> 6mg/l for trout species). Because free oxygen is needed for degradation of the
organic matter present in wastewater, it cannot be expected to be in sufficient
supply for the survival of fish. Therefore, pre-treated wastewater must be mixed
with freshwater from rivers or lakes, otherwise wastewater ponds must become
so large that oxygen supply via pond surface overrules the oxygen demand of the
organic load.

The organic load on fishponds should be below 5g BOD/md before 5 times dilu-
tion with freshwater. This implies that if the chances of dilution are non-existent,
the organic load may be 1g BOD/md.
If possible, there should be several inlet points in order to distribute organic mat-
ter more equally where it comes into contact with oxygen quickly. As mentioned
before a turbulent surface increases the oxygen intake, and cooler temperatures
increase waters ability to store free oxygen. However, it is not worthwhile trying
to increase oxygen intake by specialy shaped inlet structures or similar measures.
At a stage where oxygen deficiency can only be little, oxygen absorption is also
little.

The pH should be 7 to 8. Fish culture is not possible if wastewater may be toxic

or polluted by mineral oils, temporarily or permanently.

321
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Wastewater should not be mixed with freshwater before the fishpond. Other-
wise wastewater nutrients would initiate the heavy growth of fungi, algae and
other species without being consumed by fish. When a fishpond is started, it
should be filled with fresh water, wastewater is added later.

When using natural lakes for wastewater-based fishery it should be known,

whether the lake is legally considered to be part of the treatment system or al-
ready part of the environment in which wastewater is discharged. In other words,
it must be clear whether discharge standards must be observed at the inlet or
whether the effluent of the lake will do.

The type and condition of fish are an indicator of water quality. Carp can live in
water with a lower oxygen content and are the most common species in waste-
water-based fish culture. Tilapia has become the most common Development
Project Fish and is also growing well in wastewater ponds. Tench species often
have difficulty surviving, because they take feed from the ground and run into get
problems with anaerobic bottom sludge. It is advisable to empty the ponds once
a year to remove sludge or at least expose the bottom sludge to oxygen for stabi-
lisation.

Fishponds are normally more turbid than other ponds, because fish swirl up
sludge from the ground. Trout species survive surprisingly well, despite higher
turbidity, when the oxygen content is sufficient. However, it should be clear that
more specialised knowledge of fish species, fish production and marketing is nee-
ded than can be contained in this chapter. More information is available from the
regional offices of fishery departments and should be obtained before starting a
wastewater fish-farming system.

Fishponds have a hydraulic retention time of 3 to 10 days and a depth of 0.5 to

0.8m. Net fish production is in the range of 500kg/ha (50g /m), 900 to 1,200kg/ha
are said to be harvested from Calcuttas municipality fish farm. There is also the
possibility of raising fish in 2.5 to 3m deep ponds where different kinds of fish live
in different strata. An almost unbelievable 12,000kg/ha are claimed to have been
harvested in Brazil in such ponds every year. A higher fish population produces
more sludge which reduces the amount of free oxygen. Whether wastewater-
based fishery becomes a viable business depends on the market price of fish and
fishery operating costs. Fingerlings must be kept separate because fish, when set
free, should weight 350g in order to be too heavy for fishing birds.

322
Losses can reach 50% when fishponds become an ecological niche which
attracts fish-hunting birds.

Fish lose the foul taste of wastewater if they are kept for a few days in fresh
water before consumption. This also reduces the risk of pathogen transfer.
Fishermen need to be aware that the wastewater always bears a certain, albeit
small, health risk.

11.4.4 Irrigation

Treated domestic or mixed community wastewater is ideal for irrigating parks and
flower gardens. Irrigation normally takes place in the evening or early morning
so that people wont be bothered by the slightly foul smell of anaerobic effluent.
Nonetheless, the irrigation of public parks is often forbidden by law.

In order to provide updated and reliable orientation, the World Health Organisation
has published in 2006 four volumes of Guidelines for the safe use of waste-
water, excreta and greywater:
Volume 1 - Policy and regulatory aspects
Volume 2 - Wastewater use in agriculture
Volume 3 - Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture
Volume 4 - Excreta and greywater us in agriculture
These documents are widely recognised and can be downloaded from the
WHO website free of charge.

A few facts to bear in mind:

For an irrigation rate of 2m per year (20,000m/ha) the normal requirement
in semi-arid areas even welltreated wastewater with concentrations as low
15mg/l of total nitrogen and 3mg/l total phosphorus provides 300kg N and
60kg P per ha via irrigation without additional cost; at the same time the
respective amount of groundwater is saved.

In areas where there is plenty of rain, less water is needed for irrigation. So pre-
settled but otherwise fresh wastewater may be more appropriate with respect
to fertiliser. With 0.1m per year (1,000m/ha) of fresh wastewater for irrigation,
some 60kg nitrogen, 15kg phosphorus and a similar amount of potassium could
be applied per ha. However, domestic wastewater in modern households some-

323
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

times lacks the potassium which might need to be added to mobilise nitrogen
and phosphorus.

As this book deals with wastewater, it does not provide detailed information on
either general or specific local questions of agriculture or the nutrient require-
ments of different crops. Each farmer has to find out his or her own preferred
method and his or her own way of using efficient and safe quantities of water.
The practical farmer knows which nutrients are needed for which crop and a
trained agriculturist would also know from wastewater analysis whether the
composition of nutrients and trace elements suits the proposed plantating. He or
she will also know, from that analysis, whether too many of toxic elements remain
in the water (toxic elements might play a role if the COD is much higher than the
BOD). Such tests are advisable when using treated industrial or hospital waste-
water for the first time. The person responsible for the wastewater source is
obliged to inform farmers about toxic or otherwise dangerous substances in the
effluent, for example, radioactive elements from x-ray laboratories.

Original saline water will remain saline even after intensive treatment. Copper and
other metals, especially heavy metals, accumulate in the soil. Long-term application
of such water will spoil the soil forever.

11.4.5 Reuse for process and domestic purposes

Pathogenic wastewater from domestic sources, slaughterhouses or animal stables

should not be reused for any purpose, except irrigation. Partly treated organic
wastewater (this is more or less all wastewater from DEWATS treatment) should
not be reused directly as process water in industries or as flushing water in toilets.
Reusing wastewater will always mean that some traces of organic matter or toxic
substances remain or accumulate. Reuse also means longer retention times in a
closed system which might facilitate anaerobic processes within pipes and tanks
which will cause corrosion. There is also a theoretical risk of biogas explosion.

To suppress organic decay one may have to add lime, which might form limestone
inside the system or other inhibiting substances which would make appropriate
final wastewater treatment costly. For example, even the first washing water in a
fruit-processing plant or a potato-chip plant might already contain too much organic
matter for any reuse without lime being added to suppress fermentation.

324
The chance of re-circulating parts of the water to serve the production process
is limited, especially when the wastewater engineer and the production engineer
dont have the necessary knowledge. The pollution content and level of treat-
ment needed, as well as the amount of water required for consumption and
the wastewater flow over a given period of one day (or one season) must be
investigated. It might be necessary to build intermediate water stores and install
additional pumps. Wastewater reuse is an option that deserves close consideration
in the context of sustainable development. But, for process and domestic
purposes, the accompanying problems mean it cant be recommended.

Reusing industrial wastewater which is only slightly polluted and perhaps not
organically polluted, is a completely different matter. For example, press water in
a soap factory may be reused for mixing the next load of soap paste. All water-
consuming modern industries have reduced their water consumption considerably
in the last few years. In most countries, including India and China, water-
consumption limits are obligatory for many industrial processes, such as sugar
refining, brewing, canning, etc.: Saving water in the process is always better
than reusing water which has been carelessly wasted and polluted.

11.5 Biogas utilisation

11.5.1 Biogas

All anaerobic systems produce biogas. 55 to 75% of methane (CH4), 25 to 45%

of carbohydrate (CO2) plus traces of H2S, H, NH3 go to form biogas. The mild but
typical foul smell of biogas is due to the hydro-sulphur, and after which transforming
into H2SO3, is also responsible for the corrosive nature of biogas. The composition
rate of biogas depends on the properties of wastewater and on the design of the
reactor the retention time. Theoretically, the rate of methane production is 350l
per kg removed BODtotal. In practice however, methane production should be
compared to 1kg removed COD of where values are closer to the removed BODtotal
than to the removed BOD5. By doing so, one assumes that during anaerobic
digestion only biodegradable COD is removed, which is involved in the production
of methane. In reality, the gas production rates are lower than this because a part
of the biogas dissolves in water and cannot be collected in gaseous form. It is
also the norm to relate biogas production to organic dry matter (DM) in case of
very strong viscous substrate, 300 to 450l biogas per kg DM can be expected.

