Engineering Geology (ErSc-207)

General Course Content

Chapter_1 Introduction
Chapter_2 Origin of Earth And Its Structures
Chapter_3 Rock Forming Minerals
Chapter_4 Rock types and their process of formation
Chapter_5 Geological structures
Chapter_6 Earth processes
Chapter_7 Hazardous from earth processes and their mitigation measure
Chapter_8 Physico-mechanical properties of geological material (rocks)
Chapter_9 Fundamentals of site investigation
Chapter_10 Engineering impact of ground water and landfill site
investigation
Chapter_11 An Overview of Geological Problems on different
engineering structures
 Chapter_1 Introduction
Definitions of Engineering Geology
It is an applied discipline of geology
It is the science that study and give solution for the
engineering and environmental problems those result
by the interaction of geology and man activity.
It is the science that fill the gap between civil
engineering and geology
It is an interdisciplinary profession in which the
engineering geologist works closely with and must
understand and respond to the need of the civil
engineer
The importance of engineering geology in civil
engineering work

It provides basic geological data for the safe

construction
It provide suitable construction material
It also predict and mitigate the geological hazards
It provide good information about the foundation
condition of different civil engineering
infrastructures
It provide different geological structure which can
affect the engineering works
 They are the scientist those working on the
geological factors those affect the location, design,
maintenance of the engineering works
They describe the geologic environment, geologic
material, geological structures, events, geological
history and other geological condition those
important for engineering work
Their main role is to conduct investigations for the
suitability of the site for civil engineering works
 Chapter-2
Earth And Its Structures
 Origin of Earth
The Earth is a very minute part of the solar system
The origin of the earth is related to the origin of
solar system and universe
The big bang hypothesis:
Fireball in which matter and energy was
concentrated
The fireball is exploded (big banged) and the matter
and energy are spread outward and changed to the
present day galaxies
 The observable universe contains about 100
billion galaxies, including the milky way
galaxies
Milky way galaxies contain about 100 billion
stars in which our solar system is located
The solar system has the sun at center and 9
planetary
Earth is a slightly flattened sphere with an
average radius of 6731km and orbiting the sun
at 150 million km
 Origins of solar system
All current work on the origin of solar system is a
refinement of nebular hypothesis
It state there is a rotating cloud of dust
Due to the gravitational force contraction began and
rotation speed up
The internal temperature rose to about 1,000,000 oc at
which nuclear fusion began
The monuclear reaction began when H converted to He
by emanating vast amount of energy
It become called while it spun of a various solid
=>planetesimals =>planets
 Earth differentiation
The early earth was undifferentiated
(homogeneous) material
Later it differentiated and form three layers
(structures):
Core
Mantle
Curst
Structures and composition of Earth
The earth not composed homogeneous material
The materials are arranged in a series of concentric
layers
Curst, stony materials, 0-100km
Lithosphere = curst+ upper most mantle
Mantle stony- iron material =>upper
mantle(asthenosphare) and lower mantle, 2,900km
Core iron- Nickel material
Outer core it is liquid material, 5,100km
Inner core it is solid material, 6,378km
The interior structure of the Earth
The three major indirect methods use to study
the interior of the Earth
The directly accessed Earth interior is only
12km
Mathematical computation
Meteorites data
Earthquake (seismic wave) information
 Chapter-3
Rock Forming Minerals

What is minerals?
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic
substance which has a definite chemical
composition
 Definition of mineral and its classification
The Earth curst has 90 naturally occurring elements. Form
these more than 98% mass of the curst is formed from 8
elements such as O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, K and Na
Minerals are a naturally occurring elements or chemical
compounds those are whether economically valuable or not
Minerals can be grouped into various categories based on
various parameters
Based on theirs economic importance
Rock forming minerals
e.g silicate minerals such as feldspar, quartz and etc
Minerals of economic valuable
e.g Au, Ag, Cu, Fe and etc
 Based on theirs origin
Primary minerals
Secondary minerals

Based on theirs importance to naming the rocks

Essential minerals
Accessory minerals
Based on theirs chemical composition
Native elements e.g Au, Ag, Cu, diamond (C)
Sulphate minerals e.g gypsum
Oxide e.g magnetite, hematite
Carbonate e.g calcite, dolomite
halide e.g halite, fluorite
Silicate e.g quartz, pyroxene
 Rock forming minerals
They are the minerals those form the rocks
They are mostly common in curst and mantle
of Earth structures
The major rock forming minerals are silicate
minerals but some non silicate minerals such
as oxides and carbonates minerals are
considered as rock forming minerals
 Silicate minerals
They are the very important rock forming
minerals
More than 90% of the Earth curst is formed
from silicate minerals
The silicate minerals are formed when silicon
tetrahedron (SiO4)4- combined with other metal
or non-metal elements
some these elements are Fe, Al, Ca, Na, K, etc
 Some examples of silicate minerals
Structure Mineral Formula Hardness
Nesosilicate Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 6.5-7
Inosilicate pyroxene X2Y2O6 (X=Ca, Fe, 5-6
Mg; Y= Si, Al)

Inosilicate Amphibole 5-6

Muscovite mica KAl2 (AlSi3) O10 2-3
phyllosilicate (OH, F) 2

Biotite mica K (Ma,Fe)3Si3O10 2.5-3

(OH) 2
Quartz SiO2 7
Tektosilicate Alkali feldspar KAlSi3O8 6-6.5
Plagioclase (Ca, Na)AlSi3O8 6-6.5
feldspar
 Non-silicate rock forming minerals
They are not abundant like the silicate
minerals in the Earth curst
But locally they can be more abundant than the
silicate minerals
E.g calcite, dolomite, gypsum etc
They are important minerals in limestone,
marble, dolomite and gypsum rocks
 Mineral identification
Minerals can be identified in the field by using
theirs physical properties under the hand
specimen and in the laboratory by using theirs
chemical, optical and physical properties
The most common physical properties those
use to identify minerals are color, luster,
streak, form, cleavage, hardness, specific
gravity and etc
 1. Colors
It is the color we see on the minerals surface
It use only to identify few minerals, because due
to impurities one minerals can show more than
one colors and also different minerals can have
the same colors
E.g chalcedony (SiO2 )
But some minerals can be easily identified by
theirs colors
E.g Sulphur=yellow, malachite=green,
chromite=black
 2. Luster
It is the way in which the surface of mineral reflect
the light
Minerals those have the some color may have
different luster
Like color luster alone not good to identify all
minerals, because one mineral can show more the
one luster and also different minerals can show the
same luster. But it can applicable for some minerals
E.G silver and quartz has the some white color but
silver has shiny (metallic) luster while quartz has
glass luster
 3. Streak
It is the color of powdered mineral
It is checked by scraping the mineral on the
streak plate
This test is only applicable for minerals those
softer than the streak plate
But for minerals harder than streak plate theirs
streak is tested by crushing them by hammer
 4. Form
It is the geometry of mineral which formed from
the combination of faces, edges and angles of
mineral
It is controlled by the internal atomic
arrangement of the mineral
E.G Halite and Calcite are cubic while Quartz is
pyramidal
 5. Cleavage
It is the ability of the mineral to split in a
preferred direction when hammered
Based on the numbers of cleavage and theirs
cleavage angle we can identify one mineral from
the other
E.G mica has one directional cleavage while
calcite has three cleavage direction at 700 Based
on the easiest to break along theirs cleavage
minerals can be grouped as perfect, good and
poor cleavage minerals
Mica mineral
 6. Hardness
It is the ability of minerals to resist abrasion or
scratching
The relative hardness of the mineral is determined
by scratching one minerals with others
To determine the relative hardness of the minerals
we use the standard hardness scale (Mohs scale of
hardness)
 Mohs scale of hardness
Minerals Hardness scale
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Orthoclase 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
 7. Mineral Unique behaviors
It is the physical properties of minerals those
unique for some minerals
E.G -halite by its test
-sulphur by its smell
-calcite by effervescence of carbon dioxide
when attached by HCl
 Chapter-4
Rock types and process of formation
Rock is the curst material that buildup from the
mineral aggregate
All rocks are made up of mineral
It can be monomineralic or polymineralic
E.G halite is monomineralic while granite is
polymineralic
The natures of rock is controlled by the natures
of its mineral constituent
 Based on the major geological processes that
form rocks and theirs origin rock has three
major categories
These are :
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks and
Metamorphic rocks
 Igneous rocks
The term igneous is derived from the Latin word
igneus meaning of fire.
It is formed through the cooling and solidification of
magma or lava
Typically, the melting of magma is caused by one or
more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a
decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.
Igneous rock may form with or without
crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive
(plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive
(volcanic) rocks.
 Magma differentiation and
crystallization
Magma does not crystallized like ordinary solution do.
So it under go differentiation and according to Bowens
reaction series from one molten magma we can got
more than one rocks
Olivine=>pyroxene =>Amphibole=>Biotite mica
=>muscovite mica =>quartz=>other feldpar
Olivine +pyroxene =perdotite
Pyroxene +plagioclase feldspar =gabbro and basalt
K-feldspar + muscovite mica +quartz =granite and
rhyolite
The final residual magma can form quartz veins or
pegmatite
1: olivine crystallizes; 2: olivine and pyroxene crystallize; 3:
pyroxene and plagioclase crystallize; 4: plagioclase crystallizes. At
the bottom of the magma reservoir, a cumulate rock forms.
 Sub-classification of igneous rocks
Based on theirs place of solidification
Intrusive (plutonic)
extrusive (volcanic)
Intrusive igneous rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks are the rocks those formed from
magma that cools and solidifies within the earth crust.
The magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are
coarse grained.
Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape
and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other
formations into which it intrudes.
Typical intrusive formations are batholiths, stocks, sills and
dikes.
 These intrusive igneous rocks are observed on the Earth
surface due to the uplifting and weathering processes
Example of intrusive igneous rocks are granite and
gabbro
Trachytes and andesites are the fine-grained equivalents
of syenites and diorites, respectively
Extrusive igneous rocks
They are the rocks those are formed on the Earth surface
by rapid cooling
They form fine grain or totally glass rocks
E.g basalt and rhyolite
The fragmented extrusive igneous rocks are formed by
pyroclastic eraption
E.g pumice and volcanic ash
 Igneous rocks texture
It refers the size of the mineral grains in the rock,
the nature of mineral grain and the way in which
the mineral grains are arranged
This texture is depend on the physical condition
under which the rock is formed and on the rate of
magma cooling
The rate of magma cooling by itself controlled by:
The depth of cooling below the surface
The size of the cooling mass and
shape of the cooling mass
 The common types of texture in
igneous rocks
Phaneritic textures: it is the course grain texture
that formed by slowly cooling and its grain
observed by naked eye E.g granite and gabbro
Aphanitic textures: it is the fine grain texture
formed by rapid cooling on the earth surface
E.g basalt and rhyolite
Glass textures it is the non- granural that formed
by very rapid (instant chilling)
E.g Obsidian
 Porphyritic textures: they are form course
grain (phenocrysts) in the fine grained ground
mass
It is resulted due to multi stage magma cooling
at two different physical location
E.g porphyritic basalt
Vesicular textures: it is formed whene the gas
is escaped from the magma and form vesicle
E.g vesicular basalt, scoria and pumice
 Classifications of igneous rocks based
on there's chemical composition
This classification is done based on the
percentage of SiO2

