PDHonline Course E410 (2 PDH)

An Introduction to Solar Energy System

Fundamentals

J. Paul Guyer, P.E., R.A.

2013

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An Introduction to Solar Energy System

Fundamentals

J. Paul Guyer, P.E., R.A.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS
3. BASIC MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS.
4. COLLECTOR SUB-SYSTEM
5. STORAGE SUB-SYSTEM
6. TRANSPORT SUB-SYSTEM
7. CONTROL SUB-SYSTEM
8. SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
9. SUMMARY

(This publication is adapted from the Unified Facilities Criteria of the

United States government which are in the public domain, have been
authorized for unlimited distribution, and are not copyrighted.)

(Figures, tables and formulas in this publication may at times be a little

difficult to read, but they are the best available. DO NOT PURCHASE
THIS PUBLICATION IF THIS LIMITATION IS NOT ACCEPTABLE TO
YOU.)

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1. INTRODUCTION. A solar thermal energy collection system (or "solar system" for
short) is defined as a set of equipment that intercepts incident solar radiation and
stores it as useful thermal energy to offset or eliminate the need for fossil fuel
consumption. Four basic functions are performed by a typical solar system. For this
publication, each function is defined within specific sub-systems of a typical solar
energy system as illustrated in Figure 1 and discussed below.

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Figure 1
Typical solar thermal energy system

1.1 COLLECTOR SUB-SYSTEM. The collector sub-system intercepts incident solar

radiation and transfers it as thermal energy to a working fluid. It is defined as the solar
collectors, the hardware necessary to support the solar collectors, and all
interconnecting piping and fittings required exterior to the building housing the system.

1.2 STORAGE SUB-SYSTEM. The storage sub-system retains collected thermal

energy for later use by the process load. It is defined as a storage tank and its fittings,
as well as necessary supports.

1.3 TRANSPORT SUB-SYSTEM. The transport sub-system delivers energy from the
collectors to storage. This sub-system is defined to include the heat transfer (or

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working) fluid, pump(s), the remaining system piping and fittings, an expansion tank,
and a heat exchanger (if required).

1.4 CONTROL SUB-SYSTEM. The control sub-system must first determine when
enough energy is available for collection. It must then activate the entire system to
collect this energy until it is no longer available as a net energy gain. The control
subsystem thus consists of electronic temperature sensors, a main controlling unit that
analyzes the data available from the temperature sensors, and the particular control
strategy used by the controller.

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2. SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS

2.1 TYPES OF LOADS. Due to the intermittent and varying amounts of solar radiation
available, solar systems used to heat service water are usually not intended to meet
the full thermal energy demands of the process being served. For any given thermal
load, an integrated system should be designed which consists of both a solar energy
collection system and a backup system that can meet the full load requirements. The
solar system size and configuration will be a function of the annual or monthly energy
loads. It is up to the designer to specify a system that will be expected to provide a
given fraction of this load. This is in contrast to the design of a conventional heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system, which is typically sized to meet an
anticipated maximum or design load with no provision to be augmented by another
source. For this reason, solar systems are often sized to meet the average expected
load. Important characteristics of a load include the amount of energy required, the
time of the demand (load schedule), and the temperature range required. Each of
these factors is discussed below solar service water applications.

2.2 SERVICE WATER HEATING. Heating domestic hot water and low-temperature
process water (both referred to as service water heating) will normally be the most
thermally efficient means of using solar energy. The reason is that the demand for
thermal energy for these applications is approximately constant during the entire year,
with the result that auxiliary fuel savings can be realized over the year. In the preheat
configuration, solar heated water is useful at any temperature above that of the
incoming water. An additional benefit is that, when preheating process hot water,
thermal energy may be delivered at a relatively low temperature, which increases the
efficiency of the solar collection process.

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3. BASIC MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS. The

designer should be alert to fundamental materials problems that can occur with solar
energy systems, and careful attention must be given to the materials and fluids used.
Large temperature fluctuations, severe ambient weather conditions, and the variety of
possible fluids and metals that can come in contact with each other are often a cause
of system failure. Some of the basic issues that must be addressed are discussed
briefly below.