325
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

The calorific value of methane is 35.8MJ/m (9.94kwh/m). The calorific value of

biogas depends on the methane content. Hydrogen has practically no role. As a
rule of thumb, 1m biogas can substitute 5kg of firewood or 0.6l of diesel fuel.

industry COD per COD relative gas methane

product removal production content
kg/to % m CH4/CODin %
beet sugar 6-8 70-90 0.24-0.32 65-85
starch potato 30-40 75-85 0.26-0.30 75-85
starch wheat 100-120 80-95 0.28-0.33 55-65
starch maize 8-17 80-90 0.28-0.32 65-75
molasses 180-250 60-75 0.21-0.26 60-70
distillery potato 50-70 55-65 0.19-0.23 65-70
distillery corn 180-200 55-65 0.19-0.23 65-70
pectine 75-80 0.26-0.28 50-60
potato processing 15-25 70-90 0.24-0.32 70-80
sour pickles 15-20 80-90 0.28-0.28 70-75
fruit juice 2-6 70-85 0.24-0.30 70-80
Table 40: milk processing 1-6 70-80 0.24-0.28 65-75
Potential biogas
breweries 5-10 70-85 0.24-0.33 75-85
production from
some selected in- animal slaughter 5-10 75-90 0.26-0.32 80-85
dustrial processes. cellulose 110-125 75-90 0.26-0.33 70-75
Source: ATV, BDE,
VKS paper/board 4-30 60-80 0.21-0.28 70-80

326
11.5.2 Scope of use

As pointed out above, biogas may be used in burners for cooking or in combustion
engines to generate power. Its use will depend on whether enough can be
supplied regularly to meet the minimum requirement of a particular use. If biogas
cannot be utilised, it should be released in the air via safe ventilation or flaring. It
is pointless to collect, store and distribute biogas when there is no real demand.

It is not essential to extract carbohydrate (CO2) before biogas is used. But it might
be advisable to remove an unusually high H2S content with the help of iron oxide:
Biogas flows through a drum or pipe filled with iron oxide (e.g. rusted iron borings
or swarf). The oxygen reacts with the hydrogen to form water, while sulphur and
iron (or sulphide of iron) remain. The iron may be reused if it becomes rusty again
from exposure to air.

The minimum amount of biogas for a household kitchen requires is approximately

2m/d. Approximately 20 to 30m of domestic wastewater is required daily to
produce the minimum amount of gas. From an economic point of view, biogas
utilisation from wastewater becomes meaningful if the strength of the waste-
water is at least 1,500mg/l COD and the regular daily flow is 20m.

The best use of biogas is for heat production. Biogas burners are simple in prin-
ciple and can be made from converted LPG-burners. Biogas can be used for
cooking in the home and canteens, or for drying and heating as part of industrial
processes. The very best use of biogas would be as fuel for the same process
that produces the wastewater.

Biogas can also be used in gas lamps. But the light from a biogas lamp cannot
compete with an electric light.

Biogas can be used as fuel in diesel and petrol engines. As the ignition point of
biogas is rather high, it will not explode under the pressure of a normal diesel
engine. So, around 20% of diesel must be used for ignition, together with bio-
gas. Diesel engines are the most suitable because they don't have to rely on a
regular supply of biogas. Also, the slow flame speed of biogas is better suited to
the slowly revolving diesel engine than to petrol engines. Biogas would not have
enough time to burn completely with engines that run with more than 2,000 revo-
lutions per minute.

327
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.5.3. Gas collection and storage

Biogas is produced within wastewater and sludge, from which it rises in bubbles
to the surface. The gas must be collected above the surface and stored until it is
ready for use. Even when gas production is regular, the accumulation of useable
gas is irregular. Gas bubbles cause turbulence which leads to the explosive release
of gas in a chain reaction. Stirring substrate, especially stirring sludge, has a
similar effect. As a result of this, gas production fluctuates by plus/minus 25%
from one day to the next. The volume of gas storage must provide for this
fluctuation.

The volume of gas in stock changes according to gas production and the pattern
of gas consumption. With rigid structures, the volume of the storage tank either
changes as the volume of gas present changes, or the gas pressure increases
along with the stored volume. In fixed-dome plants, and with flexible material
such as plastic foils, both the volume and the pressure fluctuate.

There are two main systems for rigid materials:

the floating drum and
the fixed dome

For flexible material there are two variants, as well:

the balloon, and
the tent above water

The floating drum (see Pictures 9_7-C, page 183 and 11_47) is a tank that floats
on water, the bottom of which is open. The actual storage volume changes
depending on the amount of gas available and the drum rises above the water
according to gas volume. The drum is normally made out of steel. To avoid
corrosion, materials such as ferro-cement, high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
butyl rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM) and fibreglass
have also been tried. As a rule, only very experienced workshops have been
successful with these materials. Most find leakage a problem. The gas pressure
is created by the weight of the drum (the weight is divided by the occupied
surface area to calculate the pressure). A safety valve is not required as surplus
gas is released under the rim when the drum rises beyond a certain point.

328
The fixed dome principle (see Picture 9_7A+B, page 183) has been developed
for biogas digesters for rural households as an alternative to the floating drum
with its corrosion problem. The fixed-dome plant follows the principle of displacing
liquid substrate through gas pressure. The gas pressure is created by the difference
in liquid level between the inside and outside of the closed vessel. If there is very
high gas pressure, the outlet pipe functions as a safety valve. The inner level of
the outlet pipe, therefore, must be lower than that of the inlet.

Picture 11_47:
Floating drum
plant. The drums
are being lifted for
re-painting which
allows a view of
the double-ring wall
of the water jacket.
Constructed by
LPTP and BORDA
for a slaughter-
house in Java/
Indonesia.

In biogas plants that have a relatively high gas production compared to the
volume of substrate, an expansion chamber is needed to sustain gas pressure
during use. In the case of wastewater, where the volume of water is relatively
large compared to the volume of gas production, an expansion chamber may
not be required because the in-flowing wastewater replaces the wastewater,
which has been pushed out by the gas. For this reason, gas consumption must
correspond with intensive wastewater inflow. An expansion chamber is required
when there is little to no wastewater flow during gas consumption. It is not when
the simultaneous volume of consumed gas is less than the volume of waste-
water inflow.
The surface area of an anaerobic treatment tank is relatively large compared to
the amount of biogas produced. Consequently, fluctuation in liquid levels as a
result of variation in gas volumes in the upper part of the reactor are relatively
small. All the same, it may influence the design, especially the level of baffles
needed to retain floating solids.

329
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Biogas is an end-product of decomposition and, therefore, has very fine molecules

that can pass through the smallest crack and the finest hole. So its storage must
be as gas-tight as a bicycle tube. The usual-quality concrete and masonry is not
sufficiently gas-tight bricks are porous and concrete has cracks. So, bricks and
concrete must be well plastered by applying several layers and adding special
compounds to the mortar to minimise shrinking rates. Several layers of plaster
help to cover the cracks on one layer with the next layer of plastering, in the hope
that the cracks in different layers do not appear at the same spot.

1st layer cement

water brushing
2nd layer cement plaster 1:2.5
Table 41:
Typical prescription 3rd layer cementwater brushing
for gas-tight plaster 4th layer cement plaster 1:2.5
in fixed-dome bio- with waterproof
gas plants. The compound
method was
5th layer cementwater
developed by
brushing with water
CAMARTEC/GTZ in proof compound
Arusha, Tanzania
and has been 6th layer cement plaster 1:2.5
with waterproof
successfully applied
compound
in many countries
since 1989. 7th layer cementwater finish
Source: Camartec, with waterproof
compound
BORDA

Picture 11_48:
Fixed-dome bio-
gas plant for
cattle dung, under
construction by
CYSD and BORDA
at a farm in Orissa,
India

330
A structure under pressure cannot develop cracks, therefore the structure of the
gas storage should be under pressure whenever possible. This is the reason
why anaerobic reactors should have arched ceilings, So that a heavy-soil covering
creates the required pressure. Normally, baffled reactors and anaerobic filters
are rectangular. As it is difficult and expensive to make these structures gas-tight,
and considering the fact that gas production is greatest in the first part of the
reactor, it may be reasonable to collect gas from the first chambers only.
These chambers must be completely gas-tight; rear chambers must be ventilated
separately.