SiO2 (Wt.%) Rock type Example

>66 Acidic/felsic Granite/ rhyolite
52-66 Intermediate Diorite/trachyte
44-52 Basic/mafic Gabbro/basalt
<44 ultrabasic Perdotite/dunite
 Sedimentary rocks
They are the rocks those formed from solid debris
(sediment) and dissolved minerals which is break down
by mechanical or chemical from pre-existing rocks ,
from skeletal material of animal and plant
They makeup only 5% of the Earths curst by volume
but 75% of the Earth surface
They are characterized by forming bedding or
stratification
The stapes followed to form sedimentary rocks are:
Weathering of the parent rocks => transportation and
deposition =>Lithification (cementation, compaction
and crystallizations)=>sedimentary rocks Diagenesis
The type of cement material can affect the strength of a
sedimentary rock formed and also influences its colour

For example the sandstones that cemented with siliceous or

calcium carbonate cement are usually whitish grey, while
those cemented with iron oxide cement materials are form a
red colour rock
Classification of sedimentary rocks
Based on theirs mode of origin (texture) and type
of material they composed the sedimentary rocks
classified in to three main categories
Clastic sedimentary rocks those are formed from
deposited sediment
Chemical sedimentary rocks those are formed
from precipitation or vaporization or
crystallization of soluble minerals
Organic (biologic) sedimentary rocks those are
formed from accumulation and lithification of
organic matter (plants or animals remains)
Sub classification of sedimentary rocks
Texture Grain size Composition Rocks name
>2mm Rock fragment, quartz, conglomerate
Clastic feldspar
1/16 -2mm Quartz, feldspar sandstone
1/256 -1/16mm Feldspar, quartz Siltstone
<1/256mm Quartz, clay minerals Mudstone

Calcite Limestone
Chemical
Quartz Chert
Gypsum Rock gypsum
Halite Rock salt
Plant fragment Bituminous coal
Biologic
Calcite, shell and skeletal Coquina
Calcite & fossils Fossiliferous limestone
 Metamorphic rocks
They are the new rocks those are formed from
pre-existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks) by metamorphism processes
Metamorphism is the solid state transformation
of pre-existing rocks into texturally and/or
mineralogically distinct new rocks due to
increased temperature and pressure
This increased temperature and pressure must be
above the diagenesis and blow the melting point
 Factors those control metamorphism
Composition of the parent rocks
During metamorphism new elements or chemical
compounds are not formed, but in Metasomatism new
chemical composition can be formed
The existing minerals are rearrange themselves to be
stable at new environment and make new minerals
with the same chemical composition and differ in
theirs crystal structures and mineral assemblage
when carbonate rocks such as limstone and dolomite
are subjected to regional metamorphism and form
marble
E.g both limestone and marble have calcite chemical
composition
 Temperature and pressure condition
The temperature ranges for metamorphism is
2000c (upper limit of diagenesis) to about 7000c
(lower limit of magma melting)
The pressure that cause metamorphism can be
static or dynamic pressure
It is ranged from 1kbar to about 12kbar
The temperature and pressure condition can
control the type of metamorphic Grade
 Types of metamorphism
Contact (thermal) metamorphism it is formed when the
country rocks are affected by heat and solution of intruded
magma
Its size is depend on the thickness of intrusive body
E.g Marble and hornfalse rocks
Regional (Dynamo-thermal) metamorphism it is caused
by high temperature and pressure (both confining and
dynamic)
It is associated with crustal deformation (faulting and
folding)
Since it cover large area it affects very extensive rock mass
Th Regional metamorphism involves both the processes of
changing temperature and pressure.
E.g gneiss, schist, phylites and Slates rocks
Based on the degree of temperature and pressure
it form different metamorphic rocks
1, High-grade metamorphic rocks
E.g gneiss
2, Intermediate-grade metamorphic rocks
e.g schist(amphibolite schist, mica schist,
chlorite schist, quartz-biotite schist, etc)
3, Low-grade metamorphic rocks
e.g slate
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Based on theirs textures and structures metamorphic
rocks categorized as foliated and non-foliated rocks
Foliated metamorphic rocks
They have parallel and sub-parallel arrangement of
plat minerals such as mica and elongated minerals
such as amphiboles
They are common for regional metamorphic rock
E.g slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
They are formed from equi-dimensional minerals
It is common for thermal (contact) metamorphism
E.g marble and quartzite
 Chapter-5
Geological structures

Primary geological structures

Secondary geological structures
 Primary geological structures
Primary Structure are the structures those formed
during or shortly after deposition (sedimentary) rocks
or formation of (igneous) rocks
Bedding: The primary surface in a sedimentary rock,
separating beds with different composition, texture,
color, cement
Theirs thickness are varying based on prevailing
condition
Each layers represents a single episode of deposition
or sedimentation
The rock mass is weak along this bedding layers
 Cross- bedding it is the structure that form an
angle to the plane of general stratification
It is easily observed on the course grained rocks
The direction of maximum inclination indicate
the direction of current movement
Graded bedding it is the vertical gradations
structures that form course grain at the bottom
and fine grain at the top or vice versa
It indicates of transporting agent diraction
 Ripple marks they are the small ridges formed on
the surface of sedimentary rocks
Oscillation wave produced ripples (current
moving in two opposite directions)
They use to indicate the paleo-current direction
and tectonic disturbance at the site
Mud cracks it is the polygonal structures formed
on the fine grain sediments when they undergo
wetting and drying condition
 Primary Volcanic Structures
Flow Layering
Layers of volcanic flows defined by color,
texture, compositio and weathering condition .
Flow structures
Pahoehoe; Ropy lava - Good flow direction
indicator
AA lava flow
Pillow Structures
Flat bottomed, curved top basalt encased in thin
obsidian cover
Good facing indicator
 Vesicles
Voids formed by gas bubbles typically more
numerous at the top of the flow
Good facing indicator