3.1 METALLIC CORROSION AND EROSION. Common causes of corrosion include

the presence of dissimilar metals (galvanic corrosion), the presence of dissolved
oxygen, or fluids with a chemical composition that adversely affects the wetted metal
surface. Corrosion may be minimized in solar systems by avoiding dissimilar metals,
decreasing the amount of available dissolved oxygen, and treating particularly
corrosive fluids with inhibitors (However, when using a non-toxic fluid, inhibitors should
be avoided since they require considerable maintenance and often become mildly
toxic upon degradation). Metallic erosion can occur in the system piping if excessive
fluid velocities occur. For the copper piping required for solar systems designed under
this guidance, a velocity limit of 5 feet per second is to be used. Maximum allowable
fluid velocities are dependent upon the type of metal used. Correct pipe sizing and
analysis of fluid flow paths should be used to avoid this problem.

3.2 SCALING. Scaling commonly refers to mineral deposits, such as calcium and
magnesium compounds, that collect and adhere to pipe interiors and equipment.
Scaling is promoted in systems by increased temperatures, high mineral
concentrations and high (alkaline) pH levels. The result of scaling is flow restriction,
high fluid velocities, and a decreased heat transfer rate. Scaling problems are most
often associated with poor-quality water supplies and can be avoided by proper
analysis and treatment of fluids to be used in the system.

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3.3 THERMAL EXPANSION. Differences between thermal rates of expansion for

dissimilar materials often cause problems throughout a solar system. This publication
addresses the thermal expansion issue for locations in the system where the most
problems occur.

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4. COLLECTOR SUB-SYSTEM

4.1 DEFINITION. The collector sub-system includes the collectors and support
structure, and all piping and fittings required to reach a common heat transfer fluid inlet
and outlet. For roof-mounted structures, this sub-system includes all components
above the roofline.

4.2 SOLAR COLLECTORS

4.2.1 OPERATION. A solar collector is a device that absorbs direct (and in some
cases, diffuse) radiant energy from the sun and delivers that energy to a heat transfer
fluid. While there are many different types of collectors, all have certain functional
components in common. The absorber surface is designed to convert radiant energy
from the sun to thermal energy. The fluid pathways allow the thermal energy from the
absorber surface to be transferred efficiently to the heat transfer fluid. Some form of
insulation is typically used to decrease thermal energy loss and allow as much of the
energy to reach the working fluid as possible. Finally, the entire collector package
must be designed to withstand ambient conditions ranging from sub-zero temperatures
and high winds to stagnation temperatures as high as 350 degrees F (177 degrees C).

4.2.2 COLLECTOR TYPES. The three major categories that have been used most
often are flat-plate glazed collectors, unglazed collectors, and evacuated tube
collectors. A general description of each collector type and its application is given
below.

4.2.2.1 FLAT-PLATE. Flat-plate solar collectors are the most common type used and
are best suited for low temperature heating applications, such as service water and
space heating. These collectors usually consist of four basic components: casing,
back insulation, absorber plate assembly, and a transparent cover. The absorber
panel is a flat surface that is coated with a material that readily absorbs solar radiation

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in the thermal spectrum. Some coatings, known as "selective surfaces", have the
further advantage of radiating very little of the absorbed energy back to the
environment. Channels located along the surface or within the absorber plate allow the
working fluid to circulate. Energy absorbed by the panel is carried to the load or to
storage by the fluid. The absorber panel is encased in a box frame equipped with
insulation on the back and sides and one or two transparent covers (glazing) on the
front side. The glazing allows solar radiation into the collector while reducing
convective energy losses from the hot absorber plate to the environment. Similarly,
back insulation is used to reduce conductive energy loss from the absorber plate
through the back of the collector.

4.2.2.2. UNGLAZED. Unglazed collectors are the least complex collector type and
consist of an absorber plate through which water circulates. This plate has no glazing
or back insulation. These collectors are often made of extruded plastic because they
are designed to operate at relatively low temperatures. Since they are not thermally
protected, these collectors should be operated only in warm environments where lower
thermal losses will occur. Swimming pool heating is the most common use of unglazed
collectors.