Picture 11_49:
Baffled septic tank with biogas utilisation. Only biogas from the settler and the first two baffled
chambers is used. They are arched in order to guarantee a gas-tight structure. The tanks which
store biogas are separated from the three chambers at the rear of which biogas is not collected.
The design is based on 25m daily wastewater flow, 4,000mg/l COD and a necessary gas storage
volume of 8m.

331
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

Tent systems are mostly used with anaerobic ponds. Balloons may be connected
to any anaerobic-tank reactor. Balloons and tent systems require the same
material. These materials must be gas-tight, UV-resistant, flexible and strong.
PVC is not suitable. The weakest points are the seams and in particular the
connections between the foil and the pipes. To secure gas tightness, foils of tent
plants are fixed to the solid structure below the liquid level. Foil covering may also
be fixed to frames floating on the wastewater. Balloons should be laid on a sand
bedding or hung on belts or girdles. It may be necessary to protect them against
damage by rodents. The gas pressure must be kept under control to match the
permissible stress of the material, especially at joints. Fitting a safety valve, which
functions as a water seal on gas pressure, should solve this problem.
Balloon and tent systems, unless securely fenced and protected against stones
or rubbish thrown by children, are not suitable for domestic plants.

Picture 11_50:
Tent gas storage
above a liquid ma-
nure tank. Biogas
plant constructed
by SODEPRA and
GTZ at a cattle park
in Ferkessedougou,
Ivory Coast.

332
11.5.4 Distribution of biogas

Normal water-pipe installation technology may also be used for biogas distribution
in DEWATS. But ball valves should replace gate valves. All parts should be
reasonably resistant against corrosion by sulphuric acid. The joints in galvanised-
steel pipes should be sealed with hemp and grease or with special sealing tape.
Joints of PVC pipes must be glued; the glue must be spread around the total
circumference of the pipe.

Biogas always contains a certain amount of water vapour, which condenses to

water when the gas cools down. This water must be drained; otherwise it may
block the gas flow. Drain valves or automatic water traps to avoid blockages must
be provided at the lowest point of each pipe section. Pipes must be laid in a
continuous slope towards the drain points; straight horizontal pipes should not sag.

Gas pressure drops as the pipe gets longer, and more so with smaller pipe
diameters. The pipe diameter must be larger when the point of consumption is
far off. Long distances are generally not a problem, but should be kept as short
as possible for economic reasons. Connecting stoves or lamps with a piece of
flexible hose to the main distribution pipe means that equipment can be moved
without disconnecting the pipe. It also allows for condensed water to be drained.
In the case of fixed-dome plants, where it is difficult to see the amount of gas
available, a U-shaped gas-pressure meter (manometer) could be installed near the
point of consumption.

Picture 11_51:
Pressure gauge
out of transparent
flexible pipes and
water trap to collect
condensed vapour
which develops
in gas pipes due
to changing tem-
perature. Water
must be drawn
from the trap when
gas-flames start to
flicker.

333
11 Project components: sanitation
and wastewater treatment technical options

11.5.5. Gas appliances

In principle, biogas can be used in the same way as any other gaseous fuel, for
example in refrigerators, incubators, or water heaters. But its most commonly
used in stoves, lamps and diesel engines.

Biogas needs a certain amount of air to burn on average, one cubic metre of
Picture 11_52: gas requires 5.7m of air for complete combustion, a quarter of what LPG would
Principle design
parameters for bio- need. So, LPG burners have smaller jets; consequently the relative air intake
gas appliances. compared to biogas burners is greater. The air intake needed for combustion is
The relation regulated by the difference of jet diameter to mixing-pipe diameter. For open
between jet dia-
meter and mixing-
burners, which draw primary air at the jet and some secondary air at the flame
pipe diameter is port, the ratio between jet diameter and mixing-pipe diameter may be taken as
important for good 1:6. For lamps, where secondary air supply is lower, this figure may be 1:8.
performance and
efficiency, irre-
spective of gas
pressure. Other
parameters are less
crucial or can be
found by trial and
error, for example,
the number and
diameter of orifices
or the length of
mixing pipe.

When converting LPG equipment to biogas, the jet must be widened, to around
one-sixth of the diameter of the mixing pipe of a burner. These ratios are the
same for all gas pressures. There is no need to regulate the air intake when gas
pressure changes. However, air requirement is greater when methane content is
higher. The difference is too small to be of practical importance. Since the flame
speed of biogas is relatively low, biogas flames tend to be blown off when gas
pressure is high. It may be advisable to increase the number or size of orifices at
the flame port in order to reduce the speed. It is also possible to reduce the flow
by placing an obstacle at the flame outlet; for example, a pot set on the burner.

334
It is trickier to regulate the air-gas mixture in lamps that use textile mantles,
because the hottest part of the flame must be directed at the mantle so that the
mineral particles glow. If the flame burns inside the mantle, the pressure might
be too low and the primary air may be too much. If, on the other hand, the flame
burns outside the mantle, there would not be enough primary air and the pressure
might be too high. As the composition of biogas also has a role to play, it is not
easy to give general recommendations for lamp design. Practical testing is the
only solution.

Diesel engines always have a surplus of air and proper mixing is not required.
The gas is connected to the air supply pipe after the air filter. The mixing of air
and gas is improved when gas enters the air pipe by cross flow. Dual fuel engines
are started with 100% diesel; biogas is added slowly when the engine is hot and
under load. The amount of biogas is regulated by hand. The engine usually starts
to splutter when there is too much gas. When the engine runs smoothly, it is
regulated like a pure diesel engine with the help of the throttle. For generating
1kwh electricity, approximately 1.5m biogas and 0.14l diesel are required.

335
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

DEWATS are designed to be particularly robust. Nonetheless, problems may be

caused by improper use or operation, insufficient maintenance or structural flaws.
A malfunctioning system is a risk to public health and the environment.
Reoccurring problems create further complications, if they are not quickly atten-
ded to.

As a result, each DEWATS facility requires responsible personnel to:

recognise the symptoms of a malfunctioning system at an early stage
identify the cause of the problem
repair the system, appropriate measures, as soon as possible

There are two main types of system malfunction:

insufficient treatment of wastewater and
reduced flow at the outlet of the facility

In case of malfunction, the following sections can be consulted for guidance.

They present common symptoms and list possible problems and specific main-
tenance solutions.

To facilitate troubleshooting, it is beneficial to have a plan of the system and a

record of past maintenance activities. Records of pumping, inspection, and other
maintenance work should be kept (see operation & maintenance manual referred
to in picture 6_25, page 128).
It should be clear who is responsible and who can be contacted if the problem
reoccurs. A list of specialists (including name, address and phone numbers)
should be available and all staff and users know where it is kept.

12.1 Insufficient treatment of wastewater

Treatment of the wastewater is considered insufficient if it does not correspond

to the desired discharge standards in one or several of the following categories:
BOD
COD
suspended solids
smell
faecal contamination

336
Symptoms
extensive plant growth (eutrophication) in the discharge water body
fish dying
turbid effluent
frothy discharge
biological and nutrient contamination in nearby wells or surface waters
smell
high pH-value
Problem Solution
Accumulated sludge within Imhoff determining sludge depth:
tank, septic tank, anaerobic baffled
reactor, biogas digester or pond 1. wrap one metre of white fabric
system. around the end of a long stick
2. place the stick into the sludge,
This leads to a reduction of the behind the outlet baffle leaving it
hydraulic retention time for treatment. there for one minute
3. remove the stick and note the
sludge line
4. If the sludge line is within 30cm of
the outlet baffle or 45cm within the
outlet fitting, the system requires
cleaning.

For details on correct sludge removal,

handling, treatment and reuse see
section 11.3.

If many non-biodegradable materials

such as plastics, disposable nappies or
sanitary towels are found in the sludge
awareness raising for proper use of
the system is necessary. Table 42:
Insufficient treat-
ment of wastewater

337
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

cont. Table 42:

insufficient treat- Problem Solution
ment of wastewater Accumulated scum (soap suds and Measuring scum depth:
fat) floating on the wastewater sur-
face within Imhoff tank, septic tank or 1. attach a 15cm square board to the
baffled reactor bottom of a stick.
2. extend the stick through the scum
Scum reaches the tank outlet and to locate the bottom of the baffle or
flows into subsequent treatment units, effluent pipe in the tank mark the
which are not designed to handle it. stick to indicate that point.
3. raise the stick to locate (by feeling
Extremely fast scum growth may be or seeing) the bottom of the scum
an indicator of excessive hydraulic layer mark the stick again.
loading. 4. If the marks are less than 8cm apart,
or if the scum surface is less than
3cm from the top of the outlet
baffle, the tank requires cleaning.