Columnar Jointing
Fractures formed in basaltic lava due to cooling
and shrinkage
Polygonal columns
Product of slow cooling, top of flow does not
have as well defined columnar joints as base of
flow. Good facing indicator
 Secondary geological structures
They are the geological structures those formed
by deformation after the rocks are formed
Theirs size is range from small fractures to the big
faults and folds those responsible for the
formation of ocean basins, mountain ranges and
etc
The stress responsible for the formation of such
structures can be tensional, compressional or
shear stresses
 The two types of deformation those
responsible for the secondary structures
Ductile deformation
It deform the rocks in ductile(plastic manner)
The shapes and attitudes of the rock is changed
without fracturing
It is common at the deep curst
E.g folds
Brittle deformation
The rocks are deformed in a brittle manner
The rock is fractured or broken and displaced
It is common at the shalow curst
E.g Faults, joints and fractures
 Folds
It is the bending or buckling of bedrock by
compressive force applied parallel to bedding plane
Based on theirs geometry they can be define as
Antiform the two limbs dip away from each other
Anticline antiform where the core is oldest rock
Synform the two limbs dip to each others
Syncline the synform when the core rock is
youngest
 Fractures
It is the crack formed due to the shearing of brittle
material
There are two types of fractures
Joints it is the fractures without displacement
they can be described as master joint (it traced over
extensive area), joint set (joints those have same
orientation ) and joint system (groups of joint sets
in particular area)
 Fault it is the fractures with horizontal, vertical
and oblique displacement
Terminology
Fault plane = the fracture plane along which
displacement take place
Dip = the angle between the fault plane and
horizontal
Footwall = the block below the fault plane
Hanging wall = the block above the fault plane
 Types of faults
Based on the stress applied and the direction of
relative movements along fault plane there are
three major types of faults
1, Dip-slip fault
The movement is along the dip-direction
It has two sub-classes
Normal fault it is the dip-slip fault where the
hanging wall move downward relative to the
footwall
It is resulted by vertical compressive stress or
horizontal tensional stress
Reverse fault it is the dip-slip fault where the
hanging wall move upward relative to the footwall
It is resulted from the horizontal compressive
stress
Normal faults are common in extensional tectonic
regime such as Rift system while the revers fault is
common in collisional tectonic regimes
e.g folded mountain
 2, Strike-slip faults
The major movement is along the strike direction
It result from shearing of brittle material
It has two classes
Left-lateral (sinistral) fault it is the strike- slip fault
where one block is moved to the left with respect
to the other
Right- lateral (dextral) fault it is the strike-slip
fault where one block move to the right with
respect to the other
 3, Oblique-Slip fault
The movement (displacement) take place both
along dip direction and strike direction
 1 horizontal, 3 vertical reverse faults
1 vertical, 3 horizontal normal faults
1 horizontal, 3 horizontal strike-slip faults
 Hypothetically
Reverse faults: should form at ~30 dip
Normal faults: should form at ~60 dip
Strike-slip faults: should form at ~90 dip
 Criteria for the Recognition of Faults
The abrupt ending of one group of strata against another
Repetition of same strata
Omission of the strata
the existance of Shear and tensional joints that
frequently associated with major faults
The striations of Slickensides on the fault plane
Series of scarpment of topography
Stream profiles may be interrupted by faults
Mineralization, silicification and igneous phenomena such
as dykes formation
 Chapter-6 Earth processes

Surface Earth Processes

Weathering
Soil formation
Erosion
Internal Earth processes
Volcanism
Earthquake
 Weathering processes
It is the breakdown and alteration of rocks and
minerals at or near the Earth's surface into products
that are more equilibrium (stable) with the
conditions found in this environment
Most of the minerals and rocks are formed at high
temperature and pressure and when they are
exposed on the earth surface where the temperature
and pressure are low they are enforced to under go
weathering
 The products of weathering are a major source of
sediments for erosion and deposition.
Weathering also contributes to the formation of
soil and sedimentary rocks
Elements and compounds extracted from the rocks
and minerals by weathering processes supply
nutrients for plant.
There are three broad categories of mechanisms for
weathering:
Mechanical (physical) weathering
Chemical weathering and
Biological weathering
 Physical Weathering
It is the breakdown of mineral or rock material by
mechanical methods due to different forces.
Some of the forces originate within the rock or
mineral, while others are applied externally. Both
of these stresses lead to strain and the rupture of
the rock. The processes that may cause mechanical
rupture are abrasion, crystallization, thermal
change, wetting and drying and pressure release.
 Abrasion it is occurs when some force causes two
rock surfaces to come together causing mechanical
wearing or grinding of their surfaces or making
Collision between rock surfaces
Crystallization due to the crystal growth and frost
action it can cause the necessary stresses needed for
the mechanical rupturing of rocks and minerals.
As water percolates through fractures and pore spaces
it may contain ions that precipitate to form
crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert an
outward force that can expand or weaken rocks
E.g At approximately -22C, ice can exert a pressure of
up to 200 MPa.
The primarily two types of crystal growth that occur
are ice and salt.
 Temperature change it is the physical breakdown of
rock by their expansion and contraction due to diurnal
temperature changes
ranges of temperature cause rocks to expand and
contract
it is the result of the physical inability of rocks to
conduct heat well. This inability to conduct heat results
in differential rates of expansion and contraction.
Differential expansion and contraction may also be due
to the variance in the colors of mineral grains in rock,
this also results in the disintegration of rocks along the
minerals grain boundary
E.g The mechanical weathering are high in hot deserts,
where wide diurnal temperature is high
 Alternate wetting and drying of rocks (slaking) it
is occurs by the mechanism of "ordered water", which
is the accumulation of successive layers of water
molecules in between the mineral grains of a rock.
The increasing thickness of the water pulls the rock
grains apart with great tensional stress
Pressure release it is the physical weathering
occurred due to unloading.
The majority of igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks
were created at the depth where pressures and
temperatures are high . As erosion and uplifting
brings these rock formations to the surface, they
become subjected to less and less pressure. This
unloading of pressure causes the rocks to fracture
horizontally with an increasing number of fractures as
the rock approaches the Earth's surface.
 Suitable environment for physical
weathering
A little vegetation cover
A large diurnal range of temperature or high
temperatures fluctuating environment
It occurs in cold temperate regions and mountain
tops where temperatures fluctuate above and below
freezing point.
Crystal growth of salt crystals takes place in
deserts where evaporation draws ground water
containing dissolved salts upwards into the pores
of the rock
 Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering leads to mineral alteration
and the solution of rocks.
It involves the alteration of the chemical and
mineralogical composition of the weathered
material.
The most common chemical weathering processes
are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration,
carbonation and solution
Hydrolysis it is the weathering reaction that occurs
when the two surfaces of water and compound
meet.
 It results in the decomposition of the rock
surface by forming new compounds. It is
especially effective in the weathering of
common silicate and alumino-silicate minerals
because of their electrically charged crystal
surfaces.

H+ or OH- replaces an ion in the mineral. Example:

Oxidation it is the reaction that occurs between
compounds (elements) and oxygen. The net result
of this reaction is the removal of one or more
electrons from a compound, which causes the
structure to be less rigid and increasingly unstable
it is common for the rocks those have iron elements
E.G
 Hydration it is the process where minerals in the
rock absorb water and expand, creating stress
which causes the disintegration of rocks. it allows
for the acceleration of other decompositional
reactions by expanding the crystal lattice and
offering more surface area for reaction.
E.G
Unhydrated Calcium sulphate + Water ==>
Hydrated Calcium Sulphate (expands)
 Carbonation it is the reaction of carbonate and
bicarbonate ions with minerals.
Carbonation is especially active when the reaction
environment is abundant with carbon dioxide. The
formation of carbonic acid, a product of carbon
dioxide and water, is important in the solution of
carbonates and the decomposition of mineral
surfaces because of its acidic nature.
E.g
 Factors which affect the rate of
chemical weathering
Particle size - Smaller the particle size the greater the
surface area and hence the more rapid the weathering
Composition Not all minerals are prone to chemical
weathering. For example, feldspar is highly susceptible
than quartz
Climate- The type and rate of weathering varies from
one climatic regime to another. E.g In humid and hot
regions, chemical and chemico-biological processes
are generally much more significant than those of
mechanical disintegration
Type and amount of vegetation
The impact of climate on weathering
 Biological Weathering
it involves the disintegration of rock and mineral due
to the chemical and/or physical agents of an organism.
The types of organisms that can cause weathering
range from bacteria to plants to animals.
It can facilitate both chemical and physical weathering
Particles can fracture because of animal burrowing or
by the pressure put forth by growing roots.
carbon dioxide produced by respiration mixed with
water and forms carbonic acid which cause chemical
weathering.
Weathering products of different minerals
 Rate of weathering
It is the reverse of Bowen's Reaction Series
the higher the temperature of formation of a
mineral the more unstable at earth surface and more
susceptible to weathering
The rate of weathering depends on the condition of the weathering
agents
It also depend on the condition of parent rock such as: mineralogical
composition, texture, porosity and the incidence of discontinuities
within the rock mass
E.G - Coarse-grained rocks generally weather more rapidly than fine-
grained ones
-The more porous the rock, the more water absorption capacity
which result in to the more susceptibility of the rock to chemical
weathering and influences mechanical breakdown, especially in terms
of frost action.
 Soil Formation
Soil is the ultimate product of weathering
Weathering is the alteration of rocks and minerals
while soil formation is the production of layers or
horizons of weathered material
Weathering is disequilibrium processes that
disintegrate the rocks while soil formation is
equilibrium processes that form the soil by mixing
weathered material with organic matter
 Different soil properties those help us to
describe soils are
Soil colors
Soil textures
Mineralogical composition
Grain size distribution
Porosity
Permeability
Soil consistency
Shear strength
Factors controlling the soil formation
Parent material it is the parent rock from where
the soil is formed
it can affect the soil texture, porosity,
permeability, mineral composition, structure etc
E.g -basic igneous rocks results in clay soil while
the acidic igneous rock result in sandy soil
-permeable parent rock form deep soil while
impermeable parent rock form thin soil
Climate it show the rainfall and temperature
condition of the site
It affect the availability of water, freezing
condition, wetting and drying condition and type of
organism acting on soil
Topography it is the altitude or relief that control
the environment of soil formation
It can affect the rate of weathering and erosion
which can affect the soil formation
E.g steep slope has a little soil or no soil cover
because of high erosion rate at the site
Organisms both plant and animals play a
significant role in soil formation
E.g at high vegetated area form thick black organic
soil while non-vegetated areas form thin red non
organic soil
Burrowing animals can form new soil profile by
loosing and mixing the soil
Time the longer time the rock exposed to the
weathering agents the more soil developed
E.g a newly deposited lava flow has no soil while
the older lava flow covered by thick soil
 Soil Erosion
Weathering and erosion can modify the earths
surface shape
The common agents (currents) those responsible
for land erosion are rivers, wind, moving ice and
water waves
Erosion can take place when the current force
exceeds the resistance of weathered material
 Internal Earth processes
Earthquake
It is the result of sudden release of energy in the
earths curst that create the seismic wave
This sudden release of energy is caused by
fracturing of rocks during faulting and sudden
explosion such as volcanic eruption, atomic bomb,
quarry blasting and etc
The stored energy is released and spread in all
direction in the form of elastic wave called seismic
wave
 Types of seismic wave
Surface wave (L)
It travel only on the earth surface with low velocity
It has high energy (amplitude)
They can cause catastrophic damage
Body wave (P and S)
They can travel within the interior of the earth
They have the variety velocity based on the material
though which they path
Distribution of Earthquake centers
Earthquake centers are not uniformly
distributed throughout the world
They are concentrated in the plate boundaries
such as
Convergent plate boundary
Divergent plate boundary
Transverse plate boundary
 Earthquake measurement
Earthquake vibration is recorded by the
seismography in the form of oscillation
The recorded data is called seismogram
The point of initial rupture of earthquake is called
focus (hypocenter)
The point on the ground directly above the
hypocenter is called epicenter
The distance from the epicenter to the
seismographic station is called epicenteral distance
 Earthquake measurement scale
Magnitude (M)
It refer the actual amount of energy released by the
earthquake
It is given by rechter scale and range from 1 to 10,
means from negligible vibration to high vibration
It is easily determined from the seismogram by
using the following formula
M= log(a/T) + B
M=magnitude, a=Amplitude, B=Attenuation factor
T=duration of one seismic wave
 Intensity (I)
It refer the amount of damage or hazards due to
the earthquake
It is given by mercalli scale and range from I to XII,
means from non damage to total damage
It depend on the nature and type of construction,
population density, Earthquake magnitude and
etc
 To determine the epicenteral distance from
recorded station
d= tdvpvs /vp-vs
d=epicenteral distance, td = delay time, vp =velocity of P-wave
Vs= velocity of S-wave
To determine the accuracy of epicenter at least
three seismographic station at different geographic
location and distance are needed
The three epicenteral distance are use as radius of
the three circles
The intersection of the three circles is use as exact
location of epicenter
 Earthquake related processes
Commonly we have four earthquake related earth
processes
Surface rupture
Ground shaking
Ground failur
Tsunamis
 Volcanisms
It is the process that bring the earths interior
material to the earth surface
It is part of the process by which planet cools off
It also common for anther planets such as Venus,
Mars and Jupiters moon
Volcano: it is the opening or rupture in a planets
surface which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and
gases to escape on the surface
 They are commonly found at divergent and
convergent plate boundary. However interplate
volcanisms can occurred in the rift valley and
mantle plume (hotspot)
E.g East African Rift and Hawaii
The two types of volcanic products are
Massive coherent material that solidifies from liquid
lava flow.
E.g basalt, rhyolite and etc
Non-coherent discrete pyroclastic deposit that
formed from dry fragmented material.
E.g scoria, pumice, volcanic ash and etc
The three major types of volcano based on their
eruption history are
Active volcano
Dormant volcano
Extinct volcano
Based on the nature of conduit (passage) through
which lava come to the surface
Fissural volcano
Central volcano it can be (shield, composite,
volcanic dome and cinder cone)
Chapter 7- Hazardous from earth processes and
their mitigation measure

Some common Natural hazards those come from the earth

processes are:

Landslide hazard
Earthquake hazard
Volcanic hazard
Subsidence
Expansive soil
 Landslide
It is the movement of soil or rock mass down the slope
under the influence of gravity
It is the earth processes that affect engineering
structures to any degree
It can damage the engineering structures those
constructed on the moving mass and those
constructed on the path of moving mass
Therefore when we construct engineering structures
on the hills or at the foot of the hill we must conduct
investigation to determine the stability condition of
the slope
 Landslide is occur only when the driving force
(shear stress) overcome the resisting force (shear
strength) of the slope material
Safety factor (Fs) =shear strength/shear stress
here if Fs < 1 the slope failure is take place
Therefore to form landslide different factors those
affect the slope stability are reduce the resisting
forces or increasing the driving forces
E.g -driving forces=loading, pore water pressure
- resisting forces =friction force, cohesive force
Factors that influence slope stability
Gravity it is the main responsible force for mass
wasting (landslide)
It pulling everything to the center of the Earth
On the flat surface it hold the material to stay in
theirs position
On the slope it resolved in to two components ,
the force that acting perpendicular to the slope
and the force that acting tangential (parallel) to
the slope
 The perpendicular force helps to hold the objects
in place on the slope while the tangential
component force causes shear stress that pull the
object down-slope
Change in Slope angle: it is the angle of slope
failure plane
This change in slope angle can caused by natural
work or human activities.
E.g undercutting slope
As the slope angle increase the tangential force
(shear stress) increase while the perpendicular
force (sheer strength) is decreases
 Geology of the slope: nature and type of the rocks
and soil and geological structures can control the
slope stability
Slope loading: it increase the shear stress and reduce
shear strength
Shocks (vibration): it result due to earthquakes, large
explosive and machine vibration
It disturb the intergranular bonds of the material and
reduce its cohesion
The role of water: the change of water content can
influence the slope stability in different way
The hydrostatic pressure in the rock joints and pore-
water pressure in the soil can reduce the shear
resistance of the material
 It washout the fine particles and weakened the
slope stability
Due to the frost action it can reduce the cohesion
of the material
Weathering: both the mechanical and chemical
weathering can reduce the cohesion of the rocks
and affect the slope stability
Vegetation cover: the root of trees can maintain
the slope stability mechanically and drying the
slope by absorbing the groundwater
 Types of landslide
Slope movement can be classified based on mode and
rate of movement, the shape of sliding plane, type of
sliding material and other criteria
Basically landslides are associated to three main types
of movements, material that fall, slides and flows
Falls: it is the movement of rocks or soil material from
a steep slope without a continuous contact with
failure plane
The angle of slope can be range from 450 to 900
The material can jump and rolls down slope very
quickly
 Sliding: it occurs when the material move along
defined shear surface by making continuous
contact with failure plane
If the shear surface is planer it form slide but if the
shear surface is concave upward it form slump
failure
Flows: it is occur when slope material is slide like a
viscous
They are formed from the mixture of solid particles
and water, commonly due to heave rain fall and ice
melting
 Earthquake hazards
Primary effect
It is resulted from the ground vibration and
fractures, such as collapse of large building,
bridges, dams, tunnels and other rigid structures
Secondary effect
Such as fires, landslide, floods, regional
subsidence, uplift of land mass and etc
 Earthquake hazard mitigation
Hazard zonation map to avoid areas of potential
earthquake
Good quality engineering design which resist the
earthquake hazards
Planning land use
Insurance and relief measures
 Volcanic Hazards
volcanic hazards can be influenced by
explosiveness and non-explosiveness of volcano
which is controlled by viscosity and water content
of the magma
Lava flow:
Its distribution controlled by topographic condition
Its degree of risk low to people and high to property
Volcanic ash (tephra) and gases
It go to large distance by wind and cover large area
Its distribution controlled by the speed and
direction of wind
Its degree of risk is moderate both on people and
property
Pyroclastic flow
It formed from fragmented molten material
Its distribution controlled by topography
Theirs degree of risk is moderate to high both for
people and property
 Mitigation of the effect of volcanic
processes
Monitoring of volcanic activity which helps us to
predict the occurrence of volcanisms
Preparing volcanic hazard zonation
Constructing engineering structures which can trap
and store the flow material
Reducing the rate of flow by using water and
explosive
Constructing earth barriers to divert lava flows
 Surface subsidence and collapse
It is the sudden collapse of ground to form a
depression or slow compaction of sediments near
the earth surface
It is frequently causes major problems in Karst
terrains due to the dissolution of limestone
Cavern and sinkhole formation
Caverns are the large underground open spaces
that formed by chemical dissolution
Sinkhole is a large dissolution cavity that is open
to the earths surface
 It is formed in two ways
If the water table in the cavern is lowered naturally
or by human activity such as pumping groundwater
If the enlargement of cavern is continuous and
reach on the surface
Common rocks those are susceptible to dissolution
and form cavern are rock salt, gypsum and
limestone
 Ground subsidence due to mining activity
Removal of salt
Coal mining
Natural gas extraction
Groundwater withdrawal
Petroleum withdrawal
Hydrocompaction of the sediment
Mitigation of subsidence
Sub-surface geological mapping
Using proper land use land cover plan
Back fill the cavity
 Expansive soil
It is the soil that show a wide range of seasonal
volume change
They have the clay minerals such as
montmorillonite, bentonite, vermiculite, illite and
chlorite those cause this expansive
It affect the stability of pavement, shallow
foundation building, retaining wall and others
engineering structures
 Origin of expansive soils
They are formed from the chemical weathering or
hydrothermal alteration of basic and intermediate
igneous and metamorphic rocks those have feldspar
and ferromagnesian minerals
In Ethiopia expansive soil are formed over the
tertiary to recent basaltic volcanic rocks
They are contain montimorillonite as principal clay
minerals and with accessory kaolinite and halloysite
They are formed from the weathering of basic
volcanic rocks which cover the Ethiopia plateau
 Distribution of expansive soils
Expansive soil is found anywhere in the world
It is estimated that there are at least 280 million
hectare is covered by expansive soil in the world
mainly in Africa, Australia, India and USA
From this total area 126.5 million hectare is found
in the three African countries (Sudan, Chad and
Ethiopia)
From this 12.6 million hectare also found in Ethiopia
To identify the expansive soil we use: Soil colour,
soil consistence, soil texture and etc
The expansion potential of any particular expansive
soil is determined by the percentage of clay and the
type of clay in the soil
The clay minerals can adsorb very large amounts of
water molecules between its crystalline sheets and
they has a large shrink-swell potential.
To determine swelling potential of expansive soil
We conduct geotechnical index property test such
as atterberg limits, unit weights and grain size
distribution
Observing desiccation cracks in the field
Using casagrades plasticity chart
Mitigation of the expansive soil problems
A cutoff wall: it is a vertical barrier which prevents soil
moisture from moving horizontally- either into or away
from the foundation soils
If the moisture content of the foundation soils can be
stabilized, foundation problems can often be avoided
If it attached to the foundation it also use to transfer
the footing loads to deeper soils
Sub-grade irrigation:
The objective is to stabilize the expansive soil by
injecting moisture into the sub-grade
It also include removal of nearby vegetation which
could potentially extract moisture from the soil
 Soil chemical stabilization by using lime,
amorphous silica, fly ash, enzymes, acids,
emulsions, and polymers
Replacement: it is the removal of the expansive soil
and replace by non expansive soil
Make mixture: it is done by mixing non-expansive
soils with expansive soil to lower the expansion
potential to an acceptable level
French drain: it is a trench filled with gravel which
captures and removes unwanted water. It placed
around the perimeter of a building and serves as a
barrier to groundwater which would saturate the
foundation soils.
Chapter 8- Physico-mechanical properties of
geological material (rocks)