4.2.2.3 EVACUATED TUBE. Evacuated tube collectors are best suited for higher
temperature applications, such as those required by space cooling equipment or for
higher temperature industrial process water heating. Convective losses to the
environment are decreased in this type of collector by encapsulating the absorber and
fluid path within a glass tube that is kept at a vacuum. Tracking mechanisms and/or
parabolic solar concentrating devices (simple or compound) are often used, resulting
in somewhat higher equipment costs.

4.2.3 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE.

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4.2.3.1 DEFINITIONS. Collector efficiency is defined as the fraction of solar energy

incident upon the face of the collector that is removed by the fluid circulating through
the collector. Several parameters are defined as follows:

Ti = heat transfer fluid inlet temperature.

Ta = ambient air temperature.
I = solar irradiance on the collector
Ac = solar collector surface area.
FR = collector heat removal factor, a dimensionless parameter describing the
ratio

of actual energy gained by the collector to that which would be gained, in the limit, as
the absorber plate temperature approaches the fluid inlet temperature. This value is
similar to a conventional heat exchanger's effectiveness.

UL = overall heat loss coefficient. This factor describes the cumulative heat
transfer between the collector and the ambient surroundings.
t = transmittance of the glazing.
a = absorption coefficient for the absorber plate. Note that this value varies with
wavelength. A selective surface is one that absorbs short wavelength solar
radiation very well while emitting longer wavelength thermal radiation poorly.

4.2.3.2 EFFICIENCY PARAMETERS. The efficiency of a given solar collector will

vary greatly with ambient temperature, storage tank temperature, and the amount of
solar insolation available. For this reason, each type of collector will perform best
under different select conditions. Two parameters are required to describe the
efficiency of a collector. The first is commonly referred to as FRta. This factor includes
the product of the glazing transmittance and the absorption coefficient and is related to
the optical efficiency of the collector. It takes into account reflection losses both
through the cover glazing and those due to imperfect absorption by the absorber plate
coating. For liquid collectors, the fluid flow rate and collector insulation have very little

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effect on this factor. The second factor is related to the thermal losses from the
collector to the surrounding environment. The product of the collector heat removal
factor and the overall heat loss coefficient, FRUL, is used to account for the thermal
resistance characteristics of the collector. Usually, the fluid circulating through the
collector is hotter than the ambient temperature around the collector. This condition
means that solar radiation absorbed by the collector can follow two paths. One path is
from the absorber plate to the circulation fluid. The second path is from the absorber
plate to the surrounding environment. The absorbed solar radiation will be divided
according to the temperature differences of each path and the relative thermal
resistances. For a given process, these temperature differences normally cannot be
controlled. Therefore, the thermal resistances of each path must be considered. The
resistance from the absorber plate to the circulation fluid should be as small as
possible (i.e., a good thermal bond should be made between the fluid circulation tube
and the absorber plate). It then follows that the resistance between the absorber plate
and the surrounding environment should be as large as possible.

4.2.3.3. COLLECTOR ENERGY BALANCE. The collector parameters described

above allow an energy balance to be expressed as:

Energy Collected = Solar Energy Absorbed - Thermal Energy Losses to the

Environment

The energy balance can be written in a simple equation form using the efficiency
parameters described above:

Energy Collected = (FRTa)(I)(Ac) - (FRUL)(Ac)(Ti - Ta) (eq. 1)

Equation 1 shows that heat losses to the environment are subtracted from the net
solar radiation transmitted into, and absorbed by, the collector. Assuming that the
efficiency parameters are fixed for a given collector model, the main factors that affect
the amount of energy collected are I, Ti, and Ta. The geographical location and the

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season dictate the weather variables I and Ta. The type of process load and system
configuration determines the relative circulation fluid temperature, Ti.

4.2.3.4 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY PLOT. Equation 1 can be rewritten as a

dimensionless "efficiency" equation by dividing both sides by the product of I and A c:

Collector Efficiency = FR Ta FR UL(Ti - Ta) / I (eq. 2)

Note that this efficiency equation is dependent on only one variable that is a
combination of I, Ti, and Ta. This allows it to be graphed in a straightforward manner.
Figure 2 is an example of a typical collector efficiency plot. Optical losses are shown
as a constant decrease in collector performance, while thermal losses increase as (T i -
Ta)/I increases. The values of FRta and FRUL can be determined from this type of plot.
FRta corresponds to the intercept value where the collector efficiency curve crosses the
vertical graph axis. FRta is a dimensionless variable with a value between 0 and 1. FRUL
is calculated by dividing FRta by the intercept value on the horizontal axis (it is the
negative slope of the plotted line). FRUL has units of Btu per square foot per hour per
degree F.