Treatment facilities treating very greasy

wastewater (for example from
restaurants) should have a grease trap
(see section 9.2, page 176) remove
grease from the water surface with a
shovel and deposit it in grease pit (at
least 10m from well) twice weekly.

338
 cont. Table 42:
Problem Solution insufficient treat-
Excessive inflow quantity caused by Uncontrolled inflow of ground- or ment of wastewater

stormwater through leaking or

increased number of users damaged pipes or structures must be
changed user habits prevented by locating infiltration points
structural deficiencies and carrying out repairs. (This can
include leaking roofs of community
This leads to a reduction of the hydrau- sanitation centre shower or toilet
lic retention time; insufficient time for rooms).
treatment can lead to low pH levels,
caused by volatile fatty acids. Uncontrolled stormwater inflow
through maintenance openings must
It can also lead to backlogging water be prevented.
within the system, or extrusion of
water at unforeseen places, if the filter Attaching wastewater flow from more
velocity though wetland or filters is users than the system was designed
insufficient. for must be discouraged.

If the wastewater amount has grown

beyond system capacity, a system
upgrade is necessary or a parallel treat-
ment system must be installed. Alter-
natively, awareness-raising activities to
promote water-saving habits or fixtures
can be applied.

Daily peaks higher than expected Consider an equalisation tank.

339
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

cont. Table 42:

insufficient treat-
Problem Solution
ment of wastewater Excessive inflow contamination Inflow of inappropriate wastewaters
caused by: must be prevented.

Inflow of wastewater sources An appropriate facility or an upgrade

unforeseen in the planning of the of the existing treatment plant is
facility (e.g. industrial wastewater required.
connected to a domestic waste-
water treatment unit). Anaerobic ponds: adding lime
Excessive BOD and ammonia (12g/m of the pond) may help to
loadings. raise the pH value.

Can lead to increased accumulation Facultative ponds: create multiple

of settleable solids, low pH-value due inlets to the pond. Periodically add
to volatile fatty acids or temperature sodium nitrogen as a supplement
shifts in anaerobic reactors (esp. in the source of combined oxygen
case of illegal industrial connection)
Methanogenesis is sensitive to both Where possible, public-awareness
high and low pHs and occurs between campaigns can help to minimise
pH 6.5 and pH 8. Low pH-levels are pollution through habit change, for
inhibiting methanogenic organisms and example in cooking practices or
causing smells. handling of kitchen waste.

System short circuit caused by In most cases, draining the facility is

necessary to carry out the required
defective separation walls and repairs or maintenance.
baffles in tanks or reactors
excessive aquatic vegetation in
facultative ponds, reducing the
area of flow across the system

This leads to less retained settleable

solids and reduction of the hydraulic
retention time (also see incorrect
retention time below).

340
 cont. Table 42:
Problem Solution insufficient treat-
Incorrect retention time within the Adjustments of flow must be made: ment of wastewater
unit can create smell or effluent-
quality problems Increasing flow velocity by using
fewer parallel units, if available.
In grit chambers, a rotten-egg smell Lowering retention time by
indicates sedimentation of organic bypassing overloaded units if the
matter, due to slow flow velocity/too- following ones can handle the
long retention time. The removed sand higher load. Ideally, upgrading of
is grey and contains grease. the facility.
Increasing retention time by
In anaerobic ponds, HRT longer than redu-cing flow quantity or capping
one day leads to fermentation not peakflow (equalisation tank)
only of the bottom sludge but also the
liquid phase. A too-short HRT creates Check inlets and distribution of flow to
effluent with low pH and emits H2S treatment units like ponds or wetlands:
odour.
Anaerobic ponds: distribution by
In facultative ponds, growth of filamen- perforated pipes on the bottom of
tous algae and moss indicates under- the pond.
loading. Facultative ponds: create several
inlets with uniform distribution to
Poor flow distribution can be respon- each.
sible for insufficient retention time and Wetlands: ensure influent
treatment. distribution across the full width.
Incorrect water level in horizontal The water level should be just below
gravel filters, resulting in surface algae the filter surface; the flow-regulation
growth or insufficient treatment. pipe should be adjusted accordingly,
during weekly maintenance tasks.

341
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

cont. Table 42:

insufficient treat- Problem Solution
ment of wastewater
Scum layers or floating material on Anaerobic ponds: no measure
ponds can hinder some treatment needs to be taken. The scum layer
processes. helps to maintain the absence of
oxygen, controls the temperature and
prevents the release of bad odours.

Facultative ponds: remove scum

layers, place scum into plastic bags
and practise proper garbage disposal.
Light and wind penetration of the pond
surface should be ensured.

Growth of aquatic or terrestrial Anaerobic ponds: Vegetation on

vegetation or algae in or on ponds internal or external slopes, as well as
can hinder the treatment process and in shallow water should be removed
create smell. completely and regularly.

Facultative ponds: remove excessive

algae growth on the surface, which
is prohibiting passage of light, with
sieves. Remove excessive aquatic
plants restricting the area flow and
creating oxygen demand upon plant
mortality.

Indicator ponds (polishing ponds):

Algae should be removed from the
walls by a brush every 14 days.
High concentrations of algae (SS) Install baffles to retain and remove
in the effluent of pond systems algae.

Use multiple cells in series with

shorter retention time in each.

342
 cont. Table 42:
Problem Solution insufficient treat-
Cloudy weather and low tempera- Reduce the depth of the facultative ment of wastewater
ture over long stretches of time pond temporarily. If possible, put
reducing treatment efficiency in facul- ponds in parallel operation.
tative ponds and causing bad odours.

Metal or concrete erosion in Check and remove obstructions

anaerobic reactors caused by to the ventilation system, including
insufficient ventilation. chamber connections.
Insufficient water seal in the biogas Insert a stick through the hole in
settler causing inefficient treatment the manhole cover to measure the
and making the system unsafe. distance until it gets wet. If necessary,
refill water seal.

If a system malfunction was caused by improper use of the system, awareness

raising campaigns should teach users how to prevent such problems in the
future.

If a system malfunction was caused by insufficient operation and maintenance

the existing maintenance schedule should be reviewed and adhered to in the fu-
ture. A maintenance time schedule and log book is recommended (see operation
& maintenance manual, picture 6_25, page 128).

343
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

12.2 Reduced flow at the outlet of the facility

The effluent volume of a system does not always equal the influent volume it
depends on the amount of evaporation of constructed wetlands or pond systems.
However, when the amount of effluent is far less than expected, the system is
either clogged at one or more locations and/or is discharging wastewater at un-
foreseen locations. All control openings should be checked to identify the location
causing the irregularity in flow.

Symptoms
poorly draining toilets, showers, sinks or drains nuisance to the users,
easily identifiable
extrusion of wastewater at unforeseen places environmental & health
hazard, likely to go unnoticed or to be disregarded. Noticeable as:
- pools of water in unexpected places
- lush, green vegetation, even during dry weather, in places where there
should be none
- pathogen or nitrate contamination of nearby wells
- dying plants in a horizontal gravel filter, due to lack of water
reduced flow at the outlet or significant fluctuations parameter should be
monitored by maintenance personnel

Problem Solution
Pump malfunction, hindering waste- If a pump is used, check for
water flow obstructions and remove them.
Check whether the pump-level control
is functioning and that the pump is
adequately lubricated. Each pump
differs slightly, so consult the main-
tenance manual for the pump for more
Table 43: information about pump maintenance.
Reduced flow at the
outlet of the facility

344
 cont. table 43:
Problem Solution reduced flow at the
Clogged pipes anywhere between Obstructions at manholes should be outlet of the facility

the household and location of effluent removed with a shovel and bucket
discharge, including wastewater-treat- until normal flow is achieved.
ment plant Pipes should be opened at all main-
tenance openings to check for back-
possible causes include: logged water. The section of clogged
pipe lies between the last control
improper system use as garbage- opening with backlogged water and
disposal for non-biodegradable its downstream opening. The inter-
materials such as plastics, disposable mittent section of piping is cleared
nappies, sanitary napkins, etc. using boiling water, a drain snake or
plant roots growing into the system long pole. Caustic drain openers
should not be applied.

The reason for pipe obstruction

should be identified to prevent
identical problems in the future:

roots or saturated soils in the system

indicate a damaged pipe.The section
of pipe should be replaced. Reasons
for pipe damage should be identi-
fied. Responsible trees should be
removed and/or heavy loading of
the pipe with machinery or vehicles
should be prevented.
future system misuse should be
discouraged through awareness-
raising campaigns for users.