Engineering classification of rocks

Physical and Mechanical properties of
rocks
 Engineering classification of rocks
For the engineering use the rocks classified in to
two classis
1, Intact rocks (rock material)
They are the rocks those do not containing the
discontinuities such as joint, bedding plane and etc
The intact rocks can be described by standard
geological terms such as rock name, mineralogy,
texture, degree and kind of cementation, density,
porosity, strength, hardness, modulus of elasticity,
swelling and slake durability and weathering
condition.
 2, Rock mass
it is a mass of rock that interrupted by
discontinuities plane. The rock block within the
discontinuities plane has the intact rock properties
The quality or properties of rock mass depend on
the strength of the intact rock, and discontinuity
condition such as spacing, roughness, filling
material, sets , and orientation of the
discontinuities .
 Engineering importance of rock
classification
To study the foundation condition
To develop the excavation criteria
For the tunneling work
To maintaining the stable slope
To study the quality of the construction material

Some common index properties of intact rocks

Rock type, Grain size, Texture and fabric, Weathering,
Alteration, Hardness, Specific gravity, Porosity,
Density Durability, Primary permeability, Strength
 Rock type
Each genetic classes of the rocks has their own
engineering properties
Igneous rocks: they have silicate mineral
composition and interlocked textures, therefore
they have high strength and excellent elastic
deformation characteristics
Sedimentary rocks: since theirs source is from
different environment, they show variety of
physical properties which cause many challenges
to the different of engineering works
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism can causes the textural,
mineralogical and structural change to the
original rock
It results in the modification of the physical
properties of the rock
E.g quartzose sandstone massive quartzite
limestone massive marble
Theirs engineering properties can be varied based
on the absence and presence of foliation
 Grain size, texture and fabric
They are the physical properties of rocks those
provide important information on strength and
deformability characteristics of rocks
The crystalline rocks such as granite, basalt, marble
are form interlocking fabric with very little or non
pore space
The clastic rocks formed from sub spherical
particles and form more pore space, the more pore
space reduce the strength of the rocks.
Crystal size inversely influence the strength of the
rocks
 Weathering condition of the rocks
Weathering can affect the engineering properties
of intact rocks and rock mass
It affect all rocks, but its degree is depend on rock
type, type of weathering process, the climate or
environment to which the rock is subjected and the
time
It can be Physical and chemical weathering
 Alteration and Hardness
Alteration is the geological process that change the
chemical composition and structure of the rocks, which
resulted due to the magmatic activity and hydrothermal
effect
This change also affect the strength and deformability
condition of the rocks
The hardness of the rock is depend on the relative hardness
of its mineral constituent and the cementing material
Shale is a weak rock because it formed from soft mineral
(clay mineral).
Sandstone is formed from strong mineral (quarz) but due to
weak cementation material it can form weak rock
 Specific gravity
It is the ration between density of rock and unit
weight of water
It can be define by the following relation
 G= apparent (bulk) specific gravity
Wo= weight of the dried rock (for 24 hr at 105
oC)
Ww= weight of fully saturated rock (fully
immersed for 48 hr)
Ws= weight of water suspended rock

A= Ww-Wo
A= the amount of water filling in the pore space of
the sample
 The amount of water must be deducted from the
saturated weight to get the true specific gravity of
the rock

Apparent specific gravity of some important rocks

Material Specific Gravity
Basalt 2.8 - 3.0
Granite 2.6-2.7
Limestone 2.3-2.7
Marble 2.4-2.7
Sandstone 2.2-2.8
Quartzite 2.6-2.8
 Porosity
It is the ratio of volume of void to the overall volume of the
rock and its value is given in percentage
It can be define by the following relation
n= porosity
V=the volume of the rock specimen
Wo= weight of the dry specimen
Ww= weight of the saturated specimen

Rock type Porosity %

Granite 0.5 1.5
Sandstone 5.0 25.0
Limestone 5.0 20.0
Quartzite 0.1 0.5
Shale 10.0 30.0
 Density
It is the ratio of mass of rock per its unit volume
It is the important engineering properties of rock
that use to determine the weight of the rock mass
that is helpful for different design purpose
Density of some important rocks
Rock type Density (KN/M3)
Hard igneous rock (granite, basalt) 25 30
Metamorphic rocks (quartzite, gneiss, slate) 25 28
Hard sedimentary rocks (limestone, 23 28
dolomite, sandstone )
Soft sedimentary rocks (sandstone, shale, 17 23
coal)
 Durability
It is the ability of the rocks to resist the external
impact and stay for long period of time with its
engineering quality
It is determined by the physical and chemical
properties of the rocks
The rocks with high durability have good
engineering properties
 Slake durability
It is the index properties that use to determine the
alterability condition of the rocks
It use to check the abundance of clay in the rocks
Primary permeability
It is the important index properties that use to give
information about the degree of interconnection
between the pores or fissures
It is determined in the laboratory by measuring the
time for calibrated volume of fluid to pass through the
specimen when the constant air pressure act on the
fluid
 Strength
It is the fundamental quantitative engineering
properties of the rocks specimen
It show the amount of applied stress at the rock
failure or rupture
This applied stress can be compressive, shear
or tensile stress
 Compressive strength
It is the stress required to break a loaded sample
of rock
It is directly proportional to the confining stress,
shape of sample, moisture content of sample and
stress application rate
It classified into two:
Unconfined (uniaxial) compressive strength
Confined compressive strength
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
It is the compressive strength without
confinement of the specimen
E.g, If we have the applied load (P) on the
sample with cross sectional area of (A) the
UCS of the rock is given by the following
expiration