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Figure 2
Typical collector efficiency curve

4.2.3.5 PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS COLLECTOR TYPES. Figure 3 shows why

collector efficiency is not always a good indicator of overall collector performance. On
any given day, a solar collector can operate over a wide range of efficiencies as the
solar radiation, ambient temperature, and heat transfer fluid temperature change.
When insolation levels are low early in the day, the efficiency of the collector
approaches zero. As solar radiation levels increase, the collection efficiency increases
until it reaches some maximum level. It will then decrease as the solar insolation and
ambient temperature decrease at the end of the day. Because of the variable position
of the sun, collectors must be oriented so that they are exposed to an acceptable
amount of solar radiation throughout the year. Proper collector orientation and tilt
values depend on the specific application and system type. Each collector type
operates most efficiently in a certain region of the plot, which corresponds to different

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operating conditions or applications. For example, the unglazed collector works very
well under conditions of high solar radiation levels and small temperature differences
between the collector fluid and the outdoor temperature (this condition corresponds to
the left-hand side of plot). Glazed collectors are better insulated from the outdoor
environment and are therefore less sensitive to the solar radiation level and outdoor
temperature (shaded region of plot). Evacuated tube collectors are the best insulated
of the three types, and will outperform the others at higher operating temperatures
(right-hand side of plot). In general, the left-hand side of the plot corresponds to low
temperature applications such as swimming pool heating and the shaded region to
service water heating and building space heating. The right-hand side is most
applicable to high-temperature processes such as space cooling. An ideal collector
illustrated at the top of the plot, with FRta equal to one and FRUL equal to zero.

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Figure 3
Typical solar collector efficiency plots

4.2.3.6 PERFORMANCE RATINGS. The established test for defining the efficiency
parameters of solar collectors is ASHRAE Standard 93. This test is performed by
independent laboratories and should be available from collector manufacturers.

4.3 COLLECTOR ARRAY. Individual collectors are normally connected together into
groups called "banks". These banks are then piped together to form the complete
collector array. Proper sizing of these banks is required to maintain uniform flow
throughout the collector array. For efficient system performance, the flow must be
balanced throughout the entire array.

4.4 ARRAY SUPPORT STRUCTURE

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4.4.1 PURPOSE. A support system is required for the following reasons.

4.4.1.1 SECURE THE COLLECTORS in the correct orientation for maximum solar
gain.

4.4.1.2 WITHSTAND THE VARIOUS structural and thermal loads imposed upon the
array.

4.4.1.3 RESIST THE IMPACT of environmental deterioration.

4.4.1.4 BE AS LIGHTWEIGHT and inexpensive as possible.

4.4.2 TYPES. There are two basic types of support structures: roof-mounted and
ground-mounted. Roof-mounted structures are the most common and are preferred
over ground-mounted structures, to avoid vandalism and aesthetic problems. Ground
mounting may be necessary where there is insufficient solar access at the roof level
and in retrofit situations where the roof cannot support the array or proper access to
the roof for piping and sensor wiring is not available. Flat roofs require rack-type
structures that are heavier and more costly than the type of structure normally used to
mount collectors on sloped roofs. However, rack-mounted collectors on flat roofs are
usually easier to service.

4.4.3 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS. One of the most important issues

addressed by structural codes is the design load. Many loads are imposed on a
collector array, including dead and live loads; those imposed by the environment, such
as wind, snow and seismic loads; and thermal loads caused by the effects of
temperature extremes and changes. Wind loads (along with snow loads at some
locations) have, by far, the most significant effect on the structure. Dead loads are
defined as those attached permanently to the array structure. Live loads are those
applied to the array structure temporarily, other than wind, seismic and dead loads (a
maintenance worker, for example). The combination of these loads at any instant must

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be accommodated by the structural design. Local building codes usually prescribe the
design load combination to be used. The design and construction of support structures
is usually governed by local building and structural codes that are often adapted from
nationally recognized U.S. codes. These codes establish the design criteria to insure
structural safety and integrity over the expected life of the system.