345
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

cont. table 43:

reduced flow at the Problem Solution
outlet of the facility

Damaged pipes anywhere between Monitoring flow at various control ope-

the household and location of effluent nings helps to locate leaks. Damaged
discharge, including wastewater-treat- pipes must be replaced.
ment plant
The reasons for pipe damage should
Leaking pipes cause reduced flow in be identified to prevent identical prob-
the system and pollute the environ- lems in the future:
ment. At times of high groundwater,
or during strong rainfall, inflow to the trees responsible should be
damaged pipe can lead to large fluctua- removed
tions of flow. excessive loading of the pipe with
machinery or vehicles should be
Possible causes include: prevented
ensure compacted clean sand bed
plant roots growing into the system under the pipes and backfilling with
unforeseen heavy loading (vehicles clean granular sand, compacted in
or machinery) on laid pipes layers
leaking joints during regular maintenance, check
for leaking system components

Clogged anaerobic filter Filter material must be washed with

high hydraulic pressure. In most cases
Inefficient treatment as discussed in the filter material must be removed,
the previous chapter results in too cleaned and replaced. Personnel must
many suspended solids reaching the wear mouth and skin protection.
filter.
A clogged filter is an indicator that
prior treatment is insufficient and too
many suspended solids reach the unit.
To prevent identical problems in the
future, the cause of insufficient treat-
ment can be identified and corrected
with the help of the previous section/
table.

346
 cont. table 43:
Problem Solution reduced flow at the
outlet of the facility

Clogged horizontal gravel filter Inlet and outlet pipes and channels
should periodically be checked for
Plant growth on only certain parts of obstructions and cleaned, so that a uni-
the filter can indicate irregular flow form flow (vital for efficient treatment)
leading to a reduction of retention time can be guaranteed.
until the filter is totally clogged.
Possible causes include: The plants growing on the filter should
be trimmed regularly to not less than
any of the reasons listed in the sec- 1m. Dead-leaf litter in and around the
tion inefficient treatment too planted gravel filter should be manually
many suspended solids reach the removed every week. The area around
filter the filter should be weeded regularly.
improper use of the system (great If plants grow too densely, they should
amounts of grease or cooking oils be thinned out.
can solidify within the filter and
cause clogging) Look for evidence that heavy equip-
ment has been on the wetland, filter
Dead plant matter or extensive weed or drainage field, to locate areas of
growth on the filter surface can as well possible compaction and damage.
be responsible for filter clogging. Identification of the cause for clogging
may require digging up a small portion
of the wetland or drainage field.

Maintenance might require draining of

the unit, material removal and cleaning.

A clogged filter is an indicator that prior

treatment is insufficient and too many
suspended solids are reaching the unit.
To prevent identical problems in the
future, the cause of insufficient treat-
ment can be identified and corrected
with the help of the previous section.

347
12 System malfunction
symptoms, problems, solutions

cont. table 43:

reduced flow at the Problem Solution
outlet of the facility Structural deficiencies cracks and Testing for leaks or cracks:
leaks
Filling the unit with closed outflow;
cracked or improperly sealed walls waiting for 24 hours to see if it loses
or floors of treatment units water
leaking pipes or pipe joints Empty the unit with closed inflow;
loss of water due to flaws in the waiting for 24 hours to see if water
liner of a horizontal gravel filter infiltrates from the outside
indicated by dying plants
If so, locate the leaks and repair them.

348
12.3 Other problems and nuisances

Symptoms
Excessive mosquito breeding
Problem Solution
Stagnant water turns into a breeding Increase flow, so that water does not
ground for mosquitoes, which cause become stagnant.
discomfort for those near the pond,
and increase the likelihood of insect- Alternatively, introduce lung-breathing
borne diseases such as malaria. fish into the pond (i.e. Gambusia spp.).
Clogged biogas lines caused by an The valve to release water vapours
accumulation of condensed water. should be opened daily, after biogas
has been switched off for one minute.

Biogas burners and pipes should be

cleaned every second day to avoid
clogging with water vapour and ensure
the flow of gas. Ensure that the valve
is switched off during maintenance and
clean gas holes with a small cloth. De-
tach the flexible pipe from the biogas
pipe and clean the connection. Table 44:
Other problems
and nuisances

349
13 List of abbreviations

ABR Anaerobic Baffled Reactor

AF Anaerobic Filter
BALIFOKUS BaliFokus Foundation (NGO), Indonesia
BAPPENAS National Development Planning Agency, Indonesia
BEST Bina Ekonomi Sosial Terpadu Institute for Integrated Economic &
Social Development (NGO), Indonesia
BMZ Bundesministerium fr wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und
Entwicklung German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation
and Development
BNS Basic Needs Services
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
BORDA Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (NGO),
Germany
CBS Commuity-Based Sanitation
CDD Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination Society (NGO), India
CERNA Centre dEconomie Industrielle; the Cerna is the Centre of Industrial
Economics at Mines ParisTech
CESR Center for Environmental System Research, University of Kassel,
Germany
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board, under the Indian Ministry of
Environment and Forests
CSC Community Sanitation Centre
DALY Disability Adjusted Life Year
DED Detailed Engineering Design
DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment System(s)
DM Dry Matter
DO Dissolved Oxygen
EAWAG Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology
EEA European Environment Agency
EoI Expression of Interest
GIS Geographical Information System
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GP Gram Panchayat (Indian Government Administration on Village level)
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
IDR Indonesian Rupiah (currency)
INR Indian Rupees (currency)
IPLT Indonesian name for municipal sludge treatment plant
JMP-WHO/ The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
UNICEF is co-funded by WHO and UNICEF
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCM Life Cycle Management
LPTP Lembaga Pengembangan Teknologi Pedesaan (NGO), Indonesia
Ltd. Private company limited by shares
MoU Memorandum of Understanding

350
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NTU Standardized Degree of Turbidity
OTM Organic Total Solids
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PE-HD or HDPE High Density Polyethylene
pH pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution
PHAST Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation
PhP Philippines Pesos (currency)
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RPA Rapid Participatory Assessment
SANIMAS Sanitation by Neighbourhoods, Community-Based Sanitation Project,
2001-04 financed by a trustfund from AusAID managed by WSP
East Asia. Ongoing as national sanitation programme under multi-
finance scheme (Ministry of Public Works, local level authorities
and beneficiaries)
SDSI Sustainable Development Strategy Institute
SENA Chinese State Environmental Protection Administration
SME Small and Medium Entities
SS Suspended Solids
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TS Total Solids
UASB Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
UNDP-HDR The Human Development Report is an annual milestone publication
by the United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund (originally United Nations Inter-
national Children's Emergency Fund)
UN-WWDR United Nations World Water Development Report
UK United Kingdom
US United States
US EPA United States Environmental Pollution Agency
UV Ultraviolett radiation
VFA Volatile Fatty Acids
VIP Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine
VS Volatile Solids
WaterGAP Water, Global Assessment and Prognosis (Modelling Tool)
WEDC Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough
University, United Kingdom
WEFTEC Water Environment Federations annual Technical Exhibition
and Conference
WHO World Health Organisation
WSP Water and Sanitation Program
WWAP World Water Assessment Programme
ZP Zilla Parishad (Indian Government Admistration on District level)
ZUT Zhejiang University of Technology

351
14 Appendix

14.1 Geometric formulas

Geometric formulas
rectangle A=axb
rectangular prism A = 2x (a x b+a x c+b x c) V=axbxc
trapezium A= a+c x h
2
trapeziform prism V = h x h (a x b + c x d + a x b x c x d)
3
circle A = x r C=2xxr
cylinder A (mantle) = 2 x x r x h V = x r x h
sphere (ball) A = 4 x x r V = 4 x x r
3
spherical segment A=2xxrxh V = x h x (r- h)
3
cone A (mantle) = x r x s V = x r x h
3
law of pythagoras a + b = c sides of 90 triangle: 3 / 4 / 5
tangent a/b tan 45 = 1
tan 30 = 0.577
Table 45:
tan 60 = 1.732
Geometric formulas

14.2 Energy requirement and cost of pumping

A B C D E F G H I
1 Energy requirement and cost of pumping
2 flow rate main flow flow rate pump high assumed efficiency required cost of annual
h/d per hour head loss of pump power of energy energy cost
pump
3 m/d h m/h m m kw ECU/kWh ECU
4 26 10 2.6 10 3 0.5 0.18 0.15 100.85

Table 46:
C4 = A4 / B4
Energy
requirement G4 = 9.81 x (D4 + E4) x C4 / F4 / 3600
and cost of
pumping I4 = B4 x G4 x 365 x H

352
14.3 Sedimentation and flotation

The performance of a domestic-wastewater settler is sufficient when the effluent

contains less than 0.2ml/l settleable sludge after a 2h jar test.