UCS= P/A
 Methods use us to measure the UCS
of the intact rocks
The UCS of the rock can be determined both in the
laboratory and in the field
In the laboratory to test the UCS of rocks we use
the UCS testing machine if the core samples are
available
It comprise two steel plates one fixed and other
movable with pressure oil.
It also has the gauge that measure the pressure
In the field to determine the UCS of the rocks we
use the point load index method or the schmidt
hammer test
The point load is the portable instrument that can be
used for both core and lump sample
Is= P/d2 qu = 24Is

Is=point load index, P= applied load, d= the

distance between two points at the time of first
crack appear qu= uniaxial compressive strength
 Determination of UCS by using
Schmidt hammer
It is the portable instrument that use to
determine the UCS of the intact rocks at the
field

R=rebound number of Schmidt hammer

 Confined compressive strengthen
It is the strength of the rocks when the sample is
tested under confining condition
The rock sample is subjected to both the vertical
stress and horizontal pressure which provide the
lateral support to the rock
The most commonly used method to determine
the confine compressive strength is triaxial
compression test
The device that use for this test is the heavy steel
cylinder filled with semi viscous liquid
Physical and Mechanical properties
of rock mass
It is mostly important for large engineering
structures such as dams, tunnels, underground
power house, road and etc
The rock mass contains discontinuity plane in
the form of joint, fault plane, bedding plane
and foliations
These discontinuity planes can control the
physical properties of the rocks
Characteristics of the discontinuities
The important discontinuity characteristics
those influence the physical properties of the
rock mass are
Orientation: this discontinuity condition is
important for slope rock stability
Spacing: it affect the overall strength of the
rock mass. If the spacing is less the strength is
less and if it is more the strength will be more
 Continuity: the continuity of the discontinuity
plane influence the stability of rock mass
If the continuity of the discontinuity plane is
more the strength of the rock mass is less
Surface characteristics: the surface condition of
discontinuity plane can influence the physical
properties of the rock mass
There are three factors those control the surface
condition
Waviness or undulation of the surface
Roughness which provide the friction between
the blocks
Physical properties of the infilling material
 Waviness has greatest influence on the rock mass
strength than the roughness, because it enforces the
block to displaced normal to the surface
Separation of the joints: the separation of joint
surface and presence of filling material in between
has great influence on the strength of jointed rock
mass
High separation cause less shear strength less
separation has high shear strength
 Mohrs Diagram
It use to determine the shear strength of the rocks
It use the repeated triaxial test result to plot mohrs
circles
By plotting the tangent line to the Mohr's circles we
construct the mohrs envelop
This mohrs envelop is help us to determine the
cohesion (c) of the rocks and its angle of friction ()
Radius =1-3/2
Center = 1+3/2
 Shear strength of discontinuity
It is the ability of rock mass to resist sliding along the
discontinuity plane
It increasing with increasing normal stress ()
It also controlled by the angle of friction (), roughness
and cementation condition of the surface which result in
cohesive strength (c) and water pressure
Cohesive strength is the shear stress required to slide the
block when the normal stress is zero
The relationship between the shear stress () and normal
stress () for typical rock surface can be expressed as
= c + tan
Influence of water on shear strength
The water in the discontinuity reduces the
shear strength of the rock mass by reducing the
effective normal stress as the result of water
pressure (u)
Here the relation between shear strength and
normal strength is given by the following
expiration
= c + (-u) tan
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
It is use to determine the qualitative estimation
of rock mass quality from the drill core log
It is define as the percentage of intact core
pieces longer than 10cm in the total run
 Volumetric count
It is the method that use to determine the RQD
when the core samples are not available
It is expressed by the following formula
RQD = 115 - 3.3 Jv
Where, Jv is the total numbers of
discontinuities more than 10cm long in 1m x
1m exposed rock face
Chapter 9- Fundamentals of site investigation

The site investigation is the surface and subsurface

ground exploration for any engineering structures and it is
a prerequisite for the successful and economic deign of
engineering structures and earthworks.
Depending on the detail information they have and
surface area coverage the geotechnical investigation can be
classified as regional investigation and site investigation.
The main objective of site investigation is to
evaluate the impact of engineering structures on
the existing ground and the existing site on the
proposed structure
It also help to anticipate what can be expected
during and after the construction and develop
criteria for design and construction
It has three distinct stages such as preliminary
investigation, detail investigation and
implementation study.
 1, Preliminary investigation
It support the feasibility study of the project
It is use to determine the relative suitability of the
alternative sites or project design
It also use to determine the extent of detailed
investigation required for the project
It estimate the general cost of the project
The information we obtain during this study are:
topographical and geological setup of the site,
slope angle, accessibility and etc
2, Detail investigation (site exploration)
It is the extensive investigation of the proposed
site
Its result incorporate into the final design and
construction of the project
It investigate the detail surface and subsurface
condition of the proposed site
The quality and source of the construction
material studded
It provide information about adverse condition of
the site and recommend the remedial measure
 Elements of Site investigation
Formulating an investigation
it is the first stage of engineering geological
investigation
We formulate or framing the question to be
answered
Formulating the hypothesis to conduct different
testing
Define the type and amount of information needed
and the scope of investigation in terms of area
covered, time allocated, finance and etc. because
they are depend on type and size of the structure
 Data collection
This is the second stage of an investigation that
conducted to collect the data that help to test the
hypothesis we formulate in the first stage.
Secondary data collection (office study) it is the
type of data that generated previously for other
purpose and also utilized partly or fully as
supporting data or information for the proposed
project.
It can be from: published and unpublished
literatures, aerial photographs, satellite image,
topographic and geological map, books, geologic
logs, information from different organizations and
etc.
Primary data collection (field study) it is the
type of data generated for the purpose of current
project.
Surface exploration such as locating spring,
mapping different exposed lithologic units,
measuring different geological structure, taking
sample for laboratory test and etc
Subsurface exploration it is use to extract
information from the subsurface of the site. This
data extraction can be done by direct and
indirect methods.
 Sub surface exploration methods
Direct exploration methods- Examination by means of digging pits or
trenches, borhole and by drilling trenches. The objective of the subsurface
investigation is to obtain a detailed understanding of the engineering and
geologic properties of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions
that could affect the foundation.
The general purpose of subsurface exploration is to determine;
1. Soil strata
Depth, thickness, and variability
Relevant engineering properties, such as shear strength,
compressibility, stiffness, permeability, expansion or collapse potential,
and frost susceptibility.
2. Rock strata
Depth and thickness
Quality, such as soundness, hardness, jointing and
presence of joint filling, resistance to weathering (if
exposed), and soluble nature of the rock.
3. Groundwater elevation
Indirect exploration methods-The best known Indirect
exploration methods are Geophysical methods such as
refraction or reflection seismology, electrical resistivity,
and magnetic surveys
Seismic Surveys:
Seismic refraction surveys are used to determine the compressional
wave velocities of subsurface materials
It can help us to determine the depth of bed rock, thickness of
overburden soil, fault, joint etc
Therefore we can use this method for foundation study, tunnel
alignment, slope stability study and exploration activity.
E.G to determine the depth of bed rock layer or the thickness of
overburden layer we can use the following formulae.

xd = is the crossover distance which is determine from distance time

graph which is the intersection point of the direct wave and the
refracted wave.
H= depth of bed rock or thickness of overburden layer
V1 = velocity of Direction wave
V2 = Velocity of refracted wave
Seismic reflection also used successfully in petroleum and
geothermal exploration to define the geometry of the different
subsurface layers and structural features.
E.g to identify the locations and types of faults, as well as the
location of buried channels.
Electrical resistivity survey
This method can measure the electrical resistivity of subsurface
material and estimate the type of these material based on theirs
resistivity values.
Material type Resistivity in Ohm-m
Clay and saturated silt 1-100
Clayey sand and saturated sand 100-250
Clayey sand and saturated sand 250-500
Sand 500-1,500
Gravel 1,500-5,000
Weathered rock 1,000-2,000
Sound rock 1,500-40,000
Electrical resistivity profiling survey
It is used to detect lateral changes in the electrical properties of
subsurface material, usually to a specified depth. Electrode spacing is
held constant.
Therefore it use to map the horizontal variation of subsurface materials
Electrical resistivity sounding surveys
It measure vertical changes in the electrical properties of subsurface
materials.
The electrode spacing used for resistivity sounding is variable, with the
center point of the electrode array remaining constant.
The depth of investigation increases as the electrode spacing increases.
Commonly it is used for aquifer and aquaclude delineation and bedrock
delineation studies along the depth
 Interpretation: the data collected will not
complete the investigation process; hence the data
should be interpreted in light of the questions
posed for the investigation
To make interpretation we must conduct different
measurement, analysis and testing of the collected
data.
When we do the data interpretation we must
keeping in mind the scope of the work and
requirements
Based on the result of data interpretation it is
possible to make the conclusion and
recommendations about the proposed project
 Investigation Communication: it is the final
step of an investigation processes that use to
transfer the findings to the user in the useable
format
It is use to transfer the investigation result to
the user for the action
 3, Implementation study
It is the investigation that done during the
construction stage
This help to determine the geological condition
encountered during the project construction which
my be differ from what was expected during the
exploration stage.
It also help to change the project design to avoid
major problem in the project performance
 Chapter-10