4.4.4 MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS. The materials chosen for the array structure
must also be able to withstand environmental degradation. Oxidation, caused by
humidity and precipitation, affects all metallic surfaces to varying degrees. Aluminum is
required for the array support structure because the oxide layer that forms on the
surface when it is exposed to moisture protects it from further degradation. Often,
aluminum is anodized to provide a controlled layer of oxidation. The use of steel would
require a coating system to be applied and maintained, which adds to the system
lifecycle cost. The effect of temperature changes must also be taken into account for
lengthy structures, especially the difference in thermal expansion between the various
types of metals used in solar systems. System piping, which is usually copper,
expands at a different rate than the aluminum structure.

4.4.5. COLLECTOR SUB-SYSTEMS (LESSONS LEARNED)

4.4.5.1 COLLECTORS. The single glazed, flat-plate, selective surface collector has
proven to be the most reliable and best suited for service water heating needs.
Although reflector systems are sometimes advocated to increase the insolation on a
collector, they can seldom be justified because they must be cleaned, adjusted, and
maintained, and can add a large capital expense. Similarly, strategies involving
seasonal collector tilt adjustment are to be avoided. Problems also have arisen with
evacuated tube collectors due to thermal expansion and improper fluid flow. The
interior construction quality of flat plate collectors remains an issue. Problems such as
poor absorber plate/fluid path bonding and improper allowance for absorber plate
expansion have been observed. Some collectors have not performed as advertised

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due to atypical flow rates used during testing and degradation of collector components.
Outgassing from insulation and binder materials also remains an issue.

4.4.5.2 ARRAYS. The most common problem with collector arrays is that they do not
achieve balanced flow. Shading of the collectors by other collectors and nearby
objects must be avoided. Some systems have experienced leaks because thermal
expansion was not considered, or improper design methods were used in allowing for
thermal expansion.

4.4.5.3 ARRAY SUPPORT. Most support structure problems have been associated
with material maintenance and aesthetics rather than structural integrity.

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5. STORAGE SUB-SYSTEM

5.1 DEFINITION AND OPERATION. The intermittent nature of solar energy

establishes a need for a sub-system capable of storing energy for 1 to 2 days. The
most common method of doing this for an active solar system is through the use of a
water-filled tank that obtains thermal energy from the collector loop either directly or
through a heat exchanger. The water from the storage tank then functions as a source
of preheated water to an auxiliary heater or boiler that adds the necessary energy to
raise it to the required temperature. In some cases, the storage medium may be
heated above the required temperature, and a mixing valve can be used to reduce the
storage fluid to the desired temperature before it reaches the load. The systems
discussed in this manual assume a storage requirement of approximately 1 day.

5.2 STORAGE MEDIA. The most effective and trouble-free storage medium is
water. For this reason, systems discussed in this manual will assume water-based
storage.

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6. TRANSPORT SUB-SYSTEM

6.1 PURPOSE. The fluid transport sub-system is required to maintain efficient

transport of thermal energy from the collectors to the storage tank. Fundamental
design decisions regarding freeze protection, corrosion resistance, control strategies,
and fluid toxicity issues will be made with respect to this part of the solar energy
system. The transport subsystem consists of all fluid piping on the interior of the
building, a heat transfer fluid, heat exchanger, expansion tank, pumps, and various
types of valves and fittings.

6.2 FREEZE PROTECTION

6.2.1 PURPOSE. Freeze protection is required in any climate that can experience
temperatures less than 32 degrees F (0 degrees C). However, collectors may be
subjected to sub-freezing temperatures (due to radiant heat transfer to the sky on a
clear night) even when ambient temperatures are as high as 38 degrees F (3 degrees
C).

6.2.2 STRATEGIES. Common freeze protection strategies include the use of an

antifreeze fluid in the collector loop, or to drain all exposed piping when freezing
conditions exist

6.2.3. STAGNATION AND OVERHEAT PROTECTION. Stagnation is a condition that

may occur when the system is deactivated while fluid is contained in the collectors
during periods of solar insolation. For example, on a sunny day stagnation
temperatures in a flat-plate collector can exceed 350 degrees F (177 degrees C),
leading to vaporization of the transport fluid within the collector and excessive
pressure build up in the system piping. In the case of a closed-loop system, it is
important to ensure that all components in the collector loop can withstand these

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temperatures and pressures. A pressure relief valve and an expansion tank should
also be used to protect the system components and control pressures.