The general formula for calculating the surface area for floatation and sedimentation tanks is:

Water surface [m] = water volume [m/h] /

slowest settling (floatation) velocity [m/h].

Settling and floatation velocity can be calculated by observing the settling process
in a glass cylinder. The formula is:

Settling (floatation) velocity [m/h] =

height of cylinder [m] / settling (floatation) time [h]

Flocculent sludge has a settling velocity between 0.5 and 3 m/h.

The velocity in a sand trap should not exceed 0.3 m/s [1000 m/h].
The minimum cross section area is then:

Area [m] = flow [m/s] / 0.3 [m/s], or

Area [m] = flow [m/h] / 1000 [m/h]

% of total
100
90
80
70 SS
60
TS
50
40 BOD
30 COD
20 Appendix_1:
10 Removal rates
0 in settling tests
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 5,5 6 6,5 7 of domestic
time in h wastewater

The above graph shows the results of settling tests in a jar test under batch conditions
(SS = settleable solids, TS = total solids; COD is measured as CODKMnO4). The curve might
be different in through-flow settlers. The more turbulent the flow, the lesser the removal rate
of settleable solids; however, BOD- and COD-removal rates increase with more complete
mixing of old and new wastewater.

353
 14 Appendix

14.4 Flow in partly filled round pipes

A B C D E F G H I J
1 Flow in partly filled round pipes
2 pipe flow flow area moisted hydraulic slope rough flow speed flow
height area/m radius ness
3 chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen estimat. calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 d h/d A U rhy s rf v Q Q
5 m m/m m m m % m/s l/s m/h
6 0.1 0.15 0.00074 0.080 0.0093 1.0% 0.35 0.21 0.153 0.55
7 0.1 0.25 0.00154 0.105 0.0147 1.0% 0.35 0.31 0.478 1.72
8 0.1 0.35 0.00245 0.127 0.0194 1.0% 0.35 0.40 0.969 3.49
9 0.1 0.50 0.00393 0.157 0.0250 1.0% 0.35 0.49 1.932 6.96
10 0.1 0.75 0.00632 0.210 0.0302 1.0% 0.35 0.58 3.641 13.11

Table 47:
Flow in partly filled
round pipes
Formulas of spreadsheet for flow in partly filled pipes (after Kutters short formula)

C6 = 0.295 x (A6/2) ^ 2

All figures as here 0.295 are geometrical constants, referring to the flow height
in relation to the diameter of the pipe.

D6 = 1.591 x (A6 / 2) C8 = 0,98 x (A8 / 2) ^ 2

E6 = C6 / D6
D8 = 2,532 x (A8 / 2)
H6 = (100 x SQRT (E6) / (G6 + SQRT (E6))) x
SQRT (E6 x F6) E8 = C8 / D8

I6 = C6 x H6 x 1000
H8 = (100 x SQRT (E8) / (G8 + SQRT (E8))) x
J6 =I6 x 3.6 SQRT(E8 x F8)

C7 = 0.614 x (A7 / 2) ^ 2 I8 = C8 x H8 x 1000

D7 = 2.094 x (A7 / 2)
J8 = I8 x 3.6
E7 = C7 / D7
C9 = 1.571 x (A9 / 2) ^2
H7 = (100 x SQRT (E7) / (G7 + SQRT (E7))) x
SQRT (E7 x F7) D9 = 3.142 x (A9 / 2)

E9 = C9 / D9
I7 = C7 x H7 x 1000
H9 = (100 x SQRT (E9) / (G9 + SQRT (E9))) x
J7 = I7 x 3,6 SQRT (E9 x F9)

354
 I9 = C9 x H9 x 1000 E10 = C10 / D10

J9 = I9 x 3.6 H10 = (100 x SQRT (E10) / (G10 + SQRT

(E10))) x SQRT (E10 x F10)
C10 = 2.528 x (A10 / 2) ^ 2
I10 = C10 x H10 x 1000
D10 = 4.19 x (A10 / 2)
J10 = I10 x 3.6

14.5 Conversion factors of US-units

Conversion factors of US-units

item US-unit SI-unit US/SI-unit SI/US-unit

length in cm (10mm) 2.540 0.394
ft (12in) m (100mm) 0.305 3.281
yd (3ft) m 0.914 1.094
mi (1,760yd) km (1,000m) 1.609 0.621
area in cm 6.452 0.155
ft m 0.093 10.764
yd m 0.836 1.196
acre hectar (10,000m) 0.405 2.471
mi km 2.590 0.386
volume in cm 16.387 0.061
ft liter 28.317 0.035
ft m 0.0283 35.314
gallon litre 3.785 0.264
yd (202gal) m 0.765 1.308
acre-foot m 1.2335 0.811
force / mass lb N 4.448 0.225
oz g 28.350 0.035
lb (16oz) kg (1,000kg) 0.454 2.205
ton (short) (2,000lb) t (1,000kg) 0.907 1.102
ton (long) (2,240lb) t (1,000kg) 1.016 0.984
pressure in H2O Pa (N/m) 204.88 0.005
lb/in kPa (kN/m) 6.895 0.145
lb/in Pa (N/m) 47.88 0.021
flow rate gal/min l/s (86.4m/d) 0.0631 15.850
gal/d l/s 0.0000438 22,825
gal/min (1,440gal/d) m/d (0.0116l/s) 0.00379 264
energy + Btu kJ 1.055 0.948
power hp-h MJ 2.685 0.373
kWh kJ 3,600 0.00028
Ws J 1,000 0.001
hp kW 0.746 1.341
Table 48:
temperature F C 0.56(F-32) 1.8(C)+32 Conversion factors
F K 0.56(F+460) 1.8(K)-460 of US-units

355
15 Bibliography

Abwassertechnische Vereinigung e.V. (ed.), Lehr- und Handbuch der Abwasser-

technik, Vol. I-VI, 3rd Edition, Wilhelm Ernst und Sohn, Berlin, Mnchen,
Dsseldorf, 1982

ADB (Asian Development Bank), Water in Asian Cities. Utility Profile. Manila, 2006

Alaerts, G.J., Veenstra, S., Bentvelsen, M., van Duijl, L.A. at al., Feasibility of
Anaerobic Sewage Treatment in Sanitation Strategies in Developing Countries
IHE Report Series 20, International Institute for Hydraulic and Environmental
Engineering, Delft, 1990

Allen, Adriana, Julio Davila, and Pascale Hoffman. Governance of Water and
Sanitation Services for the Peri-Urban Poor: A Framework for Understanding
and Action in Metropolitan Regions. University College London, Development
Planning Unit, London, 2006

Bachmann, A., Beard, V.L. and McCarty, P.L., Performance Characteristics of the
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor, Water Science and Technology, IAWQ, 1985

Bahlo, K., Wach, G., Naturnahe Abwasserreinigung Planung und Bau von
Pflanzenklranlagen, 2nd Edition, kobuch, Staufen bei Freiburg, 1993

Batchelor, A. and Loots, P., A Critical Evaluation of a Pilot Scale Subsurface Flow
Wetland: 10 Years After Commissioning, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 35,
No. 5, IAWQ, 1997

Barber, W.P., Stuckey and D.C., The Use of the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR)
for Wastewater Treatment: a review, Water Research, 1999

Bischof, W. (Hosang/Bischof), Abwassertechnik, 9th edit., B.G. Teubner Verlag,

Stuttgart, 1989

Blum, D. and Feachem, R.G., Health Aspects of Nightsoil and Sludge Use in
Agriculture and Aquaculture IRCWD Report No. 05/85, (reprint 1997), EAWAG /
SANDEC, Dbendorf CH, 1997

356
Boller, M., Small Wastewater Treatment Plants a Challenge to Wastewater
Engineers, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 35, No. 6, IAWQ, 1997

Brix, H., Do Macrophytes Play a Role in Constructed Wetlands?, Water Science

and Technology, Vol. 35, No. 5, IAWQ, 1997

California Energy Commission, Californias Water-Energy Relationship, Final Staff

Report, CEC-700-2005-011-SF, Sacramento, 2005

Central Pollution Control Board, Guidelines on Environmental Management in

Industrial Estates, Programme Objective Series, Probes/43/1989-90, Delhi, 1990

Central Pollution Control Board, Sewage Pollution, Parivesh Newsletter, Delhi,

2005

Cooper P.F., Hobson J.A., Findlater C., The Use of Reed Bed Treatment Systems
in the UK, Proceedings of conference on small wastewater treatment plants,
edited by Hallvard Odegaard, Trondheim, 1989