Engineering impact of ground water

and landfill site investigation
 Engineering significance of subsurface
water
Subsurface water is often a critical factor in various
engineering work
It has a potential to affect the engineering project both
during construction time and after construction the
safe function of the project
It can affect any engineering project such as building,
highway pavement, dams, underground structures and
etc
Therefore it is important to conduct engineering
geological investigation to assess the possible adverse
effect of subsurface water on the proposed engineering
project
 Engineering problems from subsurface
water
It facilitate the slope movement
It cause the volume fluctuation of foundation soil
and result in collapse
It erode the foundation of structures and cause
collapse
It flow in excavation and affect the excavation and
construction activity of the tunnel
It also affect the engineering structures by its
corrosive action
Appling uplift force to the foundation and cause the
failure of structure
 Important Information from subsurface
water investigation
If we conduct geotechnical subsurface water
investigation we can collect the following important
information which is helpful to design safe
engineering structures
The distribution of subsurface water
Direction and speed of subsurface water flow
Depth of water table and it range of fluctuation
Chemical and corrosiveness of subsurface water
Confinement condition of subsurface water and etc
 Impact of subsurface water on different
engineering structures
Tunneling :
Due to the sudden inflow of water it affect the
excavation activity and stability of the tunnel
By its corrosive action it affect the stability of lining
Dam construction:
Due to inflow water to deep foundation dam it affect
the excavation and concreting activity
The reservoir water cause the uprising of water table,
which can cause the instability of reservoir rim slope
and abutment
It also apply the uplift force on the dam foundation
which result in dam failure
 Building foundation and failure of pavement:
By changing its engineering properties the subsurface
water can reduce the bearing capacity of foundation
material
Due to seasonal fluctuation of subsurface water, it
cause the volume change of the foundation material
which result in settlement and collapse the structure
on it
But the small differential settlement can cause the
crack on the walls and floor of structure
The fluctuation of subsurface water can change the
subgrade properties and reduce its bearing capacity
The wet subgrade soil along the shoulder dry faster
than that of the center area of pavement. This cause
the differential settlement and result in longitudinal
cracks in the pavement
Impact of subsurface water on slope stability:
It increase the overall weight of slope material
which reduce the resisting force and result in slope
failure
It reduce the shear strength and generate the pore
water pressure which affect the slope stability
It use as lubricant and facilitate the sliding along
the failure plane
 The impact of water chemistry on
engineering structures
Subsurface water with sulphate content is
aggressive to concret, metallic structures such as
rock bolt and reinforcement
Subsurface water with sulfuric acid content can
facilitate the weathering condition of foundation
rock
In general the corrosivity of subsurface water can
be determined from corrosivity ratio coefficient (CR)
CR = (0.028Cl + 0.021SO4)/0.02(HCO3 +CO3)
If CR value is >1 the subsurface water is corrosive
 Mitigation measures
Slope de-pressurization
Prevent the iterance of water in the tension crack
Subsurface drainage
Barriers: it use to reduce the amount and velocity
of subsurface water flowing under the structures
E.g cutoff wall, cutoff trench, grouting and etc
Liners: it is use to preventing the loss of water from
the canal or impoundment and prevent the
migration of contaminants
E.g bentonite and related clay material
 Drains: it use to reduce the quantity of water and
direct its movement and reduce the water
pressure under the foundation (uplifting force) and
on slope
The material that use as drainage must has the
potential to prevent the passage of fine material
and give free passage for water
Wells: it use to dewatering (eliminating) the
subsurface water
It can be pumping well, relief well, horizontal
drainage and etc
 Geotechnical investigation of waste
disposal landfill site
Dump: it is a place where waste is placed with no
consideration of the environmental effects.
Usually, dumps were places where waste was placed
directly on the ground. Little or no leachate control is
used.
Landfill: it is engineering facility to contain solid waste,
with the intent of minimizing environmental disruption.
Typically, landfills are large shallow pits in the ground,
lined to contain solid waste and leachate, with disease
vector control (control of bugs and animals that carry
disease).
 Terminology of solid waste (SW), also
called refuse

Refuse includes garbage and rubbish.

Rubbish is mostly dry material such as glass, paper,
cloth, or wood.
Garbage is mostly decomposable food waste; and is
highly decomposable, whereas rubbish is not.
Trash is rubbish that includes bulky items such as
old refrigerators, couches, or large tree stumps.

 Parts of a typical landfill From bottom to

top
subgrade soils, liner system : clay liner,
geomembrane
Geosynthetics are used extensively in the liner, the
leachate collection and recovery system the cover
system
leachateit is the liquid that accumulates in
landfills, is collected in drains in the bottom of the
landfill and pumped out, treated and disposed
waste and cover system
 Overview of types and uses of
geosynthetics in landfills
Landfills use almost all types of geosynthetics.
Geosynthetics are planar (more or less) plastic
materials that are used in geotechnical engineering projects.
Functions of landfill geosynthetics:
Separation
Drainage
Protection
Filtration
waterproofing
erosion control
soil reinforcement
 E.g. of Geosynthetics in landfills and
theirs function
Types function
Geotextiles (GT)Filters, Cushions
Geogrids (GG) Reinforcement
Geonets (GN). Drainage
Geomembranes (GM)Barriers
Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL). Barriers
Plastic Pipes (geopipe) (GP).Leachate collection
Geocomposites (GC)Drainage, Filters
Different layers of landfill structure
 Geosynthetics in landfills and theirs
function
Geomembrane (GM)
The bottom of the landfill is covered with a geomembrane liner.
This is a 40 to 60 mil plastic sheet.
Function: waterproofing and separation.
Properties: low permeability, durability.
The sheets are attached to one another so the liner is waterproof.
Geosynthetic clay liner (GCL)
A geosynthetic clay liner may be used in place of a geomembrane.
It is made of bentonite clay bound between two layers of
geotexclay geotextile or fixed to a geomembrane.
Function: waterproofing. May be used inplace of a geomembrane.
Properties: low permeability, durability.
Geotextile (GT)
There may be a geotextile on top of the liner.
This protect the liner from getting punctured.
It may be used as a filter for a gravel drain on top of
the liner. The drain collects leachate.
It also used to reinforce a landfill cover or steep
slopes on the sides of a landfill.
Function: protection, filtration and reinforcement
Properties: toughness, durability, permeability and
tensile strength
Geocomposites (GC)
One geocomposite may be used to provide both
filtration and drainage. These may consist of a
geonet in combination with a geotextile.
Functions: filtration and drainage.
Properties: permeability, durability.
Geonet (GN)
it is used for inplane drainage. This product was
invented for this purpose.
Function: drainage.
Properties: transmissivity, durability.
Geogrid (GG)
A geogrid may be used to reinforce a landfill cover
or steep slopes on the sides of a landfill.
Function: reinforcement
Properties: tensile strength, durability.
Landfill Cover Single Barrier

Cover soil
G thtid Geosynthetic drainage

Geosynthetic Clay Liner

Gas collection
Geotextile

Waste
Where are the slope stability problems in
landfills?
There are several slope failure modes in landfills.
All must be investigated for the designer to proceed
with confidence.
Slope failures may occur in the soil, in the waste, at
the geosynthetic/waste interface, or in the
combinations of the soil and waste and
geosynthetic boundaries.