6.3 HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS

6.3.1 DEFINITION. The heat transfer fluid is contained in the collector loop. Selection
of the proper fluid is critical, since certain fluid properties can cause serious corrosion
problems or degrade performance. Only water and propylene-glycol/water solutions
are considered.

6.3.2 TYPES OF FLUIDS

6.3.2.1 WATER. As a heat transfer fluid, good quality water offers many advantages.
It is safe, non-toxic, chemically stable, inexpensive, and a good heat transfer medium.
Two drawbacks include a relatively high freezing point and a low boiling point.
Excessive scaling may occur if poor quality water is used.

6.3.2.2 GLYCOLS. Propylene or ethylene glycol is often mixed with water to form an
antifreeze solution. Propylene glycol has the distinct advantage of being nontoxic,
whereas ethylene glycol is toxic and extreme caution must be used to ensure that it is
isolated from any potable water. For this reason, uninhibited USP/food-grade
propylene glycol and water solution will be specified for any solar preheat system that
requires an antifreeze solution.

6.4 HEAT EXCHANGERS

6.4.1 PURPOSE. Heat exchangers are used to transfer thermal energy between fluids
while keeping them separate to prevent mixing or to maintain a pressure difference
between fluid loops.

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6.4.2 TYPES. Heat exchangers are available in a wide variety of sizes and
configurations. The primary concern is the chemical composition of the fluids used in
the heat exchanger. The fluid determines whether a single- or double-isolation heat
exchanger will be necessary. Double-isolation heat exchangers are required whenever
there is possible contamination of the potable water supply by a toxic collector loop
fluid. Also important is the heat exchanger location with regard to the storage tank.
Immersion-type heat exchangers are located within the storage tank and operate by
forced convection on the tube side and natural convection on the tank side. Single
isolation external heat exchangers are separate from the tank and require two pumps
to circulate the fluid on both the hot and the cold side. For solar systems, increased
performance due to forced convection heat transfer in external heat exchangers
usually offsets the additional cost of operating a second pump. For this reason,
external, forced convection heat exchangers are usually used for systems designed
under this guidance.

6.4.3 CONFIGURATIONS. Of the many configurations of heat exchangers possible,

two have found widespread use with liquid-based solar systems. The most common
heat exchanger used in past solar projects is the shell-and-tube configuration, in which
an outer casing or shell encloses a tube bundle. These units are usually thermally
efficient, compact, reliable and easy to maintain and clean. Shell-and-tube exchangers
typically provide only single isolation. The other commonly used heat exchanger is the
plate or plate-and-frame type. This type of exchanger is becoming increasingly popular
with designers and contractors. It can afford single- or double-wall protection, provide
high performance, use superior materials, have low volume and surface area, and be
easily enlarged or reduced if the system size is changed. Most heat exchangers are
available with copper fluid passages, and many plate-type exchangers have stainless
steel passages.

6.4.4 HEAT EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE. A common measure of heat exchanger

performance is its effectiveness. Effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the actual rate
of heat transfer to the maximum possible. Two common problems, fouling and

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freezing, can decrease heat exchanger effectiveness. Fouling is the term used for
scale and corrosion that collects in the passageways. Fouling decreases the amount
of energy transferred and is often taken into account in heat exchanger analysis. The
amount and rate of fouling to be expected depend on the fluids and materials used.
Heat exchangers can freeze in systems containing antifreeze due to reverse
thermosiphoning or improper control.

6.4.5 EFFECT ON SYSTEM PERFORMANCE. The use of heat exchangers can only
serve to degrade the performance of the solar energy system. However, since they are
required for most systems, their impact on performance should be understood.
Although system performance suffers by only about 10 percent for heat exchangers
with effectiveness values as low as 0.3, the popularity of compact plate-type heat
exchangers and their low add-on costs allow the designer to achieve high
effectiveness levels with only a slight increase in equipment cost.