Cooper, P.F (ed.), European Design and Operations Guidelines for Reed Bed
Treatment Systems (revised document), EC/EWPCA Emergent Hydrophyte
Treatment Systems Expert Contact Group, Swindon, UK 1990

Cross, P., Strauss, M., Health Aspects of Nightsoil and Sludge Use in Agriculture
and Aquaculture, IRCWD, Dbendorf CH, 1986

De Vries J., Soil filtration of wastewater effluent and mechanism of pore . clog-
ging, JWPCF Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, vol.44, 1972

Denny, P., Implementation of Constructed Wetlands in Developing Countries,

5th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Waste Pollution Control,
Vienna, 1996

Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Ministry of Agriculture,

P.R. of China, Biogas and Sustainable Agriculture, Collection of Papers from the
National Experience Meeting in Yichang, Hubei Province 1992, published in
co-operation with BORDA, Bremen, 1993

357
15 Bibliography

Driouache, A. et al., Biogasnutzung in der Abwasserstation von Ben Sergao

(Marokko) Methoden und Ergebnisse, CDER/PSE (GTZ), Eschborn, 1997

Driouache, A. et al., Promotion de lutilisation du biogaz produit dans des stations

depuration au Maroc, CDER/PSE (GTZ), Marrakech, 1997

Ellenberg, H. et al., Biological Monitoring Signals from the Environment,

GATE/GTZ publication, Vieweg Verlag, Eschborn/ Braunschweig, 1991

European Environment Agency, EEA Glossary, Copenhagen, 2006

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and Jelle Bruinsma
(ed.). World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030 An FAO Perspective, London, 2003

Fasteneau F., Graaf J. and Martijnse G., Comparison of Various Systems for
On-Site Wastewater Treatment, Proceedings of Conference on Small Wastewater
Treatment Plants, edited by Hallvard Odegaard, Trondheim, 1989

Friedrich E., Pillay S.D and Buckley C.A., The Use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
in the Water Industry and the Case for an Environmental Performance Indicator,
Water SA, 33 (4), 143-159, 2007

Friedrich E., Pillay S.D and Buckley C.A, Environmental Life Cycle Assessment
A South African Case Study of an Urban Water Cycle, Water SA, 35 (1), 73-84,
2009

Friedrich, E. and Buckley, C.A., The Application of LCA within LCM for Municipal
Water Systems Are We Closing the Loop?, Proceedings of the 4th International
Conference on Life Cycle Management, Cape Town, 2009

Garg, S. K., Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution Engineering, 9th revised edit.,
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1994

Geller, G., Horizontal Subsurface Flow Systems in the German Speaking Countries:
Summary of Long-Term Scientific and Practical Experiences, Water Science and
Technology, Vol. 35, No. 55, IAWQ, 1997

358
Grau, P., Low Cost Wastewater Treatment, Water Science and Technology,
Vol. 33, No 8, IAWQ, 1996

GRET, Water and Health in Underprivileged Urban Areas, PS Eau Edition GRET,
France, 1994

Global Water Partnership, Desafos de la regulacin de los servicios de agua

y saneamiento en Amrica Latina, Stockholm, 2004

Government of South Africa,White Paper on Basic Household Sanitation,

Pretoria, 2001

Gutterer, B., Decentralized Waste Water Treatment in Developing Countries

an E-learning course, Bremen/Berlin, 2004

Gutterer, B., DEWATS in India an Evaluation Report, Berlin, 2007

Grobicki, A. and Stuckey, D.C., Performance of the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor,

Poster Papers, Fifth International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion, Bologna,
May 1988

GTZ, Grundlagen Verbesserung der Entsorgung in stdtischen Armutsgebieten,

Eschborn, 2002

GTZ/Ecosan, Decision-Making Tools Papers of the 2nd Ecosan Symposium,

Lbeck, Germany, 2003

Cities in a Globalizing World. Global Report on Human Settlements, London, 2001

Hagendorf, U., Verbleib von Abwasserinhaltsstoffen bei Pflanzenklranlagen

im Langzeitbetrieb, FGU-Seminar: Naturnahe Abwasserbehandlung durch
Pflanzenklranlagen, Berlin, 1997

Hamburger Umwelt Institut e. V. and O Instituto Ambiental, Biomass Nutrient

Recycling - purifying water through agricultural production, Hamburg/Silva
Jardim, 1994

359
16 Bibliography

Hanqing Yu, Joo-Hwa Tay and Wilson, F., A Sustainable Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Process for Tropical and Subtropical Regions in Developing Countries,
Water Science and Technology, Vol. 35, No. 9, IAWQ, 1997

Heinss, U., Larmie, S.A., Strauss, M., Solids Separation and Pond Systems for the
Treatment of Faecal Sludges in the Tropics, EAWAG/SANDEC, Dbendorf
CH, 1998

Imhoff, K. and Imhoff, K.R., Taschenbuch der Stadtentwsserung, 27th edit,

R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Mnchen, Wien, 1990

Inamori, Y. et.al., Sludge Production Characteristics of Small Scale Wastewater

Treatment Facilities Using Anaerobic/Aerobic Biofilm Reactors, Water Science
and Technology, Volume 34, No. 3-4, IAWQ, 1996

IWMI (International Water Management Institute). Recycling Realities: Managing

Health Risks to Make Wastewater an Asset. Water Policy Briefing 17. Colombo,
2006

Jenssen, P.D. and Siegrist, R.L., Technology Assessment of Wastewater

Treatment by Soil Infiltration Systems, Proceedings of Conference on Small
Wastewater Treatment Plants, edited by Hallvard Odegaard, Trondheim, 1989

Johnstone, D.M.W. and Horan, N.J., Institutional Development Standards and

River Quality: A UK History and Some Lessons for Industrialising Countries,
Water Science and Technology, Vol. 33, No. 3, IAWQ ,1996

Kadlec, Robert H. and Knight, Robert L., Treatment Wetlands, Lewis Publishers;
Boca Raton, New York, London, Tokyo, 1996

Karstens, A. and Berthe-Corti, L., Biologischer Hintergrund zur anaeroben

Klrung von Abwssern University of Oldenburg/BORDA,1996

Kazaglis, A., Kraemer, P., Sanitation Success Stories in India and Implications
for Urban Sanitation Planning, 32nd WEDC International Conference, Colombo,
2006

360
Khanna, P. and Kaul, S.N. Appropriate Waste Management Technologies for
Developing Countries, Selected proceedings of the 3rd IAWQ spezialized confe-
rence on Appropriate Waste Management Technologies for Developing Countries,
Nagpur, 1995

Knoch, W., Wasserversorgung, Abwasserreinigung und Abfallentsorgung

Chemische und analytische Grundlagen, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim,
1991

Kraemer, P., Ulrich, A., Mainstreaming Community Based Sanitation in Urban

Areas of South Asia, 32nd WEDC International Conference, Colombo, 2006

Kraft, H., Alternative Decentralized Sewage Systems in Regions of Dense

Population Root Zone Treatment Plants and other Systems, Indo-German
Workshop on Root Zone Treatment Systems, CPCB/GTZ, New Delhi, 1995

Krekeler, T., Decentralised Sanitation and Wastewater Treatment, revised 2nd

edition, Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), Hannover,
2008

Kunst, S. and Flasche, K., Untersuchung zur Betriebssicherheit und Reinigungs-

leistung von Kleinklranlagen mit besonderer Bercksichtigung der bewachsenen
Bodenfilter, Abschlussbericht, ISAH, University of Hannover, 1995

Lago, S. and Boutin, C., Etude comparative des procds dpuration biologique
dans le contexte africain, CEMAGREF L132, 1991

Liao Xianming, Anaerobic Digester for Stabilizing Domestic Sewage, BRTC,

Chengdu, 1993

Lienard, A. and Coll., Coupling of Reed Bed Filters and Ponds an example in
France, CEMAGREF, Lyon, 1994

Loll, U., Vergleich zwischen Wurzelraumentsorgungs- und Teichklranlage am

Projekt Brandau BMFT/ATV Seminar: Naturnahe Verfahren der Abwasser-
behandlung, Pflanzenklranlagen, Essen-Heidhausen, 1989

361
16 Bibliography

Lusaka Water and Sewerage Company Urban Development Plans and

Infrastructure for the City of Lusaka, Lusaka, 2005

Maeseneer, J.D. and Cooper, P., Vertical Versus Horizontal-Flow Reedbeds

for Treatment of Domestic and Similar Wastewaters, IAWQ Specialist Group
Newsletter No. 16, June 1997

Mara, D., Design Manual for Stabilization Ponds in India, Ministry of

Environment and Forests/DFID, published by Lagoon Technology International
Ltd., Leeds, 1997

McCarty, P. L., Towards Sustainability A Paradigm Shift in Concepts, Analyses,

and Goals, keynote-presentation at WEFTEC, San Diego, 2007

Metcalf and Eddy: Wastewater Engineering, Treatment Disposal Reuse,

3rd Edition, TATA McGraw-Hill Edition, New Delhi, 1996

Morgan, P., Toilets That Make Compost, Practical Action Publishing,

Stockholm, 2008

Mudrak, K. and Kunst, S., Biologie der Abwasserreinigung, 3rd Edition, Gustav
Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1991

National Development Planning Agency/Bappenas: National Policy: Development

of Community Managed Water Supply And Environmental, Jakarta, 2002

ODI (Overseas Development Institute). Right to Water: Legal Forms, Political

Channels. ODI Briefing Paper, London, 2004

Orozco, A., Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Using an Open Plug Flow Baffled
Reactor at Low Temperature, Poster Papers, Fifth International Symposium on
Anaerobic Digestion, Bologna, May 1988

Pande, D.R., De Poli, F. and Tilche, A., Some Aspects of Horizontal Design Biogas
Plants Poster Papers, Fifth International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion,
Bologna, May 1988

362
Pandey, G.N. and Carney, G.C., Environmental Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd, Delhi, 1992

Pedersen, P., Ecology and Urban Planning, Working Paper No.1, Dept. Of
Human Settlements, The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, 1991

Platzer, Chr. and Mauch, K., Evaluations Concerning Soil Clogging in Vertical
Flow Reed Beds, 5th International Conference on Wetland Systems for Waste
Pollution Control, Vienna, 1996

Polprasert, C., Organic Waste Recycling, Asian Insitute of Technology, Bangkok,

1989

Reuter, S., Wendland, C., Samwel, M., Bender, M. et.al., Safe Sanitation:
A Challenge We Can Meet Together Policy Paper on Sustainable Sanitation,
German NGO-Forum on Environment and Development, 2008

Reuter, S., Wendland, C., von Mnch, E., Hnel, M., Sundberg, C., Platzer, C.
et.al., Links Between Sanitation, Climate Change and Renewable Energies,
SuSanA Factsheet WG03, Eschborn, 2009

Rybczynski, W., Polprasert, C.M., and McGarry, Low Cost Technology Options
for Sanitation A State of the Art Review and Annotated Bibliography,
IDRC 102 e, Ottawa, 1978

Sasse, L. and Otterpohl, R., Status Report on Decentralised Low Maintenance

Wastewater Treatment Systems (LOMWATS), produced by BORDA in
co-operation with AFPRO, CEEIC, GERES, HRIEE and SIITRAT, Bremen, 1996

Sasse, L., Kellner, C. and Kimaro, A., Improved Biogas Unit for Developing
Countries, GATE Publication, Vieweg Verlag, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden, 1991

Schertenleib, R., Improved Traditional Nightsoil Disposal in China An Alternative

to the Conventional Sewerage System?, SANDEC-News, No.1, Dbendorf CH,
1995

363
16 Bibliography

Schierup, H.H. and Brix, H., Danish Experience with Emergent Hydrophyte
Treatment Systems (EHTS) and Prospects in the Light of Future Requirements
to Outlet Water Quality, Proceedings of Conference on Small Wastewater
Treatment Plants, edit. Hallvard Odegaard, Trondheim, 1989

Shilton, Andy N., Prasad Julius N., Tracer Studies of a Gravel Bed Wetland; in:
Water Science and Technology, Vol. 34, No. 3-4, pp 421-425, IWA,
London, 1996

Shuval, H., Coll, J., Wastewater Irrigation in Developing Countries Health

Effects and Technical Solutions, World Bank No. 51, Washington DC, 1986

Strauss, M., Blumenthal, U.J., Human Waste Use in Agriculture and

Aquaculture Executive Summary, IRCWD Report No. 09/90, Dbendorf CH, 1990

Suwarnarat, K., Abwasserteichverfahren als Beispiel naturnaher Abwasserbehand-

lungsmanahmen in tropischen Entwicklungslndern, (Dissertation), Darmstadt,
1979

Tilley, E., Luethi, C., Morel, A., Zurbrgg, C., Schertenleib, R., Compendium of
Sanitation Systems and Technologies, EAWAG-Sandec, Dbendorf, 2008

Ulrich, A., Reuter, S. Community Based Sanitation Program in Tangerang and

Surabaya/Indonesia in: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on
Ecological Sanitation, GTZ and IWA, Eschborn 2004

Ulrich, A., Thomas, A. Mainstreaming Community Based Sanitation in Urban Areas

of South East Asia, 30th WEDC International Conference, Vientiane, 2004

UNDP, Human Development Report, New York, 2006

UNEP, Global Environment Outlook 3, Nairobi, 2002

UNEP, Global Environmental Outlook 4, Nairobi, 2007

UNESCO, World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), UN World Water

Development Report, Paris, 2003

364
UNESCO, WWAP, UN World Water Development Report, 2nd Edition, Paris,
2005

UNESCO, WWAP, UN World Water Development Report, 3rd Edition, Paris, 2009

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Constructed Wetlands

and Aquatic Plant Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment,
EPA/625/1-88/022, Cincinnati, 1988

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Small Community

Wastewater Systems, EPA/600/M-91/032, Washington, 1991

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Wastewater Treatment /

Disposal for Small Communities, Design Manual, EPA/625/R-92/005, Cincinati,
1992

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Global Mitigation of

Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases, EPA 430-R-06-005, Washington, 2006

Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific (WSP-EAP),
Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid, Jakarta, 2005

Wendland, C., Anaerobic Digestion of Blackwater and Kitchen Refuse,

PhD thesis, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, 2009

WHO, WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater,
Volume I, Policy and Regulatory Aspects, Volume II, Wastewater Use in Agriculture,
Volume III, Wastewater and Excreta Use in Aquaculture, Volume IV, Safe Use of
Wastewater, Excreta And Greywater, Geneva, 2006

WHO/UNICEF, JMP, Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target:
A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress, Geneva, 2004

WHO/UNICEF, JMP, Water for Life: Making it Happen, Geneva, 2005

WHO/UNICEF, JMP, Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target:
the Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade, Geneva, 2006

365
16 Bibliography

WHO/UNICEF, JMP, Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation; Special Focus

on Sanitation, Geneva, 2008

Winblad, Uno Ed: Ecological Sanitation, Sida, Stockholm, 1998

Winblad, U. and Kilama, W., Sanitation Without Water, revised and enlarged
Edition, Macmillan, London 1985

Wissing F., Wasserreinigung mit Pflanzen, Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1995

Werner, C. Ecosan Speech and Presentation at UN-CSD 12, New York, 2004

World Bank and World Health Organization, Health Aspects of Wastewater and
Excreta Use in Agriculture and Aquaculture The Engelberg Report, IRCWD,
No. 23, 1985

World Bank, Environment Monitor Thailand and Philippines, Manila, 2005

World Bank, Philippines Environment Monitor, 2003

World Bank, Indonesia Environment Monitor, Jakarta, 2003

World Commission on Water, Water for Life, Delft, 1997

World Health Organization, Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in

Agriculture and Aquaculture, WHO Technical Report Series 778, Geneva, 1989

World Health Organization /UNICEF, Global Water Supply and Sanitation

Assessment, 2000 Report, Geneva, 2000

Yang Xiushan, Garuti, G., Farina, R., Parsi; V. and Tilche, A., Process Differences
Between a Sludge Bed Filter and an Anaerobic Baffled Reactor Treating Soluble
Wastes, Poster Papers, at the Fifth International Symposium on Anaerobic
Digestion, Bologna, May 198

366
Photos:
BORDA Network Archive

Photos courtesy of:

Hesperian Foundation: p.298
Peter Morgan: p. 292
Inge Maltz: p.318
Roediger Vakuum- und Haustechnik
GmbH: p. 308, p. 309

Graphics courtesy of
SANIMAS: p. 59, p. 93, p. 123, p.
289, p. 297, p. 300, p. 301, p. 302,
p. 304

Graphic Design, Layout:

www.conrat.org

367
Designed and produced by
Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association
Phone: +49 (0) 421 137 18 Fax: +49 (0) 421 165 53 23 E-mail: [email protected]

Published by
Water, Engineering and Development Centre
Phone: +44 (0) 15 09 22 28 85 Fax: +44 (0) 15 09 21 10 79 Email: [email protected]
www.lboro.ac.uk/wedc