 Settlement
Settlement of landfills takes place in two locations: the foundation
soils (which now have a waste weight on them) and within the waste
itself.
Settlement may cause the base of the landfill to change grade,
disrupting drainage, leading to leachate ponding and eventual soil and
groundwater contamination.
Settelment can be resulted due to the decomposition of waste
(with resulting waste volume reduction) and of dewatering
foundation soils.
Therefore to minimize the settlement problem we must Keep the
waste dry which reduces waste decomposition, dewatering the
foundation soils and well compacting the foundation soil and waste
itself
 In general when we investigate the site
for waste disposal we must consider
The slope stability of fill side
The settlement condition of the foundation soil and waste
The potential of surface subsidence
The existence of archaeological monuments and high population
density in the site
The ground water condition including its chemistry, flow direction, flow
velocity and etc
The horizontal and vertical permeability condition of the strata
The distribution and depth of the aquifers
The weathering resistance of the strata
The solubility and leachate aggressiveness of the strata
The condition of geological structures
The deformability condition of the rock mass
The quality of lining material such as geosynthetic material
etc
 Chapter- 11
An Overview of Geological Problems
on different engineering structures
 Geological problems on Dams
Dam is a barriers that constructed across a river valley
to impound large volume of water for different purpose
Based on the construction material dams can has two
major classes.
1, Concrete dams
Gravity Dams
Arch Dams and
Buttress Dams (hollow gravity dam) because it require
only 35-50% of the concrete used by solid gravity dam
2, Embankment Dams
Earth Fill Dams
Rock Fill Dams
 Dam is constructed for the following purpose
Hydropower Generation
Irrigation Purpose
Flood Controlling
Ground Water Recharge, and
Water Diversion

The selection of dam type for a given site can be

determined both by engineering suitability of the site and
economic consideration.
The type and size of dam constructed depends on the need
for and the amount of water available, the topographic and
geological condition of the site, and the availability of
construction materials at the site.
 There are different geological conditions those
control the type and size of dam will be constructed
at a given site
The morphological configuration of the valley can
control the type of dams
Geological features such as fault, cavernous, buried
channels, rock slide and others can affect the dam
foundation
For the gravity and buttress dams the rocks at the
valley floor must has high quality while for the arch
dams the rocks at the valley side must has good
quality. Because the arch dams transmit the water
pressure to the valley side.
 Different orientation of sedimentary rocks layers
can control the seepage and stability condition of
dams
E.g folded layer problem such as syncline and
anticline geological structures
The existence of shale at the dam foundation can
affect the stability of dam, because it has low
bearing capacity and its flackness condition can
cause the sliding of dam foundation along its bed
 Geological condition those control the
site of Embankment dams
The existence of adequate construction material at
the reasonable distance
The permeability condition of foundation material
the availability of suitable site for outlets and
spillways
The suitability of foundation material
 Geological problems associated to the
dams reservoirs
Characteristics of the catchment area
The water tightness condition of the reservoir basin
to control the seepage and leakage. E.g due to the
existence of solution channels, fault zones, buried
channels, permeable strata and etc.
The slope stability condition of the valley (reservoirs
rims) E.g in 1964 due to the reservoir slope
instability of Vajoit dam 2000 people were killed.
Siltation of the reservoir
In general when we select the dam site we
must consider the following things
The competent of foundation rock to withstand the
static and dynamic forces
The slope stability of reservoir rim and abutment side
the resistance of foundation rock to weathering,
sliding and differential settlement
The water tightness of foundation and reservoir rim
The topography and strength of abutment rock
The suitability and availability of construction material
The location of spillway, diversion tunnel and
powerhouse
 Geological problem on Tunnels
It is one of the underground engineering structures
It is constructed below cities, rivers and through
mountains for the purpose of transportation (road
and railway), water supply, hydropower generation,
irrigation and etc
Tunnels in the soft ground:
The soft ground can be unconsolidated materials
such as gravels, sand, silt, clays and soft shale
The tunnel excavation through such ground does
not require blasting, but always need arch support
If the tunnel that constructed in soft ground is
shallow the roof load is high and it can be the full
weight of the overlying material, so it require a very
strong lining support.
Tunnels in the rock strata:
Relatively it is more stable than the tunnel that
constructed in the soft ground
It required the blasting
Based on the rock mass quality it required different
strength of lining support
 Geological factors those influence the
tunneling
Swelling rocks: such as shale, unconsolidated tuff
and anhydrite rocks are affect the stability of tunnel
To stabilize them it need strong lining support and
also they must be protected from wetting
Inclined rock strata: when the tunnel is driven
parallel to the strike of rock strata, the block of rock
fall into the tunnel and affect the stability of the
tunnel
But if it driven across the strike it can pass through
different strata and the ground water inflow
problem may occur
 Folded rocks: tunnel driven in synclinal fold has
high rock fall and ground water inflow problem than
that driven in the anticline fold

Fault zone: the fault zone commonly associated

with highly crushed rocks which is highly permeable
and allows ground water to seep into the tunnels.
They also form unstable tunnel roof which need
strong lining supports
 Jointed rocks: if the rock is highly jointed it is easy
for excavation but it can cause rock fall and ground
water inflow problems
Over-break: it is the rock excavated beyond the
required cross section of the tunnel
This over-break is occur due to:
Presence of hard and tough rocks
Presence of closely spaced joints and fractures
Delay in placing roof supports
Tunnel Excavation
Tunnels can be excavated by drilling and blasting method
Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM), Cut and Cover

Excavation by drilling and blasting method

It is the tunnelling method that involves the use of
explosives
Drilling rigs are used to bore blast holes on the proposed
tunnel surface then explosives and timed detonators are
placed in the blast holes.
Advantages of drilling & blasting methods
Almost any type and cross sectional shapes can be made.
It can be applied to nearly any type of rock.
It gives great flexibility in the performance of the
excavation.
The rock support can be installed easily and quickly
Disadvantages of drilling & blasting methods
Production of gases and smoke from the explosives, which
leads poor working conditions for the team
Vibrations on nearby structures from the blasting
The blasting creates new cracks in the rocks, which leads
to increased rock support
Excavation by Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM)
It is a circular tunnel excavation machine consists of a
rotating cutter head and often used for excavating of long
tunnels .
It was developed after World War II, first for the weaker
types and Later the method has been greatly improved to
be used also in harder rocks
It use for tunnel with diameter been between 3 m and 10 m
Its capacity can be depend on the strength of rock, degree
of jointing and other weakness planes of rock mass
Advantages using TBM excavation
It requires less rock supporting
It is more effective and economic for longer tunnel
excavation
It has higher tunnelling capacity
It gives better working conditions for the team
Disadvantages of TBM excavation
More (better) geological information from the pre-
investigation stage is required
It requires the selection of appropriate equipment for
different rock mass and geological conditions.
It is a less flexible method than drill & blast method.
Only longer tunnel sections can be bored more
economically (because of larger investment and rigging
costs) than drill and blast.
The TBM may get stuck under squeezing rock conditions
It is difficult to perform / install rock support at the tunnel
face.
In extremely hard rock mass it is an inefficient and
uneconomical and may take longer time than the drill-
and-blast tunnelling method.
 Investigating the tunnel Stand-up time
it is the amount of time a tunnel will support itself
without any added structures.
Knowing this time allows the engineers to determine how
much can be excavated before support is needed.
The longer the stand-up time is the faster the excavating
will go.
Generally certain configurations of rock and clay will have
the greatest stand-up time, and sand and fine soils will
have a much lower stand-up time.
It can be controlled by condition of geological material,
groundwater condition, tunnel shape and size (diameter)
Tunnel Supporting (lining)
It is carried out to improve the stability of the tunnels
Some examples of tunnel supporting methods are rock
bolting, shotcrete , concrete and steel lining
Tunnel supporting works are carried out in two main
stages:
Initial support stage: It is installed to secure safe working
conditions for the tunnelling team. It also use to ensure
tunnel stability until the secondary or permanent support
system, such as concrete lining is installed.
Permanent support: It is carried out to meet the
requirements for a satisfactory function of the tunnel
during its life
 There are different types of tunnel lining material.
In general to design the type of tunnel support the
concept of rock mass classification is very important.
For this classification the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system
which consider about six parameters is commonly used.

The six parameters used to classify a rock mass by using the

RMR system:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.
2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
3. Spacing of discontinuities.
4. Condition of discontinuities.
5. Groundwater conditions.
6. Orientation of discontinuities.
Example
A tunnel is to be driven through slightly weathered granite
with a dominant joint set dipping at 60o against the
direction of the drive. Index testing and logging of
diamond drilled core give typical Point-load strength index
values of 8 MPa and average RQD values of 70%. The
slightly rough and slightly weathered joints with a
separation of < 1mm, are spaced at 300 cm. Tunnelling
conditions are anticipated to be wet. Determine the
Excavation and supporting systems for this tunnel
Rock Mass Rating System (After Bieniawski 1989).
Guidelines for excavation and support of 10 m span rock
tunnels in accordance with the RMR system (After
Bieniawski 1989).
Geological problems on the Bridge site
Bridge is the integral parts of roads and railways
that constructed across the valleys, gorges and
river channels.
Abutment: it is the terminal support of the bridge
at the side of valley or river
piers: it is the bridge support constructed in
between the abutment
The width of the valley can control the type of
bridge to be constructed. E.g one span bridge is
constructed across the narrow valley while the
multi-span bridge is constructed across the wide
valley
 The suspension bridge is more suitable than the
other on the mountain river which is narrow valley
and deep. Because it is difficult to construct the
longer piers and the souring of pier foundation in
narrow valley is high
The foundation of piers and abutment of bridge
must be competent rocks to withstand the bridge
load, traffic load and wind and flow water pressures
It must be free from highly jointed and fissured
rocks, shear zone, solution channels and others
 If the fault is across the bridge side it can affect the
foundation rocks, it enforce us to shift the bridge
site upstream or downstream for the safety of
bridge
If the valley has highly thick alluvial deposit it is
difficult (uneconomic) to placing the piers on the
bed rocks at the great depth, so it enforce us to use
the pile foundation
The stability of bridge depends on the nature,
strength and structures of the rocks at the
abutment and piers