6.5 PUMPS. Heat transfer fluids are circulated by pumps. Two circulation pumps are
required in the system shown in Figure 1. For the majority of liquid-based solar energy
systems, centrifugal pumps with fractional horsepower requirements are used for heat
transfer fluid circulation.

6.6 TRANSPORT SUB-SYSTEM (LESSONS LEARNED)

6.6.1 HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS. To eliminate past problems with fluid maintenance,
freeze protection, and corrosion control, a USP/food-grade uninhibited propylene
glycol/distilled water mixture is required for systems that need freeze protection and
pure water is recommended for systems that do not.

6.6.2 PIPING AND TRANSPORT SUB-SYSTEM MATERIALS. Materials problems

with piping include corrosion, erosion, and scaling. Corrosion can be avoided by using
flow passages of copper, bronze, brass or other non-ferrous alloys. Pipe erosion and

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excessive hydraulic noise can be avoided by ensuring that fluid velocities in closed
piping systems are kept below 5 ft/s (1.5 m/s).

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7. CONTROL SUB-SYSTEM

7.1 PURPOSE AND EXPERIENCES. The control sub-system consists of an

electronic control unit, temperature sensors, and interfaces to pumps. A Btu meter
may also be installed for system diagnostics and monitoring purposes. Experience
with past systems has shown that a major cause of system failure has been control
systems that were too complicated and unreliable. Control strategies for solar energy
systems should be as simple and reliable as possible.

7.2 CONTROL STRATEGY. Most solar systems use a control strategy known as
differential temperature control. Temperature sensors are located on the collectors and
at the coolest part (the bottom) of the storage tank. Circulating pumps in the collector
and storage loop are simultaneously activated whenever the temperature of the solar
collector is a specified level greater than that of the storage tank (typically 15 to 25
degrees F (-9 to -4 degrees C). The pumps are then shut off when the temperature
difference falls below another limit (typically 5 to 8 degrees F (-15 to 13 degrees C)).
This built in hysteresis helps prevent short cycling of the pumps during start-up as the
colder water from the storage tank comes in contact with the hot collector plate.

7.3 DIAGNOSTICS. The control system can contribute to the system's longevity and
ease of maintenance by providing remote readings of system parameters such as
component temperatures, pump status, and maximum/minimum temperatures. If
installed, a Btu meter can measure the flow rate and temperature of fluid delivered to
storage in order to calculate the total energy contributed by a system. It is possible for
a solar system to be inoperative and yet show no symptoms due to the existence of an
auxiliary heat source. The use of built-in diagnostic devices helps prevent this
condition from occurring.

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8. SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM PERFORMANCE. To design a cost-effective solar

energy system, it is important to understand the difference between collector efficiency
and annual system performance. The solar fraction (SF) is the ratio of the energy
supplied by the solar system to the total energy required by the process. Figure 4 is a
typical plot of solar fraction versus collector area. Note that, for small collector areas, a
relatively small increase in collector area leads to a steep increase in solar fraction. As
the collector area is increased, however, each additional square foot of collector area
yields a smaller increase in solar fraction, until the curve asymptotically approaches a
solar fraction of 100%. Another important parameter is the solar load ratio (SLR),
which is defined as the ratio of the annual (or monthly) radiation incident on the
collector array to the annual (or monthly) energy requirements of the building system.
The selection of the optimum collector area for a given building system is ultimately an
economic decision, as the cost of additional collector area and system capacity must
be weighed against the diminishing return in solar fraction gained.

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Figure 4
Solar fraction versus collector area

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9. SUMMARY

9.1 SERVICE WATER HEATING. Experience, experimental simulations, and

economic analyses have shown that the most efficient use of solar energy in military
facilities is for loads that use low temperatures on a year-around basis, such as that
needed by service water heating. This application yields the best use of energy per
square foot of installed collector area and represents the greatest potential for cost-
effective solar energy use within the Services.

9.2 STANDARD SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM. Although fundamental principles for

many types of systems have been discussed, the type of system best suited for water
heating will use flat-plate, liquid-based collectors, water storage, and a propylene
glycol/water solution as the heat transfer fluid. Control systems should use simple
differential temperature control with built-in diagnostics. This type of system will be the
most reliable and effective in meeting the Services' needs and design/construction
practices.